Download CARIBBEAN SPINY LOBSTER

CARIBBEAN SPINY LOBSTER – FLORIDA
Panulirus argus
Sometimes known as Bug, Common Spiny Lobster, Crayfish, Florida Lobster, Rock Lobster
SUMMARY
Caribbean Spiny Lobsters grow fast, are highly fecund (very fertile), and can live up to 20 years.
Centered in Florida, fishing pressure on Caribbean Spiny Lobsters in U.S. waters is heavy.
Caribbean Spiny Lobsters in Florida waters exhibit a truncated size structure, meaning that so
many have been caught at a young age that the average size of a Spiny Lobster has declined, and
commercial catches in recent years have been below the long-term average. Fishers use traps to
catch Caribbean Spiny Lobsters, resulting in minimal bycatch. Concerns exist, however, about
the widespread use of undersized Spiny Lobsters, in lieu of other bait, in Spiny Lobster traps,
which is legal. Chef Barton Seaver says they have “a mild and delicate flavor with a soft texture.
This is best matched with strong flavors.”
Criterion
Points
Final Score
Life History
2.75
2.40 - 4.00
Abundance
1.50
1.60 - 2.39
Habitat Quality and Fishing Gear Impacts
2.00
0.00 - 1.59
Management
2.25
Bycatch
2.25
Final Score
2.15
Color
Color
LIFE HISTORY
Core Points (only one selection allowed)
If a value for intrinsic rate of increase („r‟) is known, assign the score below based on this value.
If no r-value is available, assign the score below for the correct age at 50% maturity for females
if specified, or for the correct value of growth rate ('k'). If no estimates of r, age at 50% maturity,
or k are available, assign the score below based on maximum age.
1.00
Intrinsic rate of increase <0.05; OR age at 50% maturity >10 years; OR growth rate
<0.15; OR maximum age >30 years.
2.00
Intrinsic rate of increase = 0.05-0.15; OR age at 50% maturity = 5-10 years; OR a growth
rate = 0.16–0.30; OR maximum age = 11-30 years.
3.00
Intrinsic rate of increase >0.16; OR age at 50% maturity = 1-5 years; OR growth
rate >0.30; OR maximum age <11 years.
Intrinsic rate of increase is unknown. Caribbean Spiny Lobsters typically reach maturity
in 2.5 years (Moe 1991). Maximum age is 15 to 20 years (Moe 1991). However,
Caribbean Spiny Lobsters in waters off of South Florida rarely reach ages estimated to be
2.5 to 3 years because of heavy fishing (Moe 1991; Sharp, pers. comm., 2006).
Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed)
-0.25 Species has special behaviors that make it especially vulnerable to fishing pressure
(e.g., spawning aggregations; site fidelity; segregation by sex; migratory bottlenecks;
unusual attraction to gear; etc.).
Adult Caribbean Spiny Lobsters often live communally in rock or coral crevices with
other Spiny Lobsters. In the fall, Caribbean Spiny Lobsters make seasonal migrations in
large single-file groups of 2 to 65 individuals from inshore coastal waters to deeper
offshore reef environments (Moe 1991; CFMC 2004). Traps set along migration routes
can successfully capture large groups of migrating Caribbean Spiny Lobsters (Moe
1991).
-0.25 Species has a strategy for sexual development that makes it especially vulnerable to
fishing pressure (e.g., age at 50% maturity >20 years; sequential hermaphrodites;
extremely low fecundity).
-0.25 Species has a small or restricted range (e.g., endemism; numerous evolutionarily
significant units; restricted to one coastline; e.g., American lobster; striped bass;
endemic reef fishes).
The Caribbean Spiny Lobster lives in subtropical and tropical waters along the western
Atlantic coast from North Carolina and Bermuda to Brazil, and throughout the Gulf of
Mexico and Caribbean (Moe 1991).
Although there are 49 species of spiny lobster (Family Palinuridae) worldwide (Moe
1991), this ranking pertains only to the Caribbean Spiny Lobster, Panulirus argus.
-0.25 Species exhibits high natural population variability driven by broad-scale
environmental change (e.g. El Nino; decadal oscillations).
