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Water and The Major Minerals Water 50-70% of body weight (10 gallons or 40 liters) Lean muscle contains 73% water Adipose is about 20% Survive only few days without water Polar compound with two partial positive hydrogen molecules and one partial negative oxygen molecule Polarity give water the property to dissolve many substances Water in the Body Intracellular fluid - fluid contained within a cell Extracellular fluid – fluid present outside the cell Intravascular fliud – fluid within the blood stream Interstitial fluid – fluid in between cells Water shifts freely in and out of cells Osmosis – the movement of water through a membrane from an area of lesser concentration to a greater concentration Osmolality – a measure of total concentration of a solution Osmotic pressure – the exerted pressure needed to keep particles in solution from drawing liquid toward them across a semi-permiable membrane Shifts in water influenced by concentration of ions (anions and cations) inside and outside of cells Functions of Water Serves as a solvent and helps to form a solution Regulates temperatures because of its high heat capacity (specific heat) Helps remove wastes (ex: 1-2 liters of urine per day) Helps form lubricants found in knees and other joints Water volume directly involved in the regulation Blood and Blood Pressure! It is basis for saliva, bile, and amniotic fluid Water Needs Need 1ml of water per kcal expended Consume about 1 liter a day (in various forms of liquids) Foods provide another liter of water Water as a by-product of metabolism provides 350 ml of additional water Therefore water supplies around 2400 milliliters per day for a 2400 kcal diet Of the 2400, 1400 are used to produce urine Insensible losses of water - the lungs (400ml), feces (150 ml), and skin (500 ml) Water Deficiency: Thirst – mechanism occurs but imperfect indicator of how much water is really needed Water loss is common in athletes infants , elderly, sickness Regulation of water Hormones compensate for imperfect thirst mechanism Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) - synthesized in hypothalamus, stored in and released by pituitary; causes reabsorption of water in kidney Renin-Angiotensin mechanism If blood volume decreases, the enzyme renin (produced in kindey) Renin then cleaves angiotensinogen (produced by liver) into angiotensin I Angiotensin I is then converted (via an enzyme called ACE made in lungs) into Angiotensin II Angiotensin II then causes 1) vasoconstriction of blood vessels, 2) release of Aldosterone, and 3) release of ADH Aldosterone - hormone that prevents the loss of sodium in the kidneys, thus decreasing the loss of water Water in foods – fruits and veggies Water safety o Monitored by EPA o Cryptosporidium Water toxicity o Water intake without sufficient electrolyte intake o Many liters beyond need (hyperhydration) o May cause death Minerals Major (requiring 100mg or more/day) and trace mineral Many minerals have similar molecular weights and charges Causes competition for absorption Affects bioavailability Bioavailability also affected by non mineral substances Fiber Oxalic acid Minerals are primarily excreted though urine Functions Cofactors Components of body compounds Transmission of nerve impulses Body growth Water balance Food sources – plant and animal sources Risk of mineral deficiencies in North Americans – calcium for major and zinc and iron for trace minerals Sodium (Na) Sodium found in sodium chloride (NaCl) – 40% sodium 60% chloride 95% sodium is absorbed in the small intestine Transported in blood stream Excreted via the kidneys when in excess Regulated by rennin-angiotensin and catecholamines 10% of sodium consumed is needed by the body The rest is eliminated via kidneys, skin, and GI tract Functions: Positive cation of extracellular fluid therefore helps maintain fluid balance Involved in nerve transmission Deficiency (or depletion): causes muscle cramps, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, and shock