Download Perspectives in Nutrition, 8th Edition

Perspectives in Nutrition, 8th Edition
Chapter 3 Outline: The Food Supply
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
3.1
Compare food security and food insecurity and identify the factors that contribute to each.
Discuss the effects of hunger and malnutrition and their impact on children.
Describe U.S. government programs designed to increase food security.
Describe organic food production, its regulation, and its potential benefits.
Discuss the current and potential uses of genetically modified foods, along with concerns related
to safety.
Explain how food preservation and processing methods affect food availability.
Describe the role of food additives in the food supply, along with how they are regulated.
List the major causes of foodborne and waterborne illnesses in the U.S. and describe how
consumers can reduce the risk of these illnesses.
Describe common environmental contaminants (heavy metals, industrial chemicals, pesticides,
and antibiotics), their potential harmful effects, and how to reduce exposure to them.
Food Availability and Access
A.
B.
General
1.
Worldwide agricultural yield could provide 2720 kcal/d for each person on Earth,
but 1 in 8 people (854 million) are food insecure
2.
2 billion people suffer from micronutrient deficiencies
3.
Malnutrition is most common in the developing world (sub-Saharan Africa, Latin
America, Caribbean, parts of Asia)
4.
According to FAO, malnutrition accounts for >1/2 world’s disease burden
a.
Overnutrition leads to obesity
b.
Undernutrition leads to frailty, weakened immune system, etc.
5.
Nutrition transition: inclusion of more meat, dairy, sugar, fat, and processed
foods and fewer grains and vegetables as developing countries become
westernized
6.
Food security: food needs are met all of the time
7.
Food insecurity: quality, variety, and/or desirability of diet is reduced and there is
difficulty at times providing enough food for everyone in the household
Health Consequences of Food Insecurity
1.
2.
3.
4.
C.
Inadequate energy intake
a.
Decline of physical and mental activity
b.
Retardation or cessation of growth
c.
Wasting of muscle and fat
d.
Weakened immune system
e.
Increased susceptibility to disease
f.
Increased death rates
Micronutrient deficiencies
a.
Blindness from vitamin A deficiency
b.
Mental retardation and brain damage from iodine deficiency
Nutrient-poor diets in developed countries
a.
Impaired physical and mental health
b.
Greater rate of health complaints
c.
Abnormal growth
d.
Behavioral problems
e.
Lower educational achievement
f.
Depression, suicide, psychological distress
g.
Increased risk of chronic disease
In the US, food insecurity and poverty are linked to obesity because high-energydensity, nutrient-poor foods are less expensive than nutrient-dense foods
Food Insecurity and Malnutrition in the United States
1.
Despite abundant, nutritious, and affordable food supply, 11% of US households
are food insecure
2.
37 million people in US (more than 1/3 of whom are children) live at or below
poverty guidelines (20,650 for a family of 4);increased with single-parent
households and for certain racial and ethnic groups
a.
25% of African-Americans and Native Americans
3.
D.
b.
22% of Hispanics
c.
9% of Caucasians
Contributors to poverty
a.
Unemployment
b.
Underemployment
c.
Lack of health care benefits
d.
High housing costs
e.
Family break-ups
f.
Illnesses
Programs to Increase Food Security in the United States
1.
60% of USDA budget is allotted for nutrition assistance programs
2.
Some eligible families do not receive aid
3.
Examples
a.
Food Stamp Program: provides monthly benefits with Electronic
Benefits Transfer card (average $93/month) to be used for food and
seeds to grow food; accompanied by Food Stamp Nutrition Education in
some states
b.
Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and
Children (WIC): provides low-income pregnant, breastfeeding, and postpartum women and their infants and children up to age 5 with vouchers
to purchase specific nutrient-dense foods; accompanied by nutrition
education and referrals to health care and social services
c.
National School Lunch Program: helps schools provide nutritious
lunches to children by subsidizing cash and food; children of low-income
families can receive free or reduced-price lunches
d.
School breakfast program: similar to lunch program; must meet federal
nutrition guidelines
e.
