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Enlightenment Jewish Style: The Haskalah Movement in Europe
by Marie Schumacher-Brunhes
A result of the economic, social, and cultural change in the 18th century, the Haskalah emerged as the movement that
brought the European Enlightenment to the Jewish world. Its supporters, the so-called Maskilim, were active in various
fields: in philosophy, education, culture, economics, politics and, last but not least, religion. Transformation reached the
individual European Jewish communities at various times and in various ways. The movement began in Western Europe,
pioneered by the Berlin philosopher Moses Mendelssohn. It spread eastwards to Galicia and was developed further in
Russia. Supported by a few Christian thinkers, and encouraged by "Enlightened despots" who wanted to assimilate
their minority populations, the Maskilim tried, until the late 19th century, to harmonize the adherence to the Jewish religion and tradition with integration into the European societies.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Enlightenment Jewish Style
2. The Haskalah in Berlin
3. The Programme of the Mendelssohn Circle
4. The Generation(s) Following Mendelssohn
5. The Second Haskalah: "Light against Shadow" in Eastern Europe
6. The Situation in Galicia
7. The Situation in Russia
8. Appendix
1. Sources
2. Bibliography
3. Notes
Indices
Citation
Enlightenment Jewish Style
During the 18th century traditional Jewish society underwent a cultural crisis because of a process of fragmentation, the
main symptom of which was the decline of rabbinical authority. The attempt to find an answer to this crisis led to the
formation of various competing movements: Haskalah, Hasidism ( Media Link #ab), the traditionalism of the followers
of Rabbi Elijah ben Shlomo (1720–1797) ( Media Link #ac), the Gaon of Vilnius (which were called the Mitnaggedim
or "opponents" [of Hasidism]). The interaction of these movements must be regarded as the main phenomenon of
Jewish modernity.
1
The Haskalah – literally "education" (the root word is related to the Hebrew "s-k-l", which means "to act with understanding") – marks a turning point in Jewish history whose effects, in a second and more diverse stage, extended into
Eastern Europe, far beyond its spiritual birthplace in Prussia. If the Berlin philosopher Moses Mendelssohn
(1729–1786) ( Media Link #ad), who translated the Pentateuch, the five books of Moses, into German, pioneered the
movement, the legal framework began in France with the contemporary European process of Emancipation ( Media
Link #ae): On 27 September 1791 the Assemblée constituante granted Jews full citizenship.
2
Naturally, the world of the Ashkenazim ( Media Link #af), united by traditional ways of life and customs which struc1
tured space and lent a unique rhythm to the passing of time, continued to exist so that, for a part of the Jewish population, religious and social life remained closely connected. But others struggled against religion and tradition and advocated a new definition of Jewish society.
3
Because of the Haskalah, modernity was seen as a real challenge by the Jewish minority. It raised many burning questions: Adherence to or loss of traditional ways of life, decisions for or against "emancipation" and "assimilation" (and
would not the former lead automatically to the latter?), as well as the question of adapting religion and religious practices to the modernization of society. The Jewish community had to choose a form of integration.
4
Since in France and Germany the Jewish population was a small minority, but in Central and Eastern Europe constituted a rather large minority, the Haskalah had to pass through various forms and diverse stages in which its original
teachings and practices underwent nuanced changes as they were adapted and revised.
5
However, everywhere the goals of the proponents of the Haskalah were the same: to lead the Jews out of the religious
ghetto, to integrate the Jewish world into the non-Jewish world and to bring separation to an end in favour of
non-Jewish tendencies, customs and knowledge. The pre-requisites for such integration were modernisation and ending
the centuries-old blending of religious and social life.
6
The Haskalah pursued a double purpose: the enlightenment of Jews as human beings, and the enlightenment of Jews
as Jews. The Jewish Enlightenment thinkers propagated a new relationship to the world, and to others, from now on,
more heed should be paid to social reality and to improving the conditions of Jews in exile. Civil society's discrimination
against the Jewish minority was to be stopped. In this regard it was important to take the actual situation into account
and to help improve the social life of the Jews so that they could become equal members of society; at the same time
Judaism was to become more open to the world. Thus, the second part of the Haskalah's programme aimed to bring
about a new and modern religious and theological self-understanding. The Maskilim, the proponents of the Haskalah
movement, criticised specific aspects of the religious tradition, especially those customs and rituals that stood in the
way of Jewish social integration. Thus, the origin of the tensions between Orthodox and "enlightened" Jews lay in their
thoughts on the importance and role of religion in modern Jewish society.
7
The process of change initiated by the Haskalah must also be considered in a larger context, since it took place as part
of the general social developments of industrialization ( Media Link #ag), urbanisation, and the growth of bourgeois
society. With the dissolution of the traditional structures of Jewish communities and the fragmentation, or indeed individualisation, that this caused, new forms of Jewish life emerged. One of the most obvious results was secularisation
2
3
which, along with acculturation, affected every area of life: Funeral and circumcision rituals were reformed, and even
the development of synagogue architecture reflected the change: Formerly the synagogue had not only been a house of
prayer but had also housed a school and a centre for the secular aspects of community life, now it became a sacred
4
house of god.
8
In Germany, where Moses Mendelssohn's movement created the conditions for emancipation, the first Maskilim were,
in a manner of speaking, also the last, because in Western Europe the Haskalah created assimilated "citizens of Mosaic faith", whereas in Eastern Europe the Haskalah itself became the basis of unique movements. Not all of the different currents of the Haskalah culminated in social assimilation: The effort to preserve the special Jewish character – the
goal of national dissimilation – was also part of the effects brought about by this movement. Everywhere EuropeanJewish "subcultures" developed.5 Through filiation or opposition, the Haskalah contributed to the creation of a considerable number of currents which Judaism has been dealing with for more than a century. 6
9
The Haskalah in Berlin
The Haskalah, with Moses Mendelssohn as its spokesman, is often thought to have been at the centre of the changes
that took place by the mid-eighteenth century at the latest in Jewish life in Germany. It has been shown that the entire
18th century was characterized by a process of progressive acculturation, although traditionalism remained the model
of reference.7 It is highly probable that this change would have taken place even without Mendelssohn, who for a long
time was incorrectly regarded as the movement's sole founder.
10
However, other models must also be taken into account, for example that of Italian Jews (e.g. from Livorno) and of the
Sephardim in Amsterdam who developed a particularly successful model based on integration and secular knowledge.
One could also think of the Jews in Bordeaux and Hamburg whose active participation in local affairs was acknowledged and valued, and of the Jews who were accepted into Masonic lodges. Jews like the financiers, the purveyors to
the German speaking courts, the makers of coins ("moneyers"), in short, all those who, in a manner of speaking, had
taken fate into their own hands8 belonged to a "semi-neutral society".9 From this developing stratum of society which
was made up of educated people, for whom religion and class were of minor importance, the proponents of the
Haskalah were soon to emerge.
11
Of particular importance in this context are the social conditions that prepared the way for the development of the
Haskalah ideas. These conditions are so characteristic of the era that, in retrospect, leaving the ghetto appears to have
been an act of historical necessity.10 The social structure of the Jewish community changed during the era of the Seven
Years' War (1756–1763): A few "new men" who served Frederick II of Prussia (1712–1786) ( Media Link #aj) –
(Daniel Itzig (1723–1799) ( Media Link #ak), Veitel Heine Ephraim (1703–1775) ( Media Link #al), and Moses
Isaac-Fliess (1708–1776) ( Media Link #am)) – became quite prosperous. Eventually they attained the status of parnassim (community leaders) and gradually came to be the most influential men in Jewish charitable institutions. Their
way of life became ever more similar to that of the non-Jewish elite in Berlin – their "Western" appearance, the gradual
dropping of Yiddish in favour of German, and the choice of a modern education for their children were unmistakable
signs.11
12
In 1749 Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729–1781) ( Media Link #an) introduced the model of the enlightened Jew with
his comedy Die Juden (The Jews), although he was fully aware that the model did not yet exist in real life. Some educated men, like Christian Konrad Wilhelm von Dohm (1751–1820) ( Media Link #ao), argued that if the Jews would be
treated justly, they would become useful citizens (Über die bürgerliche Verbesserung der Juden/Concerning the Amelioration of the Civil Status of the Jews [1781/1783]). 12 He pointed out that the often criticised moral corruption of the
Jews was not the result of their religion but of the oppression they suffered.13 Dohm's work, which was based on the
one hand on the economic theories of early Liberalism, and on the other, on the humanitarian ideals of the Enlightenment, was written in order to bring about the "profitable" integration of Jews into the economic life of the state through
the repeal of the exceptional laws to which, up to that time, the Jews had been subjected in all Christian countries.