Sources: table salt and processed foods RDA: 500 mg Toxicity: causes hypertension and calcium loss Potassium (K) 90% of potassium absorbed in the small intestine Transported in the blood stream Excreted via kidneys Levels in the body regulated by kidneys and aldosterone Functions: Positive cation of intracellular fluid therefore helps maintain fluid balance Involved in nerve transmission Deficiency: Caused by use of diuretics Irregular heart beat, loss of appetite, muscle cramps Sources: fresh fruits and vegetables RDA: 2000 mg Toxicity: hyperkalemia, slowed heart rate Chloride (Cl) All is absorbed in the small intestine and colon Excreted through kidneys, skin, and GI tract Functions: Anion of extracellular fluid Aids in the production of stomach acid (hydrochloric acid) Deficiency: convulsions seen in infants Sources: table salt, seaweed, olives, rye, lettuce, vegetables RDA: 700-750 mg Toxicity: linked to hypertension Calcium (Ca) 99% of calcium in body is used as a component of bone represents 40% of all minerals present in the body – 2.5 pounds 25% of calcium is absorbed from the diet Absorption occurs in the duodenum of small intestine Absorption requirements: A ph below 6 and presence of vitamin D Parathyroid hormone Presence of glucose and lactose Normal intestinal flow Absorption limiting factors: Phytic acid in dietary fiber Vitamin D deficiency Increased intestinal flow (diarrhea) Functions: Bone and tooth strength Parathyroid hormone (PTH) role in bone remolding and repair Bone mass Blood clotting Conversion of prothrombin to thrombin Nerve transmission Muscle contractions Deficiency: Osteopenia Osteoporosis Sources: dairy products, leafy vegetables, canned fish RDA: 1000-1200 mg (1300 ages 9-18) Toxicity: kidney stones and poor mineral absorption Phosphorus (P) 70% of dietary phosphorus absorbed Vitamin D enhances absorption Excreted by kidneys Functions: used in bone (calcium phosphate), used in many compounds (ex: ATP), used in acid-base balance Deficiency: bone loss Sources: dairy products and processed cheese RDA: 700 mg (1250 ages 9-18) Toxicity: poor bone mineralization Magnesium (Mg) 40-60% of dietary Magnesium absorbed in the small intestine Vitamin D enhances absorption Excreted by kidneys but some stored in bone and muscle Functions: used in enzyme catalyzed reactions, activation of ATP, DNA and RNA synthesis, prevents heart rhythm abnormalities Deficiency: rapid heart beat, weakness, muscle spasm, disorientation, nausea and vomiting Sources: wheat bran, green vegetables, nuts, chocolate, legumes RDA: 400-420 mg for men 310-320 mg for women Toxicity: from use of antacids and laxatives; may cause diarrhea, weakness Sulfur (S) Element used in amino acid synthesis; found in wide variety of foods No deficiencies, no RDA, no toxicities Minerals and Hypertension How are minerals involved in the regulation of blood pressure and blood volume? Chapter Objectives After reading chapter eleven - A student should be able to 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Discuss the various compartments of water in the human body Describe the various types of movement of water in the human body List and describe the functions of water Discuss how water is regulated in the body Describe the deficiency and toxicity of water In regards to minerals define the process of bioavailability Discuss the absorption, transportation, excretion, regulation, functions, sour U.S. Dietary Reference Intakes Major Minerals SODIUM Trace Minerals 500 mg RDA POTASSIUM 2000 mg 700-750 mg 1000-1200 mg 11 mg/day men and 8 mg/day women COPPER 0.9 mg/day (900 ug/day) SELENIUM 55 ug/day 700 mg IODIDE 150 ug/day RDA MAGNESIUM RDA NO DRI RDA RDA SULFUR ZINC RDA RDA PHOSPHORUS 8 mg for men and 18 mg for women RDA RDA CALCIUM RDA RDA CHLORIDE IRON 400-420 mg for men 310320 mg for women No dietary reference intake set FLOURIDE Intake: 3.8 mg/day for men and 3.1 mg/day for women 35 ug/day for men and 25 ug/day for women AI CHROMIUM AI MANGANESE 2.3 mg/day for men AI MOLYBDENUM and 1.8 mg/day for women 45 ug/day