Child and Adult Care Food Program: reimburses eligible child-care and
nonresidential adult day-care centers that provide meals and snacks;
meals must meet federal nutrition guidelines
E.
f.
Programs for seniors: Older Americans Act funds congregate meal
programs, home-delivered meals (Meals on Wheels),and Senior Farmers
Market Nutrition Programs; meals must meet nutrition guidelines and are
available at little or no cost
g.
Food distribution programs: commodity foods (canned, dry, and some
fresh foods) are distributed to low-income households, emergency
feeding programs, disaster relief programs, Indian reservations, and older
adults
h.
Many private programs (notably America’s Second Harvest) also assist
low-income families at food banks, pantries, soup kitchens, and shelters
i.
Table 3-1 lists ways to help fight hunger
Food Insecurity and Malnutrition in the Developing World
1.
Most common micronutrient deficiencies
a.
Iron
b.
Vitamin A
c.
Iodine
2.
Undernutrition disproportionately affects young children and women
3.
Consequences of undernutrition
a.
Death
b.
Underweight
c.
Stunted growth
d.
Susceptibility to disease
e.
Learning disabilities
f.
Maternal malnutrition can lead to malnutrition in fetus and breastfed
infants
4.
Subsistence farmers: able to grow food for their own family, but not enough to
sell for income
5.
Causes for food shortages
a.
Poor-quality farmland
b.
Lack of fertilizer, seeds, and farming equipment
c.
Droughts or floods
d.
Limited work capacity of farmers due to undernutrition and illness
e.
Natural disasters, war, and political unrest worsen food shortages
f.
Government corruption plagues relief efforts
6.
Migration of families from rural to urban areas results in overcrowding, poorquality housing, and lack of access to clean water, sufficient food ,and medical
care
7.
Reducing malnutrition through agricultural development
a.
Benefits
i.
Healthier diets for farmers’ families
ii.
Ability to earn income from selling food
b.
8.
3.2
Requirements
i.
Funding
ii.
Infrastructure (e.g., roads, irrigation, electricity, banks)
iii.
Agricultural research
iv.
Education
v.
Healthy workers
United Nations Millennium Summit (2000) set goal to reduce extreme poverty
and hunger by half
a.
Some progress has occurred in Asia and Latin America
b.
Hunger and poverty continue to increase in sub-Saharan Africa and
Eastern Europe
Food Production
A.
Organic Foods
1.
Produced by farming practices that exclude synthetic pesticides, fertilizers, and
hormones; antibiotics; sewage sludge; genetic engineering; and irradiation
2.
Ever-increasing availability of organic foods to consumers
3.
Contributors to consumer demand for organic foods
a.
Personal health
b.
Environmental health
4.
Organic foods are typically more expensive than those grown under conventional
circumstances because they cost more to grow and produce
5.
Farming practices
6.
a.
Biological pest management: use of natural predators, parasites, or
pathogens to control agricultural pests
b.
Composting
c.
Manure application
d.
Crop rotation
Organic Foods Production Act of 1990 established standards
a.
95% of ingredients in an organic food made from multiple ingredients
must meet organic standards
b.
“Made with organic”: at least 70% of ingredients are organic
7.
Not all organic food producers are USDA certified, may not be labeled organic
8.
Organic Foods and Health
a.
b.
Reduce pesticide intake
i.
Organic foods contain fewer pesticides than conventional foods
ii.
Unknown effects on health
iii.
May be prudent for young children
Protect environment
i.
c.
Encourage sustainable agriculture practices
Improve nutritional quality
i.
Most research does not support advantage of organic food
production practices on nutrient content
ii.
Some studies show increased vitamin C and antioxidant content
iii.
Organic label does not make a food implicitly healthy
d.
B.
Food safety
i.
Concern that use of manure may increase contamination by
pathogens is not supported by evidence
ii.
Consumers should wash or scrub all produce under running
water
Biotechnology - Genetically Modified Foods
1.
2.
General
a.
Selective breeding improves yields, resistance to pests and adverse
environmental conditions, etc.
b.
Recombinant DNA technology: transfer of DNA into a plant or animal to
confer a specific trait
i.
Genetically modified food
ii.
Genetically engineered food
iii.