Changes in oceanic currents from broad-scale environmental events, such as El Nino
Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and hurricanes, may impact the distribution and abundance
of spiny lobster populations (FAO 2000). Spiny lobsters have complex life histories,
which begin with the phyllosome larval stage. Phyllosome larvae float for several months
in the water column: oceanic currents disperse and transport the young lobsters over great
distances. Because ENSO events and hurricanes (though to a lesser extent) disrupt
oceanographic circulation patterns, they may impact the delivery of larval Caribbean
Spiny Lobsters to juvenile habitat. However, while there is speculation about a
correspondence between abundance and environmental change, there are no proven direct
links. Therefore, we chose not to subtract for this factor.
+0.25 Species does not have special behaviors that increase ease or population consequences of
capture OR has special behaviors that make it less vulnerable to fishing pressure (e.g.,
species is widely dispersed during spawning).
+0.25 Species has a strategy for sexual development that makes it especially resilient to
fishing pressure (e.g., age at 50% maturity <1 year; extremely high fecundity).
Caribbean Spiny Lobsters are highly fecund (Moe 1991; SAFMC and GMFMC 1994;
FAO 2000). The male Caribbean Spiny Lobster attaches a sperm-containing packet called
a spermatophore onto the underside of the female. At a later time, female Caribbean
Spiny Lobsters spawn, attach the eggs to the undersides of their abdomens, and fertilize
them with the spermatophore. This two-step process is advantageous because it
eliminates the need for the males to be present precisely at the time of egg ripening and
spawning (Moe 1991).
+0.25 Species is distributed over a very wide range (e.g., throughout an entire hemisphere or
ocean basin; e.g., swordfish; tuna; Patagonian toothfish).
+0.25 Species does not exhibit high natural population variability driven by broad-scale
environmental change (e.g., El Nino; decadal oscillations).
2.75 Points for Life History
ABUNDANCE
Core Points (only one selection allowed)
Compared to natural or un-fished level, the species population is:
1.00
Low: Abundance or biomass is <75% of BMSY or similar proxy (e.g., spawning
potential ratio).
2.00
Medium: Abundance or biomass is 75-125% of BMSY or similar proxy; OR
population is approaching or recovering from an overfished condition; OR
adequate information on abundance or biomass is not available.
The abundance and biomass of Caribbean Spiny Lobster in Florida's waters are unknown
(SAFMC and GMFMC 1994; FFWCC 2005). Fishery managers monitor the population
using commercial catch data. Commercial landings in Florida waters peaked in 1991, and
remained stable throughout the 1990's. During the 2001-2002 fishing season, following
years of increased fishing effort, commercial landings fell to a 30-year low and remain
below historic numbers (FFWCC 2005).
3.00
High: Abundance or biomass is >125% of BMSY or similar proxy.
Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed)
-0.25 The population is declining over a generational time scale (as indicated by biomass
estimates or standardized CPUE).
Abundance and catch-per-unit-effort data for Caribbean Spiny Lobsters in Florida's
waters are not available. Catches in the commercial fishery were stable through the
1990s, declined significantly during the 2001-2002 season, and have since remained
below historic numbers (FFWCC 2005). The downward trend of commercial catches may
reflect increased fishing effort in neighboring Caribbean countries, where fewer
regulations exist (FFWCC 2005).
-0.25 Age, size or sex distribution is skewed relative to the natural condition (e.g.,
truncated size/age structure or anomalous sex distribution).
In Florida's waters, where all commercial and the majority of recreational fishing for
Caribbean Spiny Lobsters in U.S. waters occurs (FFWCC 2005), few Spiny Lobsters
evade fishers to survive to their maximum age and size. For instance, in the Florida Keys,
Caribbean Spiny Lobsters infrequently reach sizes much larger than the minimum legal
size of 3 inches carapace length (Moe 1991; Sharp, pers. comm., 2006).
This is problematic, because the number of eggs a female Caribbean Spiny Lobster
produces is directly proportional to her size, with larger (and older) females producing
more eggs per spawning event (Moe 1991). Mature females with a carapace length (CL)
of 3 to 3.5 inches typically produce between 250,000 and 500,000 eggs. Larger females
(4 and 5 inch CL) produce over 1 and 2 million eggs, respectively (Moe 1991).
-0.25 Species is listed as "overfished" OR species is listed as "depleted", "endangered",
or "threatened" by recognized national or international bodies.
A recent SouthEast Data, Assessment and Review (SEDAR) for Caribbean Spiny
Lobsters indicated that the species is not presently overfished in Florida waters (SEDAR
2005).
-0.25 Current levels of abundance are likely to jeopardize the availability of food for other
species or cause substantial change in the structure of the associated food web.
+0.25 The population is increasing over a generational time scale (as indicated by biomass
estimates or standardized CPUE).
