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Question 1 What are the two types of cue in the cue-dependent theory of forgetting? Question 2 Name two psychologists who have studied memory and say which theory/topic it relates to. Question 3 Give one fact about the participants in Loftus and Palmer’s study. Question 4 Explain in your own words, what a memory trace is. Question 5 Give two features about the short-term memory store. Question 6 Name three of the verbs used in Loftus and Palmer’s study. Answers: 1. Internal and external – context and state / meaning and no meaning 2. Loftus = EWT Baddeley = STM 3. All psychology students 4. Memory trace = path laid down when a memory is created / engram 5. Capacity = 7 +/- 2 Duration = max 30secs encoding = visual / semantic / acoustic 6. Smashed / collided / hit / bumped / contacted HOMEWORK CHECK In pairs, develop a definition for source monitoring theory and conformity theory – max 6 words for each definition! Source monitoring: unsure of source of the memory Conformity theory: go along with others • According to source monitoring theory, memories of the event are genuinely distorted. The eyewitness can recall information about the event (accurate and inaccurate), but they can’t recall where it came from. Was it from their own memory of the event or did they hear it from someone else? This is known as source confusion. • Conformity theory, on the other hand, argues that eyewitness memories are not actually distorted by post-event discussion. Instead, the eyewitness’s recall appears to change only because they go along with the accounts of cowitnesses. They do this either to win social approval, or because they genuinely believe other witnesses are right and they are wrong What is the main difference between the theories? SM = memory IS distorted CT = memory NOT distorted Factors affecting EWT Spec check: Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: • misleading information, including leading questions and post-event discussion; anxiety. misleading information leading questions anxiety post-event discussion Previous lessons Todays lesson Lesson Objectives Lesson Objectives: - Briefly describe and evaluate research that has explored anxiety impacting on EWT - Identify methodological problems with the research - Describe 4 pieces of research looking at EWT - Compare and contrast the 4 pieces of research using GRAVE criteria Looking at the pictures in front of you… …and pg 42 in your packs, complete the tasks Then plot your data… what does it show? Anxiety and EWT: • What about how the eyewitness is feeling? Any stress suffered? • A real crime or violence, usually imparts a feeling of anxiety or stress on the witnesses. • The Yerkes-Dodson law (1908) suggests that up to a point, stress improves performance but after that point, it has a bad effect on performance. • Deffenbacher (1983) proposed that the effect of stress on EWT followed that law Diagram of Yerkes-Dodson law: Optimum recall, past this point, recall declines. Recall Anxiety levels Jigsaw task… You need to become an ‘expert’ on one study which you will then have to explain to other people in the class. The goal is that you will each end up with enough information to be able to briefly outline and evaluate 4 studies – and you will have filled in the grid on p 47 Read your study… share your study with the people on your new table Overview of the studies • Deffenbacher (1983) was one of the first to investigate links between stress and EWT. He found that as we become moderately stressed/anxious, performance in EWT improves. As we hit the peak of stress our levels of accuracy drop because we feel fatigued. • A naturalistic study by Yuille & Cutshall (1986) studies witnesses to a robbery where people had actually been killed or wounded. They found that witnesses were very accurate despite the extreme levels of stress. • This has been supported by a study by Christianson & Hubinette (1993) where victims of a bank robbery who had been subjected to the most stress, were actually the most accurate witnesses. Perhaps because their lives depended on it? Research Methods check: • What ethical issues may arise from the Yuille and Cutshall (1986) study? Explain your answer. • Do the same for the Christianson and Hubinette (1993) study. Continued: • Research that supports this idea comes from Peters (1988). Tested people visiting their local health centre. They visited the nurse, for an injection, then spent time with a researcher. • A week later they were asked to describe the researcher and the nurse. It was found that they remembered the researcher better than the nurse. This was due to the fact their anxiety levels were heightened at the time they were chatting to the researcher (after injection). • Deffenbacher (2004): reviewed his earlier approach and the claims it was over simplistic. • He now believes that as stress increases, so does the accuracy of the memory. When it hits the maximum there is a catastrophic collapse, and accuracy is then severely lacking. Other factors to consider: Add these to your research banks Age of witness: • Age does seem to play a role in how much information we can recall. Dent (1988) found that children perform significantly worse than adults when recalling details of events and also don’t do as well when asked specific questions. • However, if they are interested in a topic children can recall just as well as adults do. (King and Yuille, 1987). • Children also appear to accept inaccurate information from adults for fear of contradicting adult authority figures. Continued: • In a study specific to EWT Ochsner et al (1999) asked children to watch a staged theft. They found more accurate recall compared to children who saw the staged event without the theft. • In this case it could be that the children consolidated the memory of the theft by telling others about it, or took the theft more seriously. What type of processing could you suggest the children used? • Older people also have poor recall of events. Their recall drops below that of young people and middle aged people. They are more likely to make mistakes and are poor at recalling specific details. • Elderly men in particular are more prone to distortions through post-event misleading information. Evaluation: Supporting Evidence: Cohen and Faulkner (1989) showed p’s a film of a kidnapping and then presented them with misleading details. It was found that the older p’s (mean age 70) were a lot more likely to than the younger p’s (mean age 35) to have been mislead by the suggestive information. Loftus et al (1991) also found this when p’s were shown a video tape of a crime the older p’s were found to be more suggestible than the younger adults who saw the tape. Conflicting evidence: Coxon and Valentine (1997) found that when comparing the suggestibility of children, young adults and elderly people after watching a videotape of a crime, the elderly p’s were worse at recall. However it was seen that when they were tested for suggestibility they were no worse than the young adults. In fact they were seen to be less suggestible. It is still unclear why these age effects occur. Why do you think they occur? Could it be that the younger p’s have been more used to memory tests recently? Can you think of some examples? Or could it be that the older p’s poorer health may be a factor in decline in memory? In fact could this be the important factor, not age???? Consolidation … • Packs: pgs 44-46 • Reading: Mask 90-91