RDA Trace Minerals Trace Minerals Overview “A daily nutritional need of less than 100 mg” Understanding of trace mineral metabolism is growing Actual need for trace minerals is debatable Difficulties studying trace minerals Only minute amounts needed by body Sophisticated technology required for research Induce deficiency is difficult in studies Clinical signs and symptoms may only appear with severe deficiency Certain tests not reliable Nutrient Needs For Trace Minerals Many have RDA most have only an Adequate Intake (AI) Mineral nutrient needs based on “balance studies” Balance study indicates the amount of dietary intake needed to maintain a specific pool Minerals interact with each other which cause complications of trying to individually set dietary needs Trace minerals in food Minerals in plants directly related to mineral content of soil Minerals in animals higher because of the variety of plants and other foods consumed Trace Minerals Iron (Fe) Found in every cell and about 5 grams in the entire body Large difference between men (50mg/kg) and women (40mg/kg) 70% of iron in the body is found in hemoglobin Factors that influence iron absorption: Increased absorption: Gastric acid Heme iron in food Myoglobin and hemoglobin High body demand for red blood cells Transferin Low body stores Ferritin Hemosiderin Meat protein factor (MPF) Vitamin C Form chelates Decreased absorption: Phytic acid (in dietary fiber) Oxalic acid (in leafy vegetables) Polyphenols in tea Full body stores Excess of other minerals (Zn, Mn, Ca) Reduced gastric acid output Some antacids Functions: Transport of oxygen in hemoglobin Involved in electron transport chain in cell respiration Iron in peroxidase enzymes helps break down hydrogen peroxide Others: immune function, cognitive development, temperature regulation Deficiency Reduction in red blood cell production – iron deficiency anemia Produces fatigue Hematocrit levels below 34-37% and blood hemoglobin < 10-11 g/100 ml blood Other causes of iron deficiency anemia: hemorrhaging, ulcers, hemorrhoids, and colon cancer Measuring iron status (stores): ferritin (< 12 ng/ml) in the blood Progression of iron deficiency: increased free erythrocyte protoporphyrins (FEP) and microcytic hypochromic anemia Treatment of iron deficiency anemia is iron sulfate Sources: steamed oysters, cooked spinach, cooked kidney beans, sirloin steak, pot roast, fried beef liver, prune juice RDA: 8 mg for men and 18 mg for women Toxicty: o >45mg/day o GI upset o In patients with hematochromatosis which causes increased iron absorption Zinc (Zn) Foods with phytic acids causes decreased zinc bioavailability Zinc is absorbed throughout the small intestine Factors affecting absorption include body’s need for zinc and the composition of the meal in which zinc is consumed Zinc is released into the blood stream and bound to proteins (albumin) for transport to liver which releases zinc into general circulation Zinc induces production of metallothionein which aids in the homeostatic regulation of zinc absorption Functions: Zinc is a cofactor of nearly 100 enzymes Nucleic acid synthesis and function Protein metabolism, wound healing, growth Immune function Development of sexual organs and mineralization of bone-matrix Storage, release, and function of insulin Cell membrane structure and function Component of superoxide dismutase (prevents oxidative damage to cells) Carbonic anhydrase which forms carbonic acid (maintains acid-base balance in blood) Alcohol dehydrogenase (alcohol metabolism) Deficiency: skin rash, diarrhea, decreased appetite and sense of taste, hair loss, poor growth and development, poor wound healing Sources: steamed oysters, sirloin steak, pot roast, lamb chop, canned crab meat, wheat germ, fried beef liver, roasted turkey, cooked black-eyed peas RDA: 11 mg/day men and 8 mg/day women Toxicity: < 40mg/day, can reduce copper absorption, diarrhea, cramps, depressed immune function Copper (Cu) Copper is primarily absorbed in the stomach and duodenum of small intestine 12-75% of dietary