+0.25 Age, size or sex distribution is functionally normal.
+0.25 Species is close to virgin biomass.
+0.25 Current levels of abundance provide adequate food for other predators or are not known
to affect the structure of the associated food web.
1.50 Points for Abundance
HABITAT QUALITY AND FISHING GEAR IMPACTS
Core Points (only one selection allowed)
Select the option that most accurately describes the effect of the fishing method upon the habitat
that it affects
1.00
The fishing method causes great damage to physical and biogenic habitats (e.g., cyanide;
blasting; bottom trawling; dredging).
2.00
The fishing method does moderate damage to physical and biogenic habitats (e.g.,
bottom gillnets; traps and pots; bottom longlines).
In Florida waters, commercial fishers primarily use wooden-slat traps to catch Caribbean
Spiny Lobsters (SAFMC and GMFMC 1994; FFWCC 2005). Some fishers reinforce
their wooden traps with wire mesh to prevent sea turtles from penetrating them. The use
of wooden traps is restricted in federal waters (3 to 200 miles offshore), and instead wire
traps are used. Wire traps are more resilient than wooden traps to decay and to movement
by deep-water currents. Fishers equip the wire traps with degradable panels, so that if the
traps are lost, they do not continue to catch and kill lobsters indefinitely (FFWCC 2002).
The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission limits trap size to 3 ft. x 2 ft. x 3
ft. (FFWCC 2002). Fishers frequently use undersize Spiny Lobsters to attract other Spiny
Lobsters to the traps, and may also bait the traps with salted cowhide (Moe 1991).
Large numbers of traps likely have a cumulative, moderate impact on the environment
(Morgan and Chuenpagdee 2003).
3.00
The fishing method does little damage to physical or biogenic habitats (e.g., hand
picking; hand raking; hook and line; pelagic long lines; mid-water trawl or gillnet; purse
seines).
Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed)
-0.25 Habitat for this species is so compromised from non-fishery impacts that the ability
of the habitat to support this species is substantially reduced (e.g., dams; pollution;
coastal development).
Caribbean Spiny Lobsters use many different coastal and oceanic habitats during their
lives. Thus, their survival depends on the health of a number of habitats.
Female Caribbean Spiny Lobsters spawn on offshore reefs, and the phyllosome larvae,
the initial larval stage, float in the oceanic plankton for 6 to 12 months. Second-stage
larvae swim to shallow, near-shore nursery grounds. In these shallow, seagrass and algalmat habitats, they metamorphose into juveniles. Juveniles remain in grass flats and coral
reefs for several months before becoming nomadic subadults, or 'shorts'. These late-stage
juveniles then migrate to deep offshore reefs and become reproductively active adults
(Moe 1991).
Near-short habitats of Caribbean Spiny Lobsters in the U.S., especially shallow-water
mangrove and grass-flat nursery areas, are subject to human disturbances and
development (SAFMC and GMFMC 1994). Disturbances such as propeller damage from
boats, dredging and filling, agricultural runoff, and wastewater discharges damage the
submerged aquatic vegetation required by Spiny Lobsters as they transform into juveniles
(SAFMC 1998). Also, researchers have correlated silting of adult Spiny Lobster reef
habitat by upstream sewage outflows with reduced commercial catches in Florida
(SAFMC and GMFMC 1994). The recent and widespread loss of corals in the Caribbean
Sea (Jackson et al. 2001) may have deleterious consequences on developing Caribbean
Spiny Lobster.
-0.25 Critical habitat areas (e.g., spawning areas) for this species are not protected by
management using time/area closures, marine reserves, etc.
-0.25 No efforts are being made to minimize damage from existing gear types OR new or
modified gear is increasing habitat damage (e.g., fitting trawls with roller rigs or
rockhopping gear; more robust gear for deep-sea fisheries).
-0.25 If gear impacts are substantial, resilience of affected habitats is very slow (e.g., deep
water corals; rocky bottoms).
+0.25 Habitat for this species remains robust and viable and is capable of supporting this
species.
+0.25 Critical habitat areas (e.g., spawning areas) for this species are protected by
management using time/area closures, marine reserves, etc.
In Florida's waters, Caribbean Spiny Lobsters generally spawn on offshore reefs (Hill
2005, Sharp, pers. comm., 2006). The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation
Commission prohibits commercial fishing of Caribbean Spiny Lobsters in 23 small
marine reserves in the Florida Keys (Sharp, pers. comm., 2006; Cox and Hunt 2005).