Transgenic plant or animal
GM Foods
a.
b.
Common GM crops in US
i.
Soybean
ii.
Corn
iii.
Cotton
iv.
Papayas
v.
Canola
vi.
Squash
Primary uses are for pest management
i.
Enhance crops’ tolerance for herbicides
ii.
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) protein allows corn to produce toxin
to ward off caterpillars
c.
Although GM animals are under development, none are currently
approved for market (concerns over compatibility of wild and transgenic
species)
d.
Recombinant bovine growth hormone (rBGH) increases milk production
in cows
i.
BGH is released from the pituitary gland and stimulates the
production of insulin-like growth factor, which stimulates milk
production
ii.
Increases risk for mastitis in cows, may necessitate increased use
of antibiotics
iii.
Although IGF is associated with certain cancers in humans, there
is no evidence that drinking milk produced with rBGH increases
these cancers
iv.
No rBGH is used in production of organic milk
v.
rBGH is not approved for use in Canada or Europe
e.
Chymosin (rennin; used to make cheese) can be produced by genetically
engineered bacteria or yeast rather than being harvested from the
stomachs of calves
f.
GM Foods of the Future
g.
h.
i.
Increased crop yields
ii.
Tolerance of crops to harsh conditions (e.g., drought, cold,
salinity)
iii.
Extended shelf-life
iv.
Increased nutrient density (e.g., golden rice has increased levels
of beta-carotene; more heart-healthy vegetable oils; nonallergenic foods)
Although biotechnology has great potential to reduce hunger and
malnutrition, many barriers exist
i.
Lack of access of poor farmers to biotechnology
ii.
Most biotechnology research has focused on crops with
industrial uses rather than on dietary staples
Regulation of GM Foods
i.
FDA: ensures food safety
ii.
USDA: ensures than GM foods are safe to grow
iii.
EPA: regulates pesticide content
iv.
Labeling of GM foods or GM ingredients is not required in the
US
i.
j.
3.
3.3
Safety of GM Foods
i.
Introduction of new allergens: no evidence of harmful reactions
or effects in humans
ii.
Possibility of gene flow: hybridization may lead to resistance of
weeds to herbicides and insecticides
iii.
Development of Bt-resistant insects: may lead to increased
pesticide use by nonorganic farmers
iv.
Loss of genetic diversity
v.
Insufficient regulation and oversight of GM plants and animals
Biopharming: bioengineering plants to produce medications
Meat and Milk from Cloned Animals
a.
Cloning: making genetically identical animals by nonsexual reproduction
b.
Parthenogenesis: some animals (e.g., worms, frogs) clone on their own
c.
Agricultural interest in cloning stems from desire to reproduce the best
livestock for economic gain
d.
In 2008, FDA determined that meat and milk from cloned cattle, swine,
and goats are safe to eat; USDA has not given approval for marketing of
cloned milk and meat
Food Preservation and Processing
A.
General
1.
Food preservation processes extend shelf-life by slowing the rate at which
microorganisms and enzymes cause food spoilage
2.
Methods that decrease water content to deter microbial growth
3.
4.
5.
6.
B.
a.
Drying
b.
Salting
c.
Sugaring
d.
Smoking
Methods that increase acidity or alcohol to deter microbial growth
a.
Fermentation
b.
Pickling
Methods that use heat to eradicate or reduce microbes
a.
Pasteurization
b.
Sterilization
c.
Canning
Methods that slow rate of microbial growth
a.
Refrigeration
b.
Freezing
Methods that inhibit microbial growth
a.
Chemical preservatives
b.
Irradiation
Food Irradiation
1.
Uses radiant energy from gamma rays, X rays, or electron beams to extend shelf
life and control growth of insects and pathogens in foods
2.
Irradiated food is not radioactive
3.
Irradiated foods are safe for human consumption according to FDA and other
health authorities
a.
Fresh meat and poultry
b.
Wheat and wheat powder
c.
White potatoes
d.
Spices and dry vegetable seasonings
C.
Fresh shell fish
f.
Eggs
g.
Fresh produce
4.
Irradiated foods (except for spices and dry vegetables seasonings) must be
labeled with Radura symbol
5.