13
In the Habsburg Empire, where the biggest communities of traditional Jews lived, the Enlightened monarch Joseph II
(1741–1790) ( Media Link #aq) took measures to make the Jews "useful citizens" and to integrate them into society.
A look at the laws passed under his rule (particularly the 1782 Edict of Tolerance) clearly reveals this intention. However, at the same time, the laws passed in Vienna called into question the autonomy of the Jewish community. The period of reforms under Joseph II was followed by a reactionary period under Francis II (1768–1835) ( Media Link #ar).
Since the German language and culture was an element connecting the multicultural empire, new laws were passed to
Germanize the Jews with the intention of using them, in turn, as an instrument of Germanizing the empire's various
non-germanic peoples. As a result, the school system became the major challenge for the Habsburg policies regarding
the Jews.
14
The Programme of the Mendelssohn Circle
Moses Mendelssohn played a leading role in formulating the concept of Enlightenment. Already during his lifetime he
was referred to as a "Jewish philosopher". However, it would be incorrect to call him a philosopher of Judaism for he
only occasionally philosophised on Judaism: in 1770 during the Lavater affair and its aftermath,14 in his preface to the
work Rettung der Juden (Vindiciae Judaeorum, London 1656) written by the Amsterdam Rabbi Manasseh ben Israel
(1604–1657), in his work Jerusalem oder über religiöse Macht und Judentum (Jerusalem: Or on Religious Power and
Judaism, 1783), in his dispute with Johann David Michaelis (1717–1791) ( Media Link #as), an orientalist and Protestant theologian at the University of Göttingen, and in his discussion with Johann Georg Hamann (1730–1788) ( Media
Link #at), a critic of the Enlightenment, and so-called "Magus of the North". However, these sketches of Judaism can be
seen as intended for Christians rather than for Jews.15 Mendelssohn was regarded as a positive example by those who
affirmed integration, but as a negative example by those who, despite all the objective historical factors working against
it, refused to abandon Jewish isolation.
15
Among Mendelssohn's priorities was the struggle against what he called "jargon": Yiddish. He viewed it as a mixture of
crude and corrupt German and Hebrew and denounced it as the instrument and symbol of obscurantism. As a result of
Mendelssohn's critique the language question was taken up by others, for example in the comedy Reb Henoch oder:
Woß tut me damit (Reb Henoch or What Will We Do With It?, 1797)16 by Isaac Euchel (1756–1804) ( Media Link
#au) and in Leichtsinn und Froemmelei (Levity and Sanctimony, 1796) by Aaron Wolffsohn (1754–1835) ( Media
Link #av), which parodied and ridiculed the customs and language of Jews living in rural districts.
16
In this context Mendelssohn published between 1780 and 1782 a German translation of the Pentateuch in transliterated
Hebrew and added the so-called Biur, essentially a grammatical commentary in which he defended his translation and
explained its relationship to the exegetical tradition. This edition of the Pentateuch, which traditionalists at first opposed,
was of no small importance; it helped an entire generation of Jews to master German (there were 20 editions in the
space of 71 years, always in Hebrew letters, which indicated the existence of a broad consensus – albeit only in German speaking lands). In this way Mendelssohn became the representative of a new direction in Judaism for a broader
public: it was he who first raised the question concerning the complete or partial validity of the tradition.
17
One of the important points of controversy that the Maskilim had to deal with was the binding nature of the Halakha
(the moral and religious commandments and prohibitions of the Jewish tradition) for an enlightened Jew, as the departure from the tradition often led to a break with it. 17 These religious questions were of interest to the Jewish public until
the 1870s. At the heart of the matter was the question of the relationship of religion to secular culture and science. In
this regard supporters of the Haskalah pointed to the philosophy of the medieval Jewish thinker Moses Maimonides
(1138–1204) ( Media Link #aw) who in his Guide for the Perplexed (end of the 12th century) had sought to reconcile
Judaism with reason and with the study of the natural sciences. The aim was to demonstrate the ability of the Jews to
improve their own customs and to re-interpret Jewish religion and culture.
18
In his attempt to improve the condition of the Jews, acted as advisor to Dohm when the latter was writing his influential
essay and took an active part in the controversy that ensued upon its publication. In 1783 Mendelssohn published
Jerusalem: Or on Religious Power and Judaism which should not be seen as a philosophy of Judaism but a political
treatise. 18 In this work Mendelssohn addressed both Jews and Christians: he wanted to demonstrate to the former that
if they wanted to be faithful Jews all they had to do was adhere to the ritual commandments of their own free will, from
which it followed that there is no justification for religious compulsion. To the latter he wanted to show that Judaism acknowledges no religious power, and that, therefore, Jews could and should be regarded as equals and as equally valuable members of civil society.
19
The programme of the Maskilim also called for a reform the Jewish education system that had previously been the responsibility of Polish Talmudists and Rabbis. The elite around Mendelssohn19 whose members, like David Friedländer
(1750–1834) ( Media Link #ax), Saul Ascher (1767–1822) ( Media Link #ay) and Lazarus Bendavid
(1762–1832) ( Media Link #az), 20 had been recruited from the ranks of the prosperous and progressive-minded Jews
in Berlin, waged a resolute and efficient campaign for a new kind of school. In 1778 Friedländer, with the support of his
brother-in-law Isaac Daniel Itzig (1750–1806) ( Media Link #b0), founded the Berliner Freischule (Berlin Free School),
the first modern Jewish educational institution based on the idea of secular education. The school was primarily intended for children of the lower social classes who had to pay no fees. The aim of the Freischule was to teach useful
knowledge and skills (especially foreign languages and natural sciences) that would help the children develop into "virtuous citizens and loyal subjects of the state". Particularly noteworthy is the fact that the school taught Hebrew grammar,
which was a novelty and therefore provoked a storm of indignation from Orthodox Jews.
20
With his educational treatise, Divrei shalom ve-emet (Words of Peace and Truth), which appeared in the original Hebrew and in a German translation in 1782, Naphtali Herz (Hartwig) Wessely (1725–1805) ( Media Link #b1), Mendelssohn's associate in writing the Biur, emerged as the Haskalah's spokesman for Jews in the Habsburg Empire, who
he exhorted to comply with the reforms of Joseph II. In addition, Wessely was the most important Hebrew writer of his
generation. He was primarily known for his poetry and, in this regard, we should note his verse epic, Shire Tif'eret
(Songs of Glory, which began to appear in 1782); in a manner of speaking, a Jewish equivalent to Friedrich Gottlieb
Klopstock's (1724–1803) ( Media Link #b2) Messias. As early as 1789 the epic's first four books appeared in a German translation, annotated and authorised by Wessely, under the title Die Moseide.
21
In general the followers of the Haskalah showed a particular interest in the study of Biblical Hebrew and Modern Hebrew Literature and advocated introducing modern disciplines to replace the study of the Talmud. In Königsberg the
members of the Gesellschaft hebräischer Literaturfreunde (Society of the Friends of Hebrew Literature), which had recently been founded with the cooperation of Isaac Abraham Euchel, began publishing a monthly journal in 1783,
Ha-Me'assef (The Collector, 1783–1812; hence the name Me'assefim for the authors who published in this journal), in
which biblical Hebrew was glorified. However, this radicalization of the discourse concerning the language issue appeared a bit strange to a readership that was rapidly integrating into German society and whose mastery of Hebrew
was waning.
22
In accord with this social development the first Haskalah journal in German soon appeared: Sulamith, eine Zeitschrift
zur Beförderung der Kultur und Humanität unter der jüdischen Nation (Shulamite, A Journal for the Advancement of
Culture and Humanity in the Jewish Nation, 1806–1848), edited by David Fränkel (1779–1865) ( Media Link #b3),
the director of the Jewish school in Dessau, and by the teacher Joseph Wolf (1762–1826) ( Media Link #b4). It tried
to mediate between tradition and assimilation.
23
The Generation(s) Following Mendelssohn
In the years following the publication of Mendelssohn's translation of the Pentateuch, a radicalisation of Enlightenment
tendencies took place in the Haskalah that in the end made Mendelssohn appear as a rather conservative figure in the
movement. This phenomenon became even more pronounced after Mendelssohn's death. In view of the Prussian government's timid policy of emancipation (equality came only with Napoleon's (1769–1821) conquests: 1808 in Westphalia
and 1812 in Prussia), the Maskilim concentrated on the internal Jewish discourse.