Long-term population monitoring within the reserves, however, suggests that only the
largest of the 23 reserves provide adequate protection of legal-sized Lobsters from the
fishery.
Since only 1 of the 23 marine reserves established to protect juvenile Caribbean Spiny
Lobsters from fishing pressure is showing signs of success, we chose not to add for this
factor.
+0.25 Gear innovations are being implemented over a majority of the fishing area to
minimize damage from gear types OR no innovations necessary because gear effects
are minimal.
Traditionally, fishers regularly soaked wooden traps with oil to extend the life of the trap
and protect the trap from marine boring organisms. Since the prohibition of oil in 1995,
fishers now soak their traps in a brine solution to reduce the impact of wood boring
organisms (Moe 1991).
+0.25 If gear impacts are substantial, resilience of affected habitats is fast (e.g., mud or sandy
bottoms) OR gear effects are minimal.
2.00 Points for Habitat Quality and Fishing Gear Impacts
MANAGEMENT
Core Points (only one selection allowed)
Select the option that most accurately describes the current management of the fisheries of this
species.
1.00
Regulations are ineffective (e.g., illegal fishing or overfishing is occurring) OR the
fishery is unregulated (i.e., no control rules are in effect).
2.00
Management measures are in place over a major portion over the species' range but
implementation has not met conservation goals OR management measures are in
place but have not been in place long enough to determine if they are likely to
achieve conservation and sustainability goals.
The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FFWCC) jointly manages the
Caribbean Spiny Lobster fishery in state and federal waters with the Gulf of Mexico
Fishery Management Council (GMFMC) and the South Atlantic Fishery Management
Council (SAFMC) (GMFMC and SAFMC 1990; FFWCC 2005). The councils set
minimum size limits, fishing season and gear restrictions within the Caribbean Spiny
Lobster fishery. Neither the councils nor the FFWCC set an annual catch limit in federal
or state waters. Caribbean Spiny Lobsters reproduce in spring and early summer, and
regulations prohibit fishers from possessing egg-carrying, or 'berried,' females (Moe
1991; SAFMC and GMFMC 1994).
3.00
Substantial management measures are in place over a large portion of the species range
and have demonstrated success in achieving conservation and sustainability goals.
Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed)
-0.25 There is inadequate scientific monitoring of stock status, catch or fishing effort.
Fishery managers use commercial catch statistics (catch and effort data) to analyze and
interpret the status of Caribbean Spiny Lobster populations in state and federal waters.
During the 1990s, an onboard observer program conducted by state biologists provided
information on the size structure, fishing effort and bycatch associated with the
Caribbean Spiny Lobster commercial fishery (Sharp, pers. comm.., 2006).
A recent 2005 SEDAR stock assessment for Caribbean Spiny Lobsters indicated that the
species is not presently overfished in Florida waters. However, the report's assessment for
Caribbean waters indicated insufficient information to make necessary management
recommendations (Sharp, pers. comm.., 2006).
-0.25 Management does not explicitly address fishery effects on habitat, food webs, and
ecosystems.
-0.25 This species is overfished and no recovery plan or an ineffective recovery plan is in
place.
-0.25 Management has failed to reduce excess capacity in this fishery or implements subsidies
that result in excess capacity in this fishery.
+0.25 There is adequate scientific monitoring, analysis and interpretation of stock status, catch
and fishing effort.
+0.25 Management explicitly and effectively addresses fishery effects on habitat, food webs,
and ecosystems.
+0.25 This species is overfished and there is a recovery plan (including benchmarks,
timetables and methods to evaluate success) in place that is showing signs of success
OR recovery plan is not needed.
Managers do not consider Caribbean Spiny Lobsters in U.S. state and federal waters to be
overfished.
+0.25 Management has taken action to control excess capacity or reduce subsidies that
result in excess capacity OR no measures are necessary because fishery is not
overcapitalized.
Fishery managers have taken action to control excess capacity in the Caribbean Spiny
Lobster fishery. In 1993, fishers set 704,234 traps for Caribbean Spiny Lobster in
Florida's waters. That year, the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission
(FFWCC) implemented the Lobster Trap Certificate Program (LTC) to reduce fishing
effort using step-wise annual reductions in the number of lobster traps allowed in the
fishery (FFWCC 2005). The LTC successfully made two 10% reductions in trap numbers
by the 1995-1996 fishing season. However, in 1996 the FFWCC suspended the annual
reductions in fishing effort in favor of bi-annual reductions.