Barriers to use
a.
Consumers’ lack of familiarity with the technology
b.
Higher cost
c.
Concerns about taste and safety
Food Additives
1.
D.
e.
Historical examples
a.
Salt
b.
Vinegar
c.
Alcohol
2.
Pure Food and Drugs Act of 1906 led to regulation of food additives for safety
3.
Food additive: substance added to foods to produce a desired effect (e.g.,
increased shelf life, greater nutritional value, color)
Intentional vs. Incidental Food Additives
1.
2.
General
a.
Intentional food additive: purposely added, listed among food ingredients
on label
b.
Incidental (indirect) food additives: unintentionally incorporated into
food through some aspect of food production, processing, packaging,
transport, or storage; have no function, but may pose risks
i.
Benzene forms when benzoate salts react with vitamin C
ii.
Acrylamide forms when high carbohydrate foods are fried
iii.
Pesticide residues
Synthetic vs. Natural Additives
3.
a.
Toxicity is determined by effects on body, not whether an additive is
natural or synthetic
b.
Cancer researchers estimate we ingest at least 10,000 times more natural
toxins than synthetic additives or pesticides
Uses of Food Additives
a.
Improve freshness and safety
i.
Antimicrobial agents
ii.
Antioxidants
iii.
Curing agents
iv.
Acidic agents
b.
Alter nutritional value
i.
Enrichment and fortification
ii.
Alternative sweeteners
iii.
Fat replacers
c.
Enhance flavor or color
i.
Flavors and spices
ii.
Flavor enhancers
iii.
Color additives
iv.
Certifiable color additives
d.
e.
Enhance functional characteristics
i.
Emulsifiers
ii.
Anticaking agents
iii.
Humectants
iv.
Stabilizers, thickeners
v.
Enzymes
vi.
Leavening agents
Food additives may not be used to
4.
i.
Hide defective food ingredients or poor food quality
ii.
Deceive customers
iii.
Replace good manufacturing practices
Regulation and Safety of Food Additives
a.
General
i.
1958 Food Additives Amendment of the Food, Drug, and
Cosmetics Act gave FDA jurisdiction over safety of food
additives
ii.
Manufacturers must obtain FDA approval prior to use of
additives in foods; are responsible for testing and proving safety
b.
Prior-Sanctioned Substances and the GRAS List
i.
Substances that the FDA or USDA deemed safe for use in foods
prior to 1958 Food Additives Amendment are deemed prior
sanctioned substances
ii.
Generally Recognized as Safe list contains substances with a
history of use before 1958 or that have been deemed safe by
published scientific evidence
iii.
Some additives have been removed from the GRAS list due to
toxicity or carcinogenicity
c.
d.
Food Additive Safety Tests
i.
Intentional food additives must be tested on at least 2 animal
species to determine the no-observable-effect level (NOEL)
ii.
NOEL/at least 100 is the amount of an additive allowed in food
iii.
Delaney Clause of the 1958 Food Additives Amendment
prohibits use of any food additive shown to cause cancer in
humans or animals at any dose
iv.
FDA sets acceptable levels for incidental additives that may
cause cancer
New Food Additive Approval
i.
Accomplish intended purpose in a food
ii.
Safe
iii.
To be used in no greater amounts than needed to achieve it
purpose
iv.
Provide FDA with information about manufacturing and
laboratory testing of the additive
e.
3.4
Concerns about Food Additives
i.
Many additives on the GRAS list have not been adequately
tested
ii.
New research methods may reveal safety or danger of additives
iii.
Aspartame used as artificial sweetener: concern over cancer,
dizziness, headaches
iv.
Sodium nitrate and sodium nitrite used to prevent growth of
Clostridium botulinum: can be converted to carcinogenic
nitrosamines in the stomach; conversion limited by ascorbic acid
or erythorbic acid
v.
Some artificial colors have been reported to cause allergic-type
reactions in children or linked to cancer in animals
vi.
Cyclamate was banned due to a study indicating it was a
carcinogen, but recent studies refute this evidence, and many
countries now permit use of cyclamate
vii.