copper is absorbed Phytates, dietary iber, and high dose supplements of vitamin C, zinc, and iron may interfere with absorption Ceruplasmin, albumin, and transcuperin transport copper to liver and kidney then body tissue Most copper in body is found in liver, brain, blood, skeletal muscle, and bone Functions: Aids in iron absorption Part of enzyme involved in collagen and elastin synthesis in electron transport chain that converts dopamine to norepineprine involved in myelin (insulates nerves) involved in antioxidant reactions Deficiency: anemia, low white blood cell count, poor growth Sources: steamed oysters, steamed lobster, fried beef livers, brazil nuts, brewer’s yeast, walnuts, sunflower seeds, cooked kidney beans RDA: 0.9 mg/day (900 ug/day) Toxicity: >8-10 mg/day, vomiting, nervous system disorders, Selenium (Se) Found in many ionic forms but most selenium is bound to the amino acids methionine and cysteine Bioavailability higher than iron and zinc 50-100% of dietary selenium is absorbed Functions: cofactor for the enzyme glutathione peroxidase which is used in antioxidant reactions Deficiencies: muscle pain, muscle weakness, Keshan disease (form of cardiomyopathy) Sources: canned tuna, sirloin steak, shrimp, cooked egg noodles, roasted ham, roasted chicken, boiled egg, whole-wheat bread, oatmeal RDA: 55 ug/day Toxicity: >400 ug/day, nausea, vomiting, hair loss, weakness, liver disease (cirrhosis) Iodide (I) Deficiency linked to goiter in 1920s Commonly found in fortified table salt Absorbed along GI tract and transported as free ions in blood 75% of iodide found in the thyroid and is used in the synthesis of thyroid hormone (T3 ad T4) Functions: used in the synthesis of thyroxine (T4) which is converted to T3, T3 used in controlling the rate of cell metabolism Deficiency: goiter, mental retardation, cretinism Sources: iodized salt, baked haddock, buttermilk, baked cod, cottage cheese, mozzarella cheese, shrimp, boiled egg RDA: 150 ug/day Toxicity: >1.1 mg/day, inhibition of thyroid hormone synthesis and toxic goiter development Fluoride (F) 80-90% of dietary fluoride absorbed throughout GI tract transported in free ionic form in blood 50% of iodide absorbed is deposited in calcified tissues, bones, and teeth Functions: reduces dental caries by Reducing acid solubility of the enamel Promoting remineralization of enamel lesions Increase the deposition of minerals that retard the development of cavities Reducing the net rate of transport of minerals from the enamel surface Deficiency: increased risk of dental caries Sources: drinking water, tea, seafood, and seaweed Adequate Intake: 3.8 mg/day for men and 3.1 mg/day for women Toxicity: >10 mg/day, fluorosis, upset stomach, mottling of teeth, bone pain Chromium (Cr) 2-10% of dietary chromium is absorbed bioavailability hard to asses Functions: enhances insulin action Deficiency: high blood glucose Sources: egg yolks, whole grains, pork, nuts, mushrooms, beer Adequate Intake: 35 ug/day for men and 25 ug/day for women Toxicity: only when exposed in industrial settings Manganese (Mn) Functions: Cofactor in enzymes Pyruvate carboxylase – involved in carbohydrate metabolism Superoxide dismutase – involved in antioxidant reactions Deficiency: none observed Sources: nuts, oats, whole grains, beans, tea, leafy vegetables Adequate Intake: 2.3 mg/day for men and 1.8 mg/day for women Toxicity: >11 mg/day, psychiatric abnormalities, hyperirritability, violence, hallucinations, and impaired control of muscles Molybdenum (Mo) High amounts of molybdenum may inhibit copper absorption Component of enzyme xanthine dehydrogenase which is involved in the formation of uric acid and mobilization of iron from liver ferritin stores Deficiency: none observed Sources: milk, liver, beans, grains, nuts RDA: 45 ug/day Toxicity: none observed Chapter Objectives After reading chapter twelve - A student should be able to... 1. Discuss the absorption, transportation, excretion, regulation, functions, sources, deficiencies, toxicities, and AIs/RDAs of all trace minerals