In 2001, the FFWCC set the target number of Spiny Lobster traps at 400,000 and
implemented a 4% annual reduction in traps. In 2003, the FFWCC suspended the annual
reduction in traps pending an evaluation of the entire Caribbean Spiny Lobster fishery,
including the commercial dive, commercial trap and recreational components (FFWCC
2005).
2.25 Points for Management
BYCATCH
Core Points (only one selection allowed)
Select the option that most accurately describes the current level of bycatch and the
consequences that result from fishing this species. The term, "bycatch" used in this document
excludes incidental catch of a species for which an adequate management framework exists. The
terms, "endangered, threatened, or protected," used in this document refer to species status that is
determined by national legislation such as the U.S. Endangered Species Act, the U.S. Marine
Mammal Protection Act (or another nation's equivalent), the IUCN Red List, or a credible
scientific body such as the American Fisheries Society.
1.00
Bycatch in this fishery is high (>100% of targeted landings), OR regularly includes a
"threatened, endangered or protected species."
2.00
Bycatch in this fishery is moderate (10-99% of targeted landings) AND does not
regularly include "threatened, endangered or protected species" OR level of
bycatch is unknown.
Bycatch of finfish in Caribbean Spiny Lobster traps is of some concern. Some fishers use
wire traps in federal waters off Florida, which catch significantly more snappers,
groupers, grunts, and ornamental fish than wooden traps. However, Spiny Lobster fishers
possessing either a Gulf of Mexico Reef Fish permit or a South Atlantic Snapper Grouper
permit may keep and sell the snappers and groupers they incidentally catch. Also, since
1982, federal regulations have required that all wire Caribbean Spiny Lobster traps
contain degradable panels to prevent continuous fishing in the event of lost or abandoned
traps (FFWCC 2002).
Fishers use live undersize Caribbean Spiny Lobsters, commonly referred to as 'shorts',
instead of bait to attract Spiny Lobsters into the traps. Due to their highly gregarious
nature (they form groups), more Caribbean Spiny Lobsters enter traps containing shorts
than traps baited with food (FFWCC 2002; FFWCC 2005). At any given time, fishers
may legally use 50 shorts or one short per trap, whichever is greater (FFWCC 2005). The
shorts suffer from starvation, predation, exposure, and growth impairment and experience
a mortality rate of 10.3% over a four-week period (FFWCC 2002). However, fishers
frequently retain and reuse shorts, which, in a sense, creates a fishery with no minimum
size limit (Moe 1991). The removal of undersize Spiny Lobsters and the high mortality
rate of shorts may cause significant downstream losses in the population (Moe 1991;
FFWCC 2002).
To reduce mortality among shorts, the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation
Commission (FFWCC) and the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic Fishery Management
Councils required live wells on all fishing vessels in 1987. Live wells hold the undersized
lobsters while fishers reset their traps, which reduces exposure-related mortality among
reused shorts (FFWCC 2002). Additionally, the FFWCC gradually reduced the number
of traps in the fishery to subsequently decrease the number of shorts being used in the
fishery (FFWCC 2005).
3.00
Bycatch in this fishery is low (<10% of targeted landings) and does not regularly include
"threatened, endangered or protected species."
Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed)
-0.25 Bycatch in this fishery is a contributing factor to the decline of "threatened, endangered,
or protected species" and no effective measures are being taken to reduce it.
-0.25 Bycatch of targeted or non-targeted species (e.g., undersize individuals) in this
fishery is high and no measures are being taken to reduce it.
Undersized Caribbean Spiny Lobsters used as bait suffer from high mortality rates and
continued reuse by fishers, and are effectively lost to the population (Moe 1991). In 1987,
the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FFWCC) required a live
circulating well for all undersized Spiny Lobsters (called 'shorts') held onboard fishing
vessels to reduce short mortality. Although wells reduced overall short mortality,
confinement-related mortality rates among shorts remain high at 10% (FFWCC 2005). In
1990, the FFWCC developed plans to prohibit the use of shorts as attractants, and to
employ escape gaps that would allow for the escape of these lobsters. Instead, the
FFWCC implemented the Lobster Trap Certificate Program, which seeks to reduce the
mortality of shorts by reducing the total number of traps allowed in the fishery. The
Lobster Trap Certificate Program, however, was suspended in 2003, following
heightened concerns over the impact to commercial dive and recreational components of
the fishery (FFWCC 2005).