24
Whereas Mendelssohn had attributed the character of revelation to the entire Biblical and Talmudic tradition, including
ceremonial laws, and declared them binding for all Jews, his younger followers approached the religious traditions with
the instruments of rational and historical criticism.
25
The second generation of Enlightenment thinkers demonstrated a tendency towards radical deism. A good example is
David Friedländer ( Media Link #b5) who translated the prayer book (Siddur) into German in 1786. He also endeavoured to reform the liturgy by removing the songs and prayers that called for the return to Zion ( Media Link #b7). By
1799 his reform efforts even led him to offer his official conversion to Christianity to the Protestant Chief Consistorial
Councillor Wilhelm Abraham Teller (1734–1804) ( Media Link #b8) (under the condition, however, that he would not
have to profess faith in Christ). He also campaigned to introduce organ music into the divine service and to hold the
Sabbath sermon in German. These radical positions cost him the trust of community leaders.
26
Great intellectual adventures, which are undoubtedly the result of the Berlin Haskalah, shaped the 19th century. Despite
many differences they shared common characteristics: the rejection of any notion of a return to the ghetto and the striving for a reformation of Jewish identity, which also included a dialogue with the non-Jewish society. The younger generation of Jews that had been influenced by the Sturm und Drang movement and raised in the spirit of Romanticism began a systematic and critical research into their historical and cultural heritage. Thus, in 1819, at the initiative of Leopold
Zunz (1794–1886) ( Media Link #b9) the Verein für Cultur und Wissenschaft der Juden (The Society for the Culture
and Science of the Jews) was founded in Berlin.21 In 1854 the Jewish Theological Seminary was established in Breslau.
It was headed by Zacharias Frankel (1801–1875) ( Media Link #ba) and became an important training centre of Conservative Judaism.
27
In the period between Mendelssohn's death and the founding of the German Empire (1871) the community of German
Jews came into being (in the period prior to this one can only speak of Jews from Germany or of Jews who lived in
Germany). The process of integrating into German culture reflected the wishes of most members of the German
Jewish community. In this regard the famous Berlin salons are often cited as evidence of the mutual respect and appreciation that existed between Jews and Christians. However, the integration that took place in institutions of education, at
grammar schools and universities, where Jews were soon over-represented, was more lasting and profound. 22
28
Jewish secularisation was accompanied by increasing urbanisation; and one may ask, if and to what extent urbanisation
was responsible for secularisation. The path out of the ghetto into civil society (Jacob Katz) led from the old Jewish
quarters and rural communities to the large cities. Urban life – especially in Berlin with its schools, the university, printers, salons and cafés – provided the necessary conditions for enlightenment, emancipation and secularisation. 23 Thus,
the German Jews created a "new" identity, both with regard to their own past, as well as towards Jews in other European countries. In this way the German Jew became the archetype of the modern Jew who has escaped the ghetto
and whose life is guided by the principle of community and solidarity with the host country.24
29
Some proponents of the Haskalah overshot the mark: For some Jews the efforts to integrate led to the surrender of Judaism and to conversion to Christianity – a phenomenon that went hand in hand with the fashion during the Romantic
era of converting to Catholicism.25 In actual fact the so-called "baptism epidemic" began at the turn of the 18th to the
19th century and affected about one tenth of Prussian Jews. In the course of the 19th century approximately 20,000
people converted to Christianity. The temptation was especially great in educated circles and in the Berlin elite that was
26
at the centre of salon culture and which included many women.
30
The Second Haskalah: "Light against Shadow" in Eastern Europe
During a second wave the Haskalah reached Eastern Europe. Many of the Jews who were more or less respected in
the Berlin circles,27 left the Prussian capital to return to their homelands, driven by a sort of messianic enthusiasm.
Many of them, like Salomon Maimon (1753–1800) ( Media Link #bb), Mendl Lefin Satanover (1749–1826) ( Media
Link #bc) and Solomon Dubno (1738–1813) ( Media Link #bd), were followers of Mendelssohn. However, the German Jews' burning desire to integrate into the German majority society led to the demise of the Berlin Haskalah and
shifted the centre of the Maskilim's work to the East (and to a lesser extent to the Habsburg Empire's Italian provinces).
31
28
The situation in Eastern Europe ( Media Link #be) – including Hungary – was entirely different from the situation in
Central and Western Europe. For the Maskilim the scope for action was much more restricted: On the one hand there
was no active support on the part of state authorities or non-Jewish intellectuals, on the other hand, for decades the
growing movement of Hasidic Judaism had offered an alternative to integration. However, this adverse situation actually
prolonged the life of the Haskalah in the East by preventing rapid and effective assimilation.
32
In the Jewish communities of Eastern Europe attempts to put Mendelssohn's theory into practice were regarded as
"German". In the Shtetls the Maskilim were called "Berliners" or "Germans" well into the last decades of the 19th century and, for the pious Hasidim, the name Mendelssohn was anathema. 29
33
The spread of the Haskalah into regions in which the Jewish population made up a substantial minority followed no particular pattern. Although it was the intention of the Haskalah to reach the entire people, in practice the Maskilim approached only to those who had already demonstrated a certain amount of interest in secular affairs. Indications of this
can be found in the larger cities and commercial centres such as Tarnopol, Brody, Zamo , Shklov, Lviv or Odessa
where the adoption of European habits and the oral and written mastery of Western languages was a question of survival for Jewish traders. In any case the founding of Maskilim groups was more easily accomplished in places where
the political authorities had already made provisions for a change in the Jews' conditions.
34
Here the concept of "Haskalah" fuelled the same debates that it had in Western Europe, but now the opposing positions
and attitudes were more pronounced. The goals of the movement, which continued to draw heavily on the philosophy of
the German Enlightenment, were to spread the new ideas among the Jews and, at the same time, to strengthen the
Jews' love of their own culture. On the one hand they campaigned in the name of reason and the ideal of fraternity for
political equality, for improving the living conditions of the masses, and for developing a new culture; on the other hand
they emphasised the importance of the Bible and the beauty and purity of the Hebrew language.
35
Jewish intellectuals in Eastern Europe pursued the goal of emancipating the Jews, but without rejecting the Jewish tradition. Inevitably, their reflections on the place of religion in society and on re-making Jewish identity led to the critique
of Hasidism. For the supporters of progress, Hasidism embodied the forces of obscurantism and fanaticism that put a
brake on the modernization of Jewish life. In Galicia and in the Tsarist Empire the Haskalah and the Hasidic movements
developed in an atmosphere of mutual hate that shines a light on the role of violence in the development of modern Judaism. 30
36
The battle was waged on various fronts. As in Western Europe concrete measures were proposed that were intended
to demonstrate the desire to integrate and to eliminate the obstacles that blocked entrance into non-Jewish society:
The European style of dress was to be adopted, Yiddish and Jewish first names were to be dropped, and the Halakha
was to be interpreted less rigorously. However, the will to contribute to the triumph of a new ideology based on reason,
tolerance and freedom of thought led some Maskilim to engage in extreme and aggressive forms of confrontation. 31 In
the East their efforts often took on the features of a cultural war whose main weapon was a propaganda literature that
created enduring stereotypes and which also included false accusations and denouncing the opponent to the governing
powers.
37
The bitter struggle of the Maskilim aimed at undermining Hasidic authority and at depriving the rebbes of their legitimacy. On the other hand, as the century advanced, some members of the Maskilim, who were reviled as apikorsim,
heretics, by Hasidic Jews, became victims of religious fanatics: often their careers in the community administration
were ruined.32 Similar tensions characterised the relationship between Reform Jews and Orthodox Jews as an extreme
case illustrates: in 1848 an Orthodox fanatic murdered the Lviv Reform Rabbi by poisoning him.
38
This struggle broke out at a time when the Jewish community's cultural structure had already been changed by the development of new means of communication. And, indeed, the polemics between the Maskilim and the Hasidic Jews
were often conducted in the most important modern media: newspapers, magazines, theatres and books.