Adverse symptoms for sensitive people: sulfites, MSG
viii.
Consumer demand for natural foods: free of colors and synthetic
substances
ix.
Consuming fewer processed, packaged, convenience foods will
decrease intake of additives
Food and Water Safety
A.
Foodborne Illness
1.
Sickness caused by ingestion of food containing pathogenic microorganisms
(foodborne infection) or toxins made by these pathogens (food intoxication)
2.
Despite relatively safe food and water supply in North America, foodborne
illness remains a significant public health problem
3.
WHO estimates that 1/3 population in developed nations suffers foodborne
illness each year
4.
¼ of population in US is at high risk for foodborne illness
Weakened immune system due to diseases or medical treatments
b.
Pregnant women and fetuses
c.
Lactating mothers
d.
Infants and young children
e.
Elderly persons
5.
Many cases are unreported
6.
Common symptoms
7.
B.
a.
a.
Nausea/vomiting
b.
Diarrhea
c.
Intestinal cramping
Severe effects
a.
Development of food allergies
b.
Seizures
c.
Blood poisoning
d.
Chronic complications (e.g., arthritis)
e.
Death
8.
Large-scale production practices, common in developed countries, increase the
impact of contamination
9.
Heavy reliance on food prepared outside the home increases risk due to
mishandling of foods
10.
Mishandling of foods during home preparation is also a risk factor on a smaller
scale
Microbial Pathogens
1.
Routes of transmission
a.
Contamination by human or animal feces (fecal-oral route)
i.
Using contaminated water during food preparation
ii.
Lack of handwashing after using the bathroom or changing
diapers
b.
Contamination by an infected individual
i.
Open wound
ii.
Coughing or sneezing onto food
iii.
Pets, via unwashed hands of food handlers
c.
2.
Cross-contamination: uncontaminated food comes in contact with a
pathogen-contaminated food or object (e.g., cutting board, knife)
Bacteria: single-cell organisms; many are harmless, but some are pathogenic
a.
Examples are detailed in Table 3-3
i.
Salmonella species
ii.
Campylobacter jejuni
iii.
Escherichia coli
iv.
Shigella species
v.
Staphylococcus aureus
vi.
Clostridium perfringens
vii.
Listeria monocytogenes
viii.
Clostridium botulinum
ix.
Vibrio species
x.
Yersinia enterocolitica
b.
Proliferate with nutrients, water, and warmth (41° - 135°F; see figure 34)
c.
Most bacteria do not multiply when food is held above or below the
danger zone, but Listeria can multiply at refrigeration temperatures
d.
High temperatures kill bacteria, but not toxins already produced in food
3.
e.
Most pathogenic bacteria require oxygen, but Clostridium botulinum and
Clostridium perfringens only grow in anaerobic environments
f.
Acidity typically deters bacterial growth, but E. coli can grow in acidic
foods
g.
Some bacteria survive harsh conditions through spore formation
Viruses
a.
Only reproduce after invading living cells
b.
Examples are detailed in Table 3-4
i.
Norovirus, human rotavirus
ii.
Hepatitis A virus
c.
4.
5.
Avian flu is not a foodborne illness
Parasites
a.
Live in or on another organisms, from which they absorb nutrients
b.
Protozoa: one-celled animals
c.
Helminths: tape worms and round worms
d.
Examples are detailed in Table 3-5
i.
Trichinella spiralis
ii.
Anisakis
iii.
Tapeworms
iv.
Toxoplasma gondii
v.
Cyclospora cayetanensis
vi.
Cryptosporidium
Prions
a.
Infectious protein particle that invades the nervous system
b.
Transmitted by consuming infected animal products
c.
Example: bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease),
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (human variant)
d.
6.
Survive high temperatures; best prevention is to keep infected meat out
of the food supply
Toxins
a.
Molds, algae, and plants produce disease-causing toxins
b.
Molds are a type of fungus that grow in dark, moist places
i.
May cause food spoilage, crop destruction, allergies or
respiratory problems
ii.
Mycotoxins: cause blood diseases, nervous system disorders,
kidney and liver damage
c.
Examples are detailed in Table 3-6
i.
