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Transcript
Chapter 7 Packet-Switching Networks Network Services and Internal Network Operation Packet Network Topology Datagrams and Virtual Circuits Routing in Packet Networks Shortest Path Routing Chapter 7 Packet-Switching Networks Network Services and Internal Network Operation 1 Network Layer z Network Layer: the most complex layer z z Requires the coordinated actions of multiple, geographically distributed network elements (switches & routers) Must be able to deal with very large scales z z Billions of users (people & communicating devices) Biggest Challenges z z Addressing: where should information be directed to? Routing: what path should be used to get information there? Packet Switching Block Network Stream z z z Transfer of information as payload in data packets Packets undergo random delays & possible loss Different applications impose differing requirements on the transfer of information 2 Network Service Messages Messages Segments Transport layer Transport layer Network service Network service End system α z z z Network layer Network layer Network layer Network layer Data link layer Data link layer Data link layer Data link layer Physical layer Physical layer Physical layer Physical layer End system β Network layer can offer a variety of services to transport layer Connection-oriented service or connectionless service Best-effort or delay/loss guarantees Network Service vs. Operation Network Service z Connectionless z z Datagram Transfer Internal Network Operation z Connectionless Connection-Oriented z Reliable and possibly constant bit rate transfer z z IP Connection-Oriented z z Telephone connection ATM Various combinations are possible z Connection-oriented service over Connectionless operation z Connectionless service over Connection-Oriented operation z Context & requirements determine what makes sense 3 Complexity at the Edge or in the Core? C 12 1 End system α 4 3 21 12 3 1 2 21 2 3 2 21 1 1 Medium A 12 3 B 2 1 Network 1 Physical layer entity Data link layer entity 2 3 2 Network layer entity 1 2 21 End system β 123 4 3 Network layer entity 4 Transport layer entity The End-to-End Argument for System Design z An end-to-end function is best implemented at a higher level than at a lower level z z z End-to-end service requires all intermediate components to work properly Higher-level better positioned to ensure correct operation Example: stream transfer service z z Establishing an explicit connection for each stream across network requires all network elements (NEs) to be aware of connection; All NEs have to be involved in reestablishment of connections in case of network fault In connectionless network operation, NEs do not deal with each explicit connection and hence are much simpler in design 4 Network Layer Functions Essential z Routing: mechanisms for determining the set of best paths for routing packets requires the collaboration of network elements z Forwarding: transfer of packets from NE inputs to outputs z Priority & Scheduling: determining order of packet transmission in each NE Optional: congestion control, segmentation & reassembly, security Chapter 7 Packet-Switching Networks Packet Network Topology 5 End-to-End Packet Network z z Packet networks very different than telephone networks Individual packet streams are highly bursty z z User demand can undergo dramatic change z z Statistical multiplexing is used to concentrate streams Peer-to-peer applications stimulated huge growth in traffic volumes Internet structure highly decentralized z z Paths traversed by packets can go through many networks controlled by different organizations No single entity responsible for end-to-end service Access Multiplexing Access MUX To packet network z z z Packet traffic from users multiplexed at access to network into aggregated streams DSL traffic multiplexed at DSL Access Mux Cable modem traffic multiplexed at Cable Modem Termination System 6 Oversubscription z r r Access Multiplexer ••• ••• z r Nr z nc z z Nc z N subscribers connected @ c bps to mux Each subscriber active r/c of time Mux has C=nc bps to network Oversubscription rate: N/n Find n so that at most 1% overflow probability Feasible oversubscription rate increases with size N r/c n N/n 10 0.01 1 10 10 extremely lightly loaded users 10 0.05 3 3.3 10 very lightly loaded user 10 0.1 4 2.5 10 lightly loaded users 20 0.1 6 3.3 20 lightly loaded users 40 0.1 9 4.4 40 lightly loaded users 100 0.1 18 5.5 100 lightly loaded users Home LANs WiFi Ethernet Home Router To packet network z Home Router z z z LAN Access using Ethernet or WiFi (IEEE 802.11) Private IP addresses in Home (192.168.0.x) using Network Address Translation (NAT) Single