39
Alexander Tsederbaum's (1816–1893) ( Media Link #bf) journal Kol Mevaser (The Proclaiming Voice, Odessa
1862–1870), published some of the most famous anti-Hasidic novels, written by the younger generation of Jewish writers that included Israel Aksenfeld (1787–1866) ( Media Link #bg) (Dos Shterntikhl, 1861) and Isaac Joel Linetzky
(1839–1915) ( Media Link #bh) (Dos poylishe yingl, 1869).
40
But it would be little more than caricature to present the clash between the Maskilim and Hasidim as merely a cultural
war between the "ancients and the moderns", between Orthodox traditionalists and more or less assimilation-minded
modernists.33
41
In this "struggle between light and shadow", which is the way the Maskilim liked to describe the situation, the complexity
of the relationship between the Haskalah and the Hasidim is often ignored. The antagonism that existed between the
representatives of the two positions, for instance, resulted mostly from their socio-cultural differences: While the Maskilim came essentially from the urban milieu, many Hasidim were recruited from the impoverished classes of Jews living
in rural areas. However, it is also true that the protagonists often came from the same milieu and a part of the elite of
both camps shared the same intellectual background. They came from Orthodox families, had fled Talmud academies,
and sought solutions that included both continuity and renewal – for Hasidism too can be understood as an attempt to
define contemporary Judaism in a new way. It therefore comes as no surprise that – when a more exact analysis is
made – a large number of intellectual currents and nuanced discourses emerge. In particular the tensions that existed
within the Maskilim circles become apparent. 34
42
A characteristic of many Maskilim sources is the mockery, satire and systematic humiliation of the rebbes and their supporters.35 This kind of hostility is found, for example, in Abraham Ber Gottlober's (1811–1899) ( Media Link #bi) texts
(especially in his autobiography), which emphasize the Hasidim's contempt for handicrafts and trade, and the movement's archaism.36 Some examples of the opposite tendency can also be found, such as Salomon Maimon, a philosopher and follower of Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), who made an effort to treat the question from a philosophical point of
view. But even he denounced the exaggerations of the bigots whose faith, in his opinion, had strayed far from any form
of rationality.37 Still, the radical nature of many of the Maskilim's writings led some activists to adopt more nuanced positions. The main representative and spokesman for this tendency within the Haskalah is Jacob Samuel Bick
(1770–1831) who accused the Maskilim of arrogance and elitism, and who gradually developed into a defender of the
mystical populist movement.38
43
The most interesting aspect of the anti-Hasidic texts is the ambivalent, ambiguous relationship of the authors with this
39
"sect". On the one hand all aspects of Hasidic doctrine and its way of life were denounced, on the other hand a
strange mixture of attraction and repulsion, if not outright fascination for Hasidism can also be observed. Frequently, the
Maskilim were deeply moved by the beauty of Hasidic stories. Many texts show a great knowledge of the subtleties of
the Hasidic masters, for, in order to demask Hasidism, one had first to master the Hasidic sources and understand the
movement's teachings. Examples can be found in Joseph Perl's (1773–1839) ( Media Link #bj) parodies of the collection of legends concerning the founder of Hasidism, (In Praise of Baal Shem Tov), and of the history of Rabbi Nahman
of Bratslav (1772–1810) ( Media Link #bk).
44
Nor can the writers of the Haskalah who drew generously on the traditional texts be accused of breaking with tradition
but only of having subverted it. They experimented with the modern means of writing and treated the Jewish past critically. From this ambivalent approach a discrepancy grew between their discourse and the sources of the Jewish tradition which left room not only for new themes, but also for a new style of writing, and the aesthetic that went with it.
45
The language question is a good example for just how broad the spectrum of views was. While some chose the language of the majority (German, Russian or Polish), others defended Jewish particularity by choosing the languages of
the Jews, and thus spoke Hebrew or Yiddish – which Mendelssohn had denounced as "jargon".
46
The further the movement grew away from its German source, the more it developed ties to the Hebrew language, in
which the Maskilim of Eastern Europe were able to express their ideas much more elegantly than they could in German.
In this way the peculiarity of the Eastern Haskalah emerged. Although the enriched and modernized Biblical Hebrew became the treasure of the Jewish enlightenment thinkers in Galicia and Russian it was not understood by the Yiddish
speaking masses of Eastern Europe.
47
The notion of systematically using Hebrew was contrary to the ambition of winning the entire Jewish people for the
modern ideas. And, sure enough, in the course of time, more and more Maskilim began using Yiddish in order to ensure
the spread of their programme, a prerequisite of which was a modernization of the language of the common people.
The history of the epistolary novel Megale temirin (Revealer of Secrets, 1819) by Joseph Perl, the great classic of
Haskalah literature, which was reprinted many times, illustrates the conditions of creation and reception under which the
Haskalah writers worked. The book was originally written in Hebrew. But since the majority of the potential readers had
not mastered the holy language the work was a failure. The author therefore decided to translate it into Yiddish, although the translation was first published after his death.
48
The fate of Mendel Lefin Satanover's (1749–1826) Tanakh translation is equally instructive. This pioneer of the Galician
Haskalah, who was among Mendelssohn's first followers, undertook a translation of the Bible into Yiddish in the spirit of
Mendelssohn's translation of the Pentateuch. In order to restore poetic power to the Holy Scriptures he translated it in a
purified language free of notes and without the comments that traditionally accompanied the Pentateuch. His undertaking should not be regarded as opposing the Hebrew language, but as a strategic attempt to provide the masses, who
could not be reached by the obsolete Yiddish Tanakh editions of the 16th and 17th centuries, with a more accessible
version. But the translation was greeted with such sharp criticism from fellow believers, that Mendel Lefin interrupted
his work and dispensed with the idea of publishing it.40 It was in this atmosphere of a "Kulturkampf" (culture struggle)
that the birth of modern Hebrew and Yiddish literature took place. 41
49
The Situation in Galicia
Galicia which was annexed by the Habsburg Empire in two stages (1772 and 1793) was the Empire's least Germanized
province. Yiddish was the mother tongue of the vast majority of Galician Jews. Although the reforms introduced by
Joseph II facilitated the realization of the Maskilim's tasks, Galicia was also a stronghold of Hasidism and traditional Judaism.
50
On the other hand, as early as the end of the 18th century one can speak of Mendelssohn's movement taking root – in
a small way – in Galicia. However, efforts to popularize the new ideas via a modern school system or via a reformed
form of worship met with little success. In general, the Maskilim's reforms were counted among the many evils that had
ensued in the wake of the successive partitions of Poland ( Media Link #bl); especially when they were imposed upon
the Jews with the zeal of a Herz Homberg (1749–1841) ( Media Link #bm), the unloved (if not hated) superintendent
of the German language schools in Galicia and the official censor for Jewish books. A pivotal role was played by Nachman Krochmal (1785–1840) ( Media Link #bn) who fast succeeded in assembling a group of supporters in Zhovkva.
Its members included Solomon Judah Leib Rapoport (known under the acronym "Shir", 1790–1867) ( Media Link
#bo), Joseph Perl, Yehuda Leib Mieses (1798–1831) ( Media Link #bp), Samson Bloch (1782–1845) ( Media Link
#bq), Joshua Heschel Schorr (1814–1895) ( Media Link #br), Zevi Hirsch Chajes (1805–1855) ( Media Link #bs)
and Isaac Erter (1792–1851) ( Media Link #bt).
51
In 1806 the Austrian regime closed the schools that the first Maskilim had opened. Despite this, in 1815, Joseph Perl
succeeded in opening the first of a series of German language schools in Tarnopol. Because of his tireless activity a re-
formed worship service was also introduced in Galicia. The establishment of schools and teaching seminaries was an
important focus of the Maskilim's programme. The financial support of rich bankers and factory owners, and the improvement of the political situation, made it possible to create a regular network of secular schools whose graduates
hoped for a career in the imperial administration. If in the beginning the primary emphasis had been placed on learning
German, gradually, and depending on the region, Polish began to compete with German.
52
That Galicia is regarded as an important stage in the development of the Haskalah is primarily due to the richness of
the literary and journalistic creativity that developed there; and this, in turn, points to the fact that the Haskalah took firm
roots in Eastern Europe, while in Western Europe it constituted only a transitional phase. Influenced by various contemporary currents of thought (Romanticism, Hegelianism, Rationalism) a peculiar critique of the tradition developed. The
main proponents were Rabbi Solomon Judah Leib Rapoport and the philosopher Nachman Krochmal, and its theses
were propagated in periodicals like Bikkurey Ha-ittim (First Fruits of the Times, 1820–1831), Kerem Hemed (Delightful
Vineyard, 1833–1856) and Isaac Erter's He-Haluz (The Pioneer, 1852–1889). The synthesis of Judaism that Nachman
Krochmal offered in his posthumously published work Moreh nevukhei ha-zeman (Guide for the Perplexed of the Time,
1851), 42 was very different from the efforts of the Mendelssohn circle. Krochmal, who was regarded as the "Galician
Mendelssohn" by Zunz, 43 rejected every form of assimilation and attempted to demonstrate the uniqueness of the
Jewish tradition and its enduring nature. He was a pioneer of the critical studies of Jewish history and his work accompanied students of the Jewish sciences throughout the 19th century.