Aflatoxin
ii.
Ergot
iii.
Ciguatera toxin
iv.
Shellfish poisoning
v.
Scombroid poisoning
vi.
Tetrodotoxin
vii.
Safrole
viii.
Solanine
ix.
Mushroom toxins
x.
Herbal teas (senna, comfrey)
xi.
Lectins
d.
Mycotoxins are rarely a problem in industrialized nations because food
production practices minimize mold growth and foods are closely
monitored
e.
Natural toxins are produced by plants to protect from predators;
production increases when plants are stressed
i.
Licorice
ii.
Cyanide in lima beans and almonds
iii.
f.
C.
Nutmeg, bananas, and some herbal teas contain substances that
can cause hallucinations
Proper food storage, cooking, and varied diet limit the effects of natural
toxins
Water Safety
1.
General
a.
i.
Bacteria
ii.
Chemical contaminants
iii.
Toxic metals
b.
Local municipal water departments deliver safe water
c.
Water treatment involves disinfection (usually by chlorine-based
chemical); risk of cancer from chlorine exposure is small
d.
Private water supplies (e.g., wells) are not regulated by EPA
e.
Bottled water manufacturers must list source on label
f.
2.
Public water supplies are regulated by the EPA under the Safe Drinking
Water Act
i.
Artesian water
ii.
Distilled water
iii.
Purified water
iv.
Spring water
v.
Mineral water
Bottled water safety is regulated by FDA
Threats to Safe Water
a.
Agricultural runoff
b.
Inappropriate disposal of chemicals
c.
Municipal solid waste
d.
Inadequate treatment of human waste
e.
3.5
Pollution from boats and ships
Preventing Foodborne and Waterborne Illnesses
A.
“Farm to fork” approach: food growers, processors, distributors, and consumers share
responsibility for food and water safety
B.
Consumer food safety practices
1.
2.
3.
Select and purchase foods carefully
a.
Avoid leaking, bulging, dented, cracked cans or jars
b.
Don’t taste foods that smell or look odd
c.
Discard canned foods that spurt liquid when opened
d.
Shop for perishable items (milk, eggs, raw meat, poultry, seafood) last
e.
Separate perishable foods from other foods in the cart (e.g., with plastic
bags)
f.
Take groceries home and refrigerate or freeze perishable goods promptly
g.
Use the sell-by, use-by, and expiration dates
Avoid unsafe food and water
a.
Avoid foods likely to be contaminated with pathogens (e.g., raw sprouts,
raw or undercooked meat, fish, shellfish, poultry, and eggs)
b.
Drink only pasteurized milk and fruit juices
c.
High-risk populations should avoid soft cheese, cold deli salads, cold
smoked fish, and heat hot dogs and deli meats to 165°F before
consumption
d.
Use only purified water for drinking, cooking, and washing food and
food preparation equipment; have well tested for pathogens
Practice good personal hygiene
a.
Thoroughly wash hands for 20 seconds with warm, soapy water after
using the bathroom, changing diapers, playing with pets, coughing,
sneezing, or smoking
4.
5.
6.
b.
Wash hands before and after handling food; plain soap works as well as
antibacterial soap
c.
Cover cuts, burns, sores, or infected areas
d.
Avoid preparing food when sick with diarrhea
Keep a clean kitchen
a.
Prevent cross-contamination by cleaning counters, cutting boards, dishes,
and other equipment thoroughly before and after use; use hot, soapy
water or the dishwasher or sanitize with dilute bleach solution
b.
Regularly clean surfaces and equipment with dilute bleach solution
c.
Replace sponges and wash kitchen towels frequently
d.
Use non-porous, smooth cutting boards
Handle food safely
a.
Wash fresh fruits and vegetables under running water just prior to eating
b.
Scrub firm produce under running water with a brush before slicing
c.
Discard soft or liquid foods that are moldy; trim mold from firm-textured
foods at least 1 inch below mold
d.
Prevent mold growth by storing food and cold temperatures and using
food promptly
e.
Avoid prolonged refrigeration; freezing keeps foods safe indefinitely
f.