-0.25 Bycatch of this species (e.g., undersize individuals) in other fisheries is high OR bycatch
of this species in other fisheries inhibits its recovery, and no measures are being taken to
reduce it.
-0.25 The continued removal of the bycatch species contributes to its decline.
+0.25 Measures taken over a major portion of the species range have been shown to
reduce bycatch of "threatened, endangered, or protected species" or bycatch rates
are no longer deemed to affect the abundance of the "protected" bycatch species
OR no measures needed because fishery is highly selective (e.g., harpoon; spear).
This fishery does not affect the abundance of threatened, endangered, or protected
species.
+0.25 There is bycatch of targeted (e.g., undersize individuals) or non-targeted species in this
fishery and measures (e.g., gear modifications) have been implemented that have been
shown to reduce bycatch over a large portion of the species range OR no measures are
needed because fishery is highly selective (e.g., harpoon; spear).
+0.25 Bycatch of this species in other fisheries is low OR bycatch of this species in other
fisheries inhibits its recovery, but effective measures are being taken to reduce it
over a large portion of the range.
No information was available to determine if bycatch of lobster in other fisheries is a
significant problem.
+0.25 The continued removal of the bycatch species in the targeted fishery has had or will
likely have little or no impact on populations of the bycatch species OR there are no
significant bycatch concerns because the fishery is highly selective (e.g., harpoon;
spear).
Although concerns exist over the bycatch of undersized Caribbean Spiny Lobsters,
bycatch of other species in the fishery is limited.
2.25 Points for Bycatch
REFERENCES
Caribbean Fishery Management Council (CFMC). 2004. Final Environmental Impact Statement
for the Generic Essential Fish Habitat Amendment to: Spiny Lobster Fishery Management Plan,
Queen Conch Fishery Management Plan, Reef Fish Fishery Management Plan, Coral Fishery
Management Plan for the U.S. Caribbean
Cox C. and J.H. Hunt. 2005. Change in size and abundance of Caribbean spiny lobsters Panulirus
argus in a marine reserve in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. USA Marine Ecology
Progress Series; Vol. 294
Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FFWCC). 2005. Spiny Lobster: A Report
to the Spiny Lobster Advisory Board
FFWCC. 2002. Spiny Lobster: Issues. Available at: www.floridaconservation.org/commission/
2002/april/SpinyLobster.pdf
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2000. Workshop on
Management of the Caribbean Spiny Lobster (Panulirus argus) Fisheries in the area of the
Western Central Atlantic Fishery Commission. FAO Fisheries Report No. 643
Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council (GMFMC) and South Atlantic Fishery
Management Council (SAFMC). 1990. Amendment 3 to the Fishery Management Plan for Spiny
Lobster in the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic Including Environmental Assessment and
Regulatory Impact Review. Available at: http://ocean.floridamarine.org/efh_coral/pdfs/FMPs/
SpinyLobsterAMEND3.pdf#search='required%20live%20wells%20lobster%20spiny'
Hill, K. 2005. Panulirus argus. Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce. Available at: http://
www.sms.si.edu/IRLspec/panuli_argus.htm
Jackson, J., M.X. Kirby, W.H. Berger, K.A. Bjorndal, L.W. Botsford, B.J. Bourque, R.H.
Bradbury, R. Cooke, J. Erlandson, J.A. Estes, T.P. Hughes, S. Kidwell, C.B. Lange, H.S.
Lenihan, J.M. Pandolfi, C.H. Peterson, R.S. Steneck, M.J. Tegner, and R.R. Warner. 2001.
Historical Overfishing and the Recent Collapse of Ecosystems. Science; 293:629-638
Moe, M.A. 1991. Lobsters: Florida, Bahamas, and the Caribbean. Green Turtle Publications
Morgan, L.E. and R. Chuenpagdee. 2003. Shifting Gears: Addressing the Collateral Impacts of
Fishing Methods in U.S. Waters. Pew Science Series.
Sharp, B. 2006. Personal Communication. Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission
South Atlantic Fishery Management Council (SAFMC) and Gulf of Mexico Fishery
Management Council (GMFMC). 1994. Final Amendment 4 to the Fishery Management Plan for
Spiny Lobster in the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic Including the Regulatory Impact Review
and Environment Assessment.
South Atlantic Fishery Management Council (SAFMC). 1998. Final Comprehensive
Amendment Addressing Essential Fish Habitat in Fishery Management Plans of the South
Atlantic Region. Amendment 5 to the Spiny Lobster Fishery Management Plan