53
In Galicia, the equivalent of the German language Wissenschaft des Judentums (Science of Judaism) was Hokhmat
Israel (The Wisdom of Israel), which provided Jewish studies with a new foundation. For the first generations of the
Maskilim the close relationship between theoretical assumptions, scientific goals and the social effects of research into
the Jewish past, were obvious. Nevertheless, the leanings of the Galician and Russian scholars took their projects in a
completely different direction that culminated in an outright criticism of the Wissenschaft des Judentums. While the Wissenschaft regarded Judaism purely as its "object of research", its counterpart in the East proceeded from the assumption that the Jewish people constituted a living community whose past – and contemporary – achievements should be
analysed. In the course of the 19th century scholarly analysis and the defence of the Jewish minority interwove more
closely.44
54
The Galician Haskalah can also take pride in the poet Meir Letteris (1807–1871) ( Media Link #bu) and in Joseph
Perl and Isaac Erter who wrote novels and short stories. Joseph Perl attacked Hasidism with a fanatical and often sim45
plifying vehemence that distorted its principles. He described the mystical current as a religious epidemic, a kind of
mystical pathology that stood in opposition to the fundamental principles of Jewish religion.
55
In his fictional works, which undoubtedly rank among the most successful works of literature that the Haskalah produced, Perl drew on arguments that he had already developed in his political writings. His most famous work is the
story Megale temirin (Revealer of Secrets),46 published in Vienna in 1819; it was followed by the Bohen tsaddik (The
Test of the Righteous) and by parodies of Hasidic fairy tales and stories.
56
The Situation in Russia
During the Russian stage of the movement the work begun by Moses Mendelssohn was completed and its shortcomings revealed. For here an insurmountable obstacle arose: the milieu into which, according to the Maskilim, the Jews
should integrate was characterised by Antisemitism ( Media Link #bv).
57
The penetration of the Jewish Enlightenment into Russia was made possible by the efforts of travellers, subscribers to
the journal Ha-Meassef, and Galician emigrants (after 1820). For the Russian Haskalah, the time of isolated advocates
and widely separated Haskalah-Centres, in which the first Maskilim were supported by wealthy businessmen like Mendel Lefin Satanover, Solomon Dubno or Aaron Mordecai Guenzburg (1795–1846) ( Media Link #bw), was succeeded
by a period of activism that corresponded more or less to the last years of the reign of Nicholas I (1796–1855) ( Media Link #bx). The challenges the movement faced were primarily economic and social; they mainly concerned educational not religious issues. The learning of foreign languages was often regarded as the first step towards an enlightened life and helped to satisfy the desire for secular knowledge. The spokesman of the Russian or Volhynian (in modern day north-west Ukraine) Haskalah was Isaac Baer Levinsohn (1788–1860) ( Media Link #by), who in his work
Te'udah be-Yisrael (A testimony in Israel, Vilna, 1828) set out a programme of reform for the educational system and
the community's structure.
58
The Maskilim's largest school, and with the most diverse curriculum, was in Lithuania. It is especially noteworthy that
here the enlightened forces could build on an older tradition that was in harmony with modern ideas, especially with the
principle of the rational exploration of Judaism. This had been the achievement of the Gaon of Vilnius ( Media Link
#bz) (and his successors), who had introduced the study of Hebrew grammar, and the study of the secular sciences
that were a pre-requisite for understanding the Talmud, and who had supported the translation of scientific works into
Hebrew. Also noteworthy are Aaron Mordecai Guenzburg, the translator Kalman Schulman (1819–1899) ( Media Link
#c0), and the three prominent writers Abraham Dov Lebensohn ("Adam Ha-Cohen", 1794–1878) ( Media Link #c1),
his son Micah Joseph Lebensohn (known under the acronym "Mikhal", 1828–1852) ( Media Link #c2), and Judah Leib
Gordon (acronym: "Yalag", 1830–1892) ( Media Link #c3). The exceptional talent of Abraham Mapu (1808–1867) (
Media Link #c4), the father of the Modern Hebrew novel, lent the Russian Haskalah an incomparable splendour.
59
However, in this regard, the relationship to Yiddish was more ambivalent than ever: Despite its shortcomings the language of the people became more and more essential for the Maskilim who wanted to reach a public that extended beyond their peers. This explains the success of, for example, Mendele Moykher Sforim (1836–1917) ( Media Link
#c5), a master of the Hebrew language, who also wrote in Yiddish and in doing so became the first classical author of
modern Yiddish literature.
60
The Jewish population was so densely concentrated in these areas that the attack on traditional institutions and community leaders had to be carried out with great vigour. The schools became the targets of this struggle, although in retrospect the results were rather meagre. The Maskilim looked to the German and Galician models. Thus in 1822 a
school was opened in Uman in the Ukraine, and in 1826 another followed in Odessa – both based on the school that
Perl had established in Ternopol. In this area private and public efforts existed side by side. Max Lilienthal
(1815–1882) ( Media Link #c6) and Count Sergei Uvarov (1785–1855) ( Media Link #c7) are good examples of
such interaction: the German speaking Rabbi from Riga was officially commissioned by the Minister for Education
(1833–1849) to promote a secular school system in the largest Jewish communities. This commission led to a public
debate. Finally, in 1844, a law was passed that opened the state schools to Jews. And, in 1847, two famous rabbinical
seminaries were opened, one in Zhitomir and one in Vilna.
61
Many Maskilim now became civil servants. The reforms of Alexander II (1818–1881) ( Media Link #c8) consolidated
their position, and their presence in key areas lent them social importance. Thus the success of the Haskalah became
visible. The movement's theses were published in various languages in such journals as Ha-melits, Ha-tsefirah,
Ha-Maggid (Hebrew), Kol mevaser (Yiddish), Dien and Voskhod (Russian), Jutrzenka then Izraelita (Polish) and supported by the Gesellschaft zur Verbreitung für Aufklärung unter den Juden in Russland (Society for the Spreading of
the Enlightenment among Jews in Russia) which was founded in 1863. This society was one of the greatest achievements of the Russian Haskalah, for it made the development of Modern Hebrew Literature possible.
62
Over time three trends emerged: 47 Some Maskilim declared themselves willing to surrender the citadels of religion and
the Hebrew language, advocated complete assimilation, and defended this position in Polish or Russian. This stance
could express itself politically in the form of the love of the Tsar or as Polish48 patriotism, but it could also lead to revolu-
tionary activism, or to support for the labour movement. Other Maskilim advocated the continuation of the policy of rapprochement by means of education, while the third group emphasized, in Yidddish and Hebrew, Jewish nationality in order to compensate for the Haskalah's shortcomings (and exaggerations). The boundaries between the so-called assimilationists and integrationists are blurry.49
63
The opening of Russian schools to Jewish children in 1844 compelled the Maskilim to establish new schools in order to
rescue Hebrew language studies. They introduced a reformed Cheder (a traditional school for Jewish boys) – the
Cheder metukkan, which prefigured the network of Zionist schools. Although the need for secular education was now
generally acknowledged, each group tried to consolidate its own network of schools in order to protect its own values.
64
The pogroms that followed the assassination of Alexander II (1881) led to the development of alternative strategies that
were characterized by a return to Jewish values and the beginnings of a national discourse. This gave rise to the early
Zionist Hibbat-Zion-(Love of Zion) movement that harshly criticized the Haskalah. Peretz Ben Mosheh Smolenskin
(1842–1885) ( Media Link #c9), one of the leading figures of the Russian Haskalah, accused Mendelssohn of having
caused the denationalisation of the Jews, or at least of having paved the way for it.50 Smolenskin's view, which he propagated in his journal Hashahar (Dawn, 1868–1884), the most important Hebrew medium of the late Haskalah and of the
beginning Jewish national movement, was similar to the view of history that was propagated by the Zionists – they
thought of themselves as returning to the legitimate historical course of the Jewish people by overcoming the concept of
assimilation. 51
65
The goals of the Maskilim were partially or fully realized also in the Russian territories, including such phenomena as
Russification or Polonisation and excessive secularisation. The process of maturing and deepening, which the movement underwent during the entire 19th century, was the reason for the severity with which it was judged, both by external critics as well as by its own disappointed supporters: for the Zionists it was too assimilationist, for the various labour
movements it was too bourgeois and subaltern, for the advocates of Jewish autonomy in exile it was too Russian, and
for the lovers of the Hebrew language it was too artificial.