Store raw meats and poultry below other foods in the refrigerator
g.
Prevent recontamination of cooked food with raw meat or juices on
hands, cutting boards, or dirty equipment
h.
Cook food completely at picnic site; no partial cooking in advance
Keep foods out of the danger zone and cook foods appropriately
a.
Thaw foods in the refrigerator, under cold running water, or in a
microwave oven
b.
Cook foods immediately after thawing in the microwave
c.
Marinate food in the refrigerator
3.6
d.
Cook food to a safe internal temperature; use a food thermometer (see
Figure 3-5 for safe cooking temperatures)
e.
Cook eggs until yolks and whites are firm
f.
Avoid homemade ice cream, eggnog, mayonnaise, and other foods made
with unpasteurized raw eggs
g.
Avoid eating raw animal products; sushi is safest if made with very fresh
fish that have been commercially frozen, and purchased from a reputable
establishment
h.
Cook stuffing separately from poultry or stuff immediately before
cooking and cook to 165°F and transfer to a clean bowl after cooking
i.
Immediately consume or refrigerate/freeze cooked foods within 2 hours
(1 hour for hot weather)
j.
Cool foods in shallow pans
k.
Reheat leftovers thoroughly to 165°F
Environmental Contaminants in Foods
A.
Lead
1.
Damaging to every organ system, especially nervous system and kidneys
2.
Impairs synthesis of hemoglobin
3.
Particularly toxic for children, whose nervous system is still developing
4.
a.
Lower IQ
b.
Behavior disorders
c.
Impaired coordination
d.
Impaired growth and hearing
e.
Predisposition for hypertension and kidney disease later in life
Avoiding lead ingestion
a.
Let cold water run for 1 minute before using from pipes in homes built
before 1986; hot water should not be used for food preparation
5.
6.
B.
Keep hands and objects that may be placed in the mouth clean to prevent
ingestion of lead dust from lead-based paint in homes built before 1978
c.
Never serve or store food in lead-containing containers
Other sources of lead
a.
Some candies from Mexico
b.
Vegetables grown in contaminated soil
c.
Mineral and/or herbal supplements
d.
Toys painted with lead-containing paints
Preventing lead poisoning
a.
Remove lead from environment
b.
Ensure adequate iron intake
Dioxins
1.
Chlorine and benzene-containing chemicals; byproducts of industrial processes
and incineration of waste products
2.
Effects
3.
4.
C.
b.
a.
Increases cancer risk
b.
Liver and nerve damage
c.
Adverse effects on reproduction
d.
Increased risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus
Routes of exposure
a.
Food contamination (animal fats and fish from contaminated waterways)
b.
Inhalation
Limiting exposure
a.
Avoid certain species of fish and those caught in contaminated
waterways, as identified by EPA
b.
Consume a variety of fish species
Mercury
1.
Abundant in environment; converted to neurotoxin by bacteria
2.
Effects
3.
4.
D.
Birth defects
b.
Nerve damage
c.
Fatigue
d.
Poor learning
Highest risk populations are children and pregnant/breastfeeding women
a.
Avoid shark, swordfish, king mackerel, tilefish
b.
Limit albacore tuna to 6 oz (1 meal)/week
c.
Limit intake of low-mercury fish (e.g., shrimp, light tuna, Pollock,
salmon, catfish) to 12 oz (2 meals)/week; small portions for children
d.
Be aware of EPA advisories for mercury contamination of local
waterways
Ongoing research suggests that benefits of fish consumption (source of essential
fatty acids) outweigh risks or mercury
Polychorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
1.
Historically used for industrial products; still detectable in environment
2.
Health effects
3.
E.
a.
a.
Liver damage
b.
Reproductive problems
To limit exposure, exercise variety and moderation in fish consumption
Pesticides
1.
General
a.
Types of pesticides
i.
Insecticides
ii.
Herbicides
iii.
Fungicides
iv.
b.
Uses
i.
Limit damage to crops
ii.
Improve appearance of fruits and vegetables
iii.
Prevent formation of carcinogenic aflatoxin
iv.
Farms, homes, businesses, schools, health-care facilities
c.
Synthetic pesticides: many early types resist breakdown and have
remained in the environment despite being banned; today’s pesticides are
less persistent
i.
Organophosphates: toxic to nervous system of insects and
animals
ii.
Carbamates: similar to organophosphates, but less toxic
iii.
Organochlorine insecticides: many have been banned due to
environmental effects and persistence (e.g., DDT and chlordane)
iv.
Pyrethroid pesticides: mimic naturally occurring pesticides found
in chrysanthemums, which are neurotoxic
d.
Biopesticides
i.
Microbial pesticides (e.g., Bacillus thuringiensis)
ii.
Genetic modification of plants to produce their own pesticides
(e.g., Bt protein)
iii.
Biochemical pesticides that limit reproduction or growth of pests
e.
2.
Rodenticides
Problems associated with pesticide use
i.
Development of pesticide resistance
ii.
Pesticide drift to non-target sites
iii.
Persistence of pesticides in the environment (e.g., soil, water,
animal fat)
iv.
Unintended effects on non-target species
Regulating Pesticides
a.
EPA
i.
Determines whether or not a pesticide is beneficial or poses
unreasonable health or environmental risks
ii.
Sets limits on amounts used on food during growth and
processing and how much may remain on final product
(tolerance)
iii.
Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 requires EPA to consider
children’s pesticide exposure from foods they normally eat
b.
3.
FDA and USDA
i.
Test foods for pesticides
ii.
Enforce EPA pesticide tolerances; reports show that although
residues are present, only 0.2% of foods have residues exceeding
tolerances
Minimizing Exposure to Pesticides
a.
b.
c.
Health risks
i.
Accidental poisonings related to careless use or storage of
pesticides
ii.
Higher rates of asthma, Parkinson’s disease, prostate cancer,
leukemia, and other cancers among people who work with
pesticides (e.g., farmers)
iii.
Concern about chronic, low-level exposure (e.g., pesticide
residues in foods)
iv.
Infants and children are at heightened risk because of developing
organ systems, higher doses per kg body weight, inefficient
metabolism
Steps to minimize exposure
i.
Wash and peel fruits and vegetables
ii.
Trim fat in meat
iii.
Select a variety of foods
Benefits of eating a variety of produce exceed risks of pesticide exposure
d.
F.
3.7
Certified organic foods are grown without synthetic pesticides, but still
may contain small amounts of pesticide residues due to background
contamination and pesticide drift
Antibiotics
1.
Used to promote animal growth and prevent disease in food animals (60 - 80% of
all antibiotics produced in the US)
2.
Concerns about development of antibiotic resistance
3.
Use of antibiotics is prohibited in organically produced animals
Expert Perspective: Organic Foods and Local Food Systems
A.
B.
C.
Benefits of consuming organic foods
1.
Avoid exposure to pesticides, antibiotics, and synthetic hormones
2.
Humane animal treatment
Benefits of local food systems
1.
Increased biodiversity
2.
Increased access to fresh foods
3.
Decreased environmental impact
4.
Greater community economic development
Characteristics of an ideal food system
1.
2.
Healthy
a.
Optimal nutritional value
b.
Free of preservatives and additives
c.
Does not promote chronic disease
Green
a.
No or low environmental impact
b.
Balanced ecosystems
c.
Uses minimal nonrenewable energy
d.
3.
4.
D.
Recycles wastes
Fair
a.
Does not exploit anyone or anything
b.
Promotes self-sufficiency of farmers
c.
Contributes to economic development of community
Affordable and accessible
a.
Safe
b.
Nutritious
c.
Produced in a sustainable manner
d.
Equally and regularly available to everyone
Limited budgets
1.
Buy fruits, vegetables, dairy, eggs, or meat from local organic farmers, identified
through farmer’s markets, co-ops, Community Supported Agriculture farms, or
Cooperative Extension System websites
2.
Buy fresh foods when in season
3.
Focus on specific foods with high pesticide residues
a.
Apples
b.
Peaches
c.
Bell peppers
d.
Celery
e.
Nectarines
f.
Strawberries
g.
Cherries
h.
Lettuce
i.
Imported grapes
j.
Pears