66
Marie Schumacher-Brunhes, Brussels
Appendix
Sources
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Dohm, Christian Konrad Wilhelm von: Über die bürgerliche Verbesserung der Juden (Teil 1, Berlin und Stettin bey
Friedrich Nicolai 1781; Teil 2, id. 1783), online: http://www.ub.uni-bielefeld.de/diglib/dohm/ueber/ [18.04.2012].
Euchel, Isaak: Reb Henoch oder: Woß tut me damit. Eine jüdische Komödie der Aufklärungszeit, ed. by Marion Aptroot
et al., Hamburg 2004.
Krochman, Nachmal: More nevukhe ha-zeman, Lviv 1851.
Mendelssohn, Moses: Gesammelte Schriften: Jubiläumsausgabe, begonnen von Ismar Elbogen et al., Stuttgart-Bad
Cannstatt 2009.
Perl, Joseph: Revealer of Secrets: the First Hebrew Novel, ed. by Dov Taylor, Boulder 1997.
idem: Über das Wesen der Sekte Chassidim, ed. by A. Rubinstein, Jerusalem, Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities 1977.
Zunz, Leopold: Gesammelte Schriften, 2. ed., Hildesheim et al. 1976, vol. 2.
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Albrecht, Michael et al. (eds.): Moses Mendelssohn und die Kreise seiner Wirksamkeit, Tübingen 1994.
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Barzilay, Isaac Eisenstein: Smolenskin's Polemic against Mendelssohn in Historical Perspective, in: Proceedings of the
American Academy for Jewish Research 53 (1986), pp. 11–48.
Baumgarten, Jean: Les études juives en Europe orientale (histoire, ethnologie, linguistique), in: Jean Baumgarten et al.:
Mille ans de cultures ashkénazes, Paris 1994, pp. 384–391.
idem: La Naissance du hassidisme: Mystique, rituel et société (18e–19e siècle), Paris 2006.
idem: Une traduction de la Bible en yiddish, in: Yvon Belaval et al.: Le siècle des Lumières et la Bible, Paris 1986, pp.
237–252.
Bechtel, Delphine: La Haskalah berlinoise, in: Jean Baumgarten et al.: Mille ans de cultures ashkénazes, Paris 1994,
pp. 354–357.
Behm, Britta et al. (eds.): Jüdische Aufklärung und preußische Schulreform: Analysen zum späten 18. Jahrhundert und
frühen 19. Jahrhundert, Münster et al. 2002.
Bourel, Dominique: Juifs d'Allemagne, in: Jean Baumgarten et al.: Mille ans de cultures ashkénazes, Paris 1994, pp.
178–182.
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Harvard Theological Review 85 (1992), pp. 357–383.
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1994, pp. 393–409.
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Jean Baumgarten et al.: Mille ans de cultures ashkénazes, Paris 1994, pp. 152–168.
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Jewish History, Thought, and Culture, New York et al. 1989, vol. 2, pp. 147–175.
Feiner, Shmuel: The Jewish Enlightenment, Philadelphia 2002.
idem: Haskala – Jüdische Aufklärung: Geschichte einer kulturellen Revolution, Hildesheim et al. 2007.
idem: Haskalah and History: The Emergence of a Modern Jewish Historical Consciousness, London et al. 2004.:
Goldberg, Sylvie-Anne: La Clepsydre: Essai sur la pluralité des temps dans le judaïsme, Paris 2000.
Graetz, Michael: Jüdische Aufklärung, in: Mordechai Breuer et al.: Deutsch-Jüdische Geschichte in der Neuzeit, Munich
1996, vol. 1: Tradition und Aufklärung, 1600–1780, pp. 251–355.
Hertz, Deborah: Die jüdischen Salons im alten Berlin, Frankfurt am Main 1991.
Herzig, Arno et al. (eds.): Judentum und Aufklärung: Jüdisches Selbstverständnis in der bürgerlichen Öffentlichkeit, Göttingen 2002.
Kaplan, Marion A.: The Making of the Jewish Middle Class: Women, Family, and Identity in Imperial Germany, New
York et al. 1991.
Katz, Jacob: Aus dem Ghetto in die bürgerliche Gesellschaft: Jüdische Emanzipation 1770–1870, Frankfurt am Main
1986.
idem: Moses Mendelssohns schwankendes Bild bei der jüdischen Nachwelt, in: Michael Albrecht et al. (eds.): Moses
Mendelssohn und die Kreise seiner Wirksamkeit, Tübingen 1994, pp. 349–362.
Kocka, Jürgen (ed.): Bürger und Bürgerlichkeit im 19. Jahrhundert, Göttingen 1987.
Lässig, Simone: Jüdische Wege ins Bürgertum: Kulturelles Kapital und sozialer Aufstieg im 19. Jahrhundert, Göttingen
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Lohmann, Ingrid: Interkulturalität als Strategie religiöser Reform und sozialen Aufstiegs: Jüdische Knaben- und Mädchenerziehung um 1800, online: http://www.erzwiss.uni-hamburg.de/personal/lohmann/jf/inter.htm [18.04.2012].
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idem: The Social Dynamics of Jewish Responses to Moses Mendelssohn (with Special Emphasis on the Mendelssohn
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Kreise seiner Wirksamkeit, Tübingen 1994, pp. 333–348.
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211–291.
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Eastern Europe, 1749–1826, Ann Arbor 1996.
Sorkin, David: The Transformation of German Jewry, 1780–1840, New York et al. 1987.
Sorkin, David et al. (eds.): New Perspectives on the Haskalah, London et al. 2001.
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Zeitschrift 253 (1991), pp. 603–628.
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in der Debatte um die Beschneidungsreform zwischen 1830 und 1850, in: Arno Herzig et al. (eds.): Judentum und Aufklärung: Jüdisches Selbstverständnis in der bürgerlichen Öffentlichkeit, Göttingen 2002, pp. 119–149.
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Notes
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
^
See Sylvie-Anne Goldberg's works, especially La Clepsydre 2000.
Cf. Zürn, Die jüdische Gemeinde 2002.
^
Cf. Wolff, Medizinische Kompetenz 2002.
^
Cf. Rohde, Synagogendiskussion 2002.
^
Sorkin, The Transformation 1987.
^
Cf. Delmaire, La Haskalah 1994, p. 152.
^
Cf. Schochat, Ursprung der jüdischen Aufklärung 2000.
^
In German speaking areas some Jews achieved the status of court Jews, or court factors. Although, as far as
chronology goes, they appear to be pioneers of the Jewish Enlightenment, their role should not be overestimated. Scholars agree that the majority of court Jews, especially in Southern Germany, generally had the effect
of stabilizing the tradition. It has become apparent that they came to the aid of their brothers in faith only occasionally, and then as mediators or as community leaders in the traditional manner of the Shtadlan, the institutionalized spokesman of Jews for Jews. Cf. Ries, Hofjuden als Vorreiter? 2002.
^
Cf. Katz, Aus dem Ghetto 1986 (Chapter 4, Die halbneutrale Gesellschaft).
^
Cf. Katz, Mendelssohns schwankendes Bild 1994, p. 350.
^
Cf. Lowenstein, The Social Dynamics 1994.
^
Dohm, Über die bürgerliche Verbesserung 1781/1783.
^
For France see Abbé Grégoire's (1750–1831) position in regard to this question.
^
The Swiss preacher Johann Caspar Lavater (1741–1801) publically challenged Mendelssohn either to refute
Christianity or to convert to Christianity.
^
Cf. Niewöhner, Mendelssohn als Philosoph 1994, p. 292.
^
Isaac Euchel, Reb Henoch 2004.
^
Lohmann, Interkulturalität als Strategie, without date.
^
Cf. Niewöhner, Mendelssohn als Philosoph 1994, p. 299.
^
The fifth volume of the series Jüdische Bildungsgeschichte in Deutschland (Behm, Jüdische Aufklärung 2002)
demonstrates convincingly the importance of the role of the collective in this area.
^
To see which social strata supported Mendelssohn one only has to examine the subscriptions for the publication of his translation of the Bible. Cf. Lowenstein, The Social Dynamics 1994, p. 340.
^
Adolph Jellinek (1821–1893) and Moritz Gudemann (1835–1918) developed the Austrian branch of the Wissenschaft des Judentums.
^
On this topic, see Mosse, Jewish Emancipation 1985, and Bourel, Juifs d' Allemagne 1994, pp. 178f.
^
See the research and reflections presented in the project "Makom. Ort und Orte im Judentum" of the University of Potsdam. Online: http://www.geisteswissenschaften.fu-berlin.de/we03/forschung/forschungsprojekte
/makom/index.html [18.04.2012].
^
Cf. Bourel, Juifs d' Allemagne 1994, p. 179.
^
On this topic, see Lowenstein, The Social Dynamics 1994, pp. 343–344; Bourel, Juifs d' Allemagne 1994, p.
182.
^
Cf. Hertz, Die jüdischen Salons 1991.
^
See the instructive example of Salomon Maimon, a skilled Kantian and an exceptional Talmudist, whose uncultivated Eastern Jewish manners seem to have met with disfavour in the Berlin salons.
^
According to Jacob Katz, however, Hungary was an exception as it skipped the phase of Enlightenment and,
with the beginning of modernisation, entered directly in the age of reform and the resulting Orthodox opposition.
Cf. Katz, Mendelssohns schwankendes Bild 1994, p. 359.
^
Cf. ibidem, p. 358.
^
Cf. Baumgarten, Naissance du hassidisme 2006, p. 171.
^
On this complex issue, see Chapter 3, "Mitnaggedim, Maskilim et Hassidim ou l'enfantement du judaïsme moderne", in: Baumgarten, Naissance du hassidisme 2006, pp. 107–202.
^
Numerous examples and counter examples are given in Baumgarten, Naissance du hassidisme 2006, pp.
134–136, and Wodzi ski, O wiecenie ydowskie 2003, pp. 139–145.
^
Cf. Baumgarten, Naissance du hassidisme 2006, p. 158.
^
Cf. Wodzi ski, O wiecenie ydowskie 2003, pp. 121–127.
^
Cf. Baumgarten, Naissance du hassidisme 2006, p. 163.
^
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
^
ibidem, pp. 167–168.
See Bergman, Autobiography 1954, pp. 166–179.
^
Cf. Baumgarten, Naissance du hassidisme 2006, p. 183.
^
ibidem, p. 174f.
^
Cf. Baumgarten, traduction de la Bible 1986, pp. 244–252.
^
Shmeruk, Tsvishn khasides un haskole 1988, p. 291.
^
Krochmal, Moreh nevukhei ha-zeman 1851.
^
Cf. Zunz, Gesammelte Schriften 1976.
^
Cf. Baumgarten, Les études juives 1994, pp. 385–386.
^
Perl, Über das Wesen 1977.
^
idem, Revealer of Secrets 1997.
^
For this issue, see Delmaire, La Haskalah 1994, pp. 164–166.
^
Cf. Wodzi ski, O wiecenie ydowskie 2003, pp. 162–166.
^
For Congress Poland, see ibidem, pp. 168–172.
^
Cf. Barzilay, Smolenskin's Polemic 1986, pp. 11–48.
^
Cf. Katz, Mendelssohns schwankendes Bild 1994, p. 362.
^
This text is licensed under: CC by-nc-nd - Attribution, Noncommercial, No Derivative Works
Translated by: William Petropulos
Editor: Matthias Morgenstern
Copy Editor: Lisa Landes
Indices
DDC: 296
Locations
Amsterdam DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4001783-7)
Austria DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4043271-3)
Berlin DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4005728-8)
Bordeaux DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4088072-2)
Brody DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4368821-4)
Central Europe DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4039677-0)
Dessau DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4011536-7)
Eastern Europe DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4075739-0)
Europe DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4015701-5)
France DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4018145-5)
Galicia DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4019119-9)
German Empire DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/2008993-4)
Göttingen DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4021477-1)
Hamburg DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4023118-5)
Holy Roman Empire DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/2035457-5)
Königsberg DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4031535-6)
Lithuania DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4074266-0)
Livorno DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4114431-4)
Lombardy–Venetia DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4215793-6)
London DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4074335-4)
Lviv DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4035304-7)
Odessa DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4043115-0)
Poland DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4046496-9)
Prussia DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4047194-9)
Riga DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4050042-1)
Russia DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4076899-5)
Tarnopol DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4119565-6)
Ukraine DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4061496-7)
Vienna DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4066009-6)
Vilnius DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4066228-7)
Volhynia DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4079380-1)
Western Europe DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4079215-8)
Westphalia DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4065783-8)
Wroclaw DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4008216-7)
Zamosc DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/4248619-1)
Citation
Schumacher-Brunhes, Marie: Enlightenment Jewish Style: The Haskalah Movement in Europe, in: European History
Online (EGO), published by the Leibniz Institute of European History (IEG), Mainz 2012-04-19. URL: http://www.iegego.eu/schumacherbrunhesm-2010-en URN: urn:nbn:de:0159-2012041908 [YYYY-MM-DD].
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WorldCat (http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/793089703)
Link #ab
Hasidism (http://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-denominational-spaces/yeshayahu-balogmatthias-morgenstern-hasidism)
Link #ac
Elijah ben Shlomo (1720–1797) VIAF
/gnd/119183706)
(http://viaf.org/viaf/14928390) DNB
(http://d-nb.info
Link #ad
Moses Mendelssohn (1729–1786) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/19681378) DNB (http://d-nb.info
/gnd/118580744) ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118580744.html)
(http://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/moses-mendelssohn-172920131786?mediainfo=1&
amp;width=900&height=500)
Moses Mendelssohn (1729–1786)
Link #ae
Judenemanzipation (http://www.ieg-ego.eu/de/threads/europaeische-netzwerke/juedische-netzwerke/friedrichbattenberg-judenemanzipation-im-18-und-19-jahrhundert)
Link #af
Ashkenazi Jews (http://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration/ashkenazi-jews-inearly-modern-europe/predrag-bukovec-ashkenazi-jews-in-early-modern-europe)
Link #ag
Industrialization (http://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/backgrounds/industrialization/richard-h-tilly-industrializationas-an-historical-process)
Link #aj
Frederick II of Prussia (1712–1786) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/12303200) DNB (http://d-nb.info
/gnd/118535749) ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118535749.html)
Link #ak
Daniel Itzig (1723–1799) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/13079120) DNB
ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd117212822.html)
(http://d-nb.info/gnd/117212822)
Link #al
Veitel Heine Ephraim (1703–1775) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/80346240) DNB (http://d-nb.info
/gnd/135910331) ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd135910331.html)
Link #am
Moses Isaac-Fliess (1708–1776) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/80580993) DNB (http://d-nb.info
/gnd/136194168) ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd136194168.html)
Link #an
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729–1781) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/9849550) DNB (http://d-nb.info
/gnd/118572121) ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118572121.html)
Link #ao
Christian Konrad Wilhelm von Dohm (1751–1820) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/12319604) DNB
nb.info/gnd/118680145) ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118680145.html)
(http://d-
(http://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/christian-wilhelm-von-dohm-175120131820-en?mediainfo=1&width=900&height=500)
Christian Wilhelm von Dohm (1751–1820)
Link #aq
Emperor Joseph II (1741–1790) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/39386414) DNB (http://d-nb.info
/gnd/118558404) ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118558404.html)
Link #ar
Emperor Francis II (1768–1835) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/36912131) DNB (http://d-nb.info
/gnd/118534955) ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118534955.html)
Link #as
Johann David Michaelis (1717–1791) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/40220) DNB (http://d-nb.info
/gnd/118783726) ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118783726.html)
Link #at
Johann Georg Hamann (1730–1788) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/69006033) DNB (http://d-nb.info
/gnd/11854523X) ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd11854523X.html)
Link #au
Isaac Euchel (1756–1804) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/34692870) DNB
ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd122891961.html)
Link #av
Aaron Wolffsohn (1754–1835) VIAF
Link #aw
(http://viaf.org/viaf/38903996)
(http://d-nb.info/gnd/122891961)
Moses Maimonides (1138–1204) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/100185495) DNB (http://d-nb.info
/gnd/118576488) ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118576488.html)
Link #ax
David Friedländer (1750–1834) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/59128359) DNB (http://d-nb.info
/gnd/119463288) ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd119463288.html)
Link #ay
Saul Ascher (1767–1822) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/42631382) DNB
ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118646052.html)
(http://d-nb.info/gnd/118646052)
Link #az
Lazarus Bendavid (1762–1832) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/9889707) DNB (http://d-nb.info
/gnd/116117818) ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd116117818.html)
Link #b0
Isaac Daniel Itzig (1750–1806) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/80627846) DNB (http://d-nb.info
/gnd/136249930) ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd136249930.html)
Link #b1
Naphtali Herz (Hartwig) Wessely (1725–1805) VIAF
/gnd/119178583)
(http://viaf.org/viaf/2605610) DNB
Link #b2
Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock (1724–1803) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/44312220) DNB
/gnd/118563386) ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118563386.html)
(http://d-nb.info
(http://d-nb.info
Link #b3
David Fränkel (1779–1865) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/102605103) DNB (http://d-nb.info
/gnd/139754105) ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd139754105.html)
Link #b4
Joseph Wolf (1762–1826) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/12704813) DNB
(http://d-nb.info/gnd/137818580)
Link #b5
(http://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/david-friedlaender-175020131834-en?mediainfo=1&
amp;width=900&height=500)
David Friedländer (1750–1834)
Link #b7
Zionism before 1914 (http://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/transnational-movements-and-organisations/international-organisations-and-congresses/kerstin-armborst-weihs-the-formation-of-the-jewish-national-movementthrough-transnational-exchange-zionism-in-europe-up-to-the-first-world-war-1914)
Link #b8
Wilhelm Abraham Teller (1734–1804) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/76752989) DNB (http://d-nb.info
/gnd/104359676) ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd104359676.html)
Link #b9
Leopold Zunz (1794–1886) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/29659597) DNB
ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118773275.html)
Link #ba
Zacharias Frankel (1801–1875) VIAF
(http://d-nb.info/gnd/118773275)
(http://viaf.org/viaf/20438799) DNB
(http://d-nb.info
/gnd/116715804) ADB/NDB
(http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd116715804.html)
Link #bb
Salomon Maimon (1753–1800) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/68940347) DNB (http://d-nb.info
/gnd/11857647X) ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd11857647X.html)
Link #bc
Mendl Lefin Satanover (1749–1826) VIAF
Link #bd
Solomon Dubno (1738–1813) VIAF
/gnd/133874206)
(http://viaf.org/viaf/4726594)
(http://viaf.org/viaf/75054201) DNB
(http://d-nb.info
Link #be
East and South-East European Jews (http://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/jewish-migration
/predrag-bukovec-east-and-south-east-european-jews-in-the-19th-and-20th-centuries)
Link #bf
Alexander Tsederbaum (1816–1893) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/2040151)
(http://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/alexander-tsederbaum-181620131893?mediainfo=1&
amp;width=900&height=500)
Alexander Tsederbaum (1816–1893)
Link #bg
Israel Aksenfeld (1787–1866) VIAF
/gnd/133662985)
(http://viaf.org/viaf/52883848) DNB
Link #bh
Isaac Joel Linetzky (1839–1915) VIAF
/gnd/134066782)
Link #bi
Abraham Ber Gottlober (1811–1899) VIAF
/gnd/118947850)
Link #bj
Joseph Perl (1773–1839) VIAF
(http://d-nb.info
(http://viaf.org/viaf/28280088) DNB
(http://d-nb.info
(http://viaf.org/viaf/62348054) DNB
(http://viaf.org/viaf/22945141) DNB
(http://d-nb.info
(http://d-nb.info/gnd/119163357)
(http://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/joseph-perl-177320131839-en?mediainfo=1&
amp;width=900&height=500)
Joseph Perl (1773–1839)
Link #bk
Nahman of Bratslav (1772–1810) VIAF
/gnd/119278227)
Link #bl
(http://viaf.org/viaf/82228511) DNB
(http://d-nb.info
(http://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/karten-der-teilungen-polens?mediainfo=1&
amp;width=900&height=500)
Maps of the three partitions of Poland in the 18th century
Link #bm
Herz Homberg (1749–1841) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/52893856) DNB
ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd134020626.html)
Link #bn
Nachman Krochmal (1785–1840) VIAF
(http://d-nb.info/gnd/134020626)
(http://viaf.org/viaf/121011506)
Link #bo
Solomon Judah Leib Rapoport (known under the acronym "Shir", 1790–1867) VIAF
(http://viaf.org
/viaf/40127266) DNB (http://d-nb.info/gnd/116330716) ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de
/pnd116330716.html)
Link #bp
Yehuda Leib Mieses (1798–1831) VIAF
Link #bq
Samson Bloch (1782–1845) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/41742041)
(http://viaf.org/viaf/58973827)
Link #br
Joshua Heschel Schorr (1814–1895) VIAF
Link #bs
Zevi Hirsch Chajes (1805–1855) VIAF
/gnd/132141191)
Link #bt
Isaac Erter (1792–1851) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/69350064)
(http://viaf.org/viaf/15923021) DNB
(http://d-nb.info
(http://viaf.org/viaf/81108951)
Link #bu
Meir Letteris (1807–1871) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/3235628) DNB
ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd116956267.html)
(http://d-nb.info/gnd/116956267)
Link #bv
Antisemitism (http://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/transnational-movements-and-organisations/international-socialmovements/samuel-salzborn-antisemitism)
Link #bw
Aaron Mordecai Guenzburg (1795–1846) VIAF
/gnd/139266569)
(http://viaf.org/viaf/65661259) DNB
(http://d-nb.info
Link #bx
Nicholas I of Russia (1796–1855) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/54414260) DNB (http://d-nb.info
/gnd/118588079) ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118588079.html)
Link #by
Isaac Baer Levinsohn (1788–1860) VIAF
/gnd/124943764)
(http://viaf.org/viaf/19906005) DNB
(http://d-nb.info
(http://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/isaac-baer-levinsohn-178820131860?mediainfo=1&
amp;width=900&height=500)
Isaac Baer Levinsohn (1788–1860)
Link #bz
(http://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/the-gaon-of-vilnius-rabbi-elijah-ben-shlomo-zalman172020131797?mediainfo=1&width=900&height=500)
The Gaon of Vilnius (Rabbi Elijah ben Shlomo Zalman; 1720–1797)
Link #c0
Kalman Schulman (1819–1899) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/38566911)
Link #c1
Abraham Dov Lebensohn ("Adam Ha-Cohen", 1794–1878) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/17457225)
Link #c2
Micah Joseph Lebensohn (known under the acronym "Mikhal", 1828–1852) VIAF
/viaf/73714746)
Link #c3
Judah Leib Gordon (acronym: "Yalag", 1830–1892) VIAF
nb.info/gnd/128775114)
Link #c4
Abraham Mapu (1808–1867) VIAF
/gnd/123119235)
(http://viaf.org/viaf/51697870) DNB
(http://viaf.org/viaf/12439664) DNB
Link #c5
Mendele Moykher Sforim (1836–1917) VIAF
/gnd/119010054)
(http://viaf.org
(http://d-nb.info
(http://viaf.org/viaf/56947970) DNB
Link #c6
Max Lilienthal (1815–1882) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/15534674) DNB
ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd117006157.html)
(http://d-
(http://d-nb.info
(http://d-nb.info/gnd/117006157)
(http://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/max-lilienthal-181520131882-en?mediainfo=1&
amp;width=900&height=500)
Max Lilienthal (1815–1882)
Link #c7
Sergei Uvarov (1785–1855) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/41974057) DNB
(http://d-nb.info/gnd/120180502)
Link #c8
Alexander II of Russia (1818–1881) VIAF
(http://viaf.org/viaf/51698037) DNB (http://d-nb.info
/gnd/118501860) ADB/NDB (http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118501860.html)
Link #c9
Peretz Ben Mosheh Smolenskin (1842–1885) VIAF
nb.info/gnd/124433758)
(http://viaf.org/viaf/42066996) DNB
(http://d-
(http://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/peretz-ben-mosheh-smolenskin-184220131885?mediainfo=1&width=900&height=500)
Peretz Ben Mosheh Smolenskin (1842–1885)
http://www.ieg-ego.eu ISSN 2192-7405