global IP address from ISP issued using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) 7 LAN Concentration Switch / Router z z z z z z z z z z z z z LAN Hubs and switches in the access network also aggregate packet streams that flows into switches and routers Servers have redundant connectivity to backbone Campus Network Organization Servers To Internet or wide area network s Gateway Backbone s R R R S R Departmental Server S S R R s s High-speed Only outgoing campus leave packets backbone net LAN through connects dept router routers s s s s s s s 8 Connecting to Internet Service Provider Internet service provider Border routers Campus Network Border routers Interdomain level Autonomous system or domain Intradomain level s LAN s s network administered by single organization Internet Backbone National Service Provider A National Service Provider B NAP NAP National Service Provider C z z Private peering Network Access Points: set up during original commercialization of Internet to facilitate exchange of traffic Private Peering Points: two-party inter-ISP agreements to exchange traffic 9 National Service Provider A (a) National Service Provider B NAP NAP National Service Provider C (b) NAP Private peering RA Route Server RB LAN RC Key Role of Routing How to get packet from here to there? z Decentralized nature of Internet makes routing a major challenge z z z z Interior gateway protocols (IGPs) are used to determine routes within a domain Exterior gateway protocols (EGPs) are used to determine routes across domains Routes must be consistent & produce stable flows Scalability required to accommodate growth z Hierarchical structure of IP addresses essential to keeping size of routing tables manageable 10 Chapter 7 Packet-Switching Networks Datagrams and Virtual Circuits The Switching Function z z z Dynamic interconnection of inputs to outputs Enables dynamic sharing of transmission resource Two fundamental approaches: z z Connectionless Connection-Oriented: Call setup control, Connection control Backbone Network Switch Access Network 11 Packet Switching Network User Transmission line Network Packet switch Packet switching network z Transfers packets between users z Transmission lines + packet switches (routers) z Origin in message switching Two modes of operation: z Connectionless z Virtual Circuit Message Switching z Message z Message Message z Source Message Switches Destination z z Message switching invented for telegraphy Entire messages multiplexed onto shared lines, stored & forwarded Headers for source & destination addresses Routing at message switches Connectionless 12 Message Switching Delay Source T t Switch 1 t τ Switch 2 t t Destination Delay Minimum delay = 3τ + 3T Additional queueing delays possible at each link Long Messages vs. Packets 1 Mbit message source BER=p=10-6 dest BER=10-6 How many bits need to be transmitted to deliver message? z z Approach 1: send 1 Mbit message Probability message arrives correctly −6 Pc = (1 − 10 −6 )10 ≈ e −10 10 = e −1 ≈ 1 / 3 6 z z 6 On average it takes about 3 transmissions/hop Total # bits transmitted ≈ 6 Mbits z z Approach 2: send 10 100-kbit packets Probability packet arrives correctly −6 Pc′ = (1 − 10 −6 )10 ≈ e −10 10 = e −0.1 ≈ 0.9 5 z z 5 On average it takes about 1.1 transmissions/hop Total # bits transmitted ≈ 2.2 Mbits 13 Packet Switching - Datagram z z z z z z Messages broken into smaller units (packets) Source & destination addresses in packet header Connectionless, packets routed independently (datagram) Packet may arrive out of order Pipelining of packets across network can reduce delay, increase throughput Lower delay that message switching, suitable for interactive traffic Packet 1 Packet 1 Packet 2 Packet 2 Packet 2 Packet Switching Delay Assume three packets corresponding to one message traverse same path t 1 3 2 t 1 2 3 t 1 2 3 t Delay Minimum Delay = 3τ + 5(T/3) (single path assumed) Additional queueing delays possible at each link Packet pipelining enables message to arrive sooner 14 Delay for k-Packet Message over L Hops t 1 3 2 t 1 3 2 t 1 2 3 t L hops 3 hops 3τ + 2(T/3) first bit received Lτ + (L-1)P first bit received 3τ + 3(T/3) first bit released Lτ + LP first bit released 3τ + 5 (T/3) last bit released Lτ + LP + (k-1)P last bit released where T = k P Routing Tables in Datagram Networks Destination address Output port 0785 7 1345 12 1566 6 z z z z 2458 12 Route determined by table lookup Routing decision involves finding next hop in route to given destination Routing table has an entry for each destination specifying output port that leads to next hop Size of table becomes impractical for very large number of destinations 15 Example: Internet Routing z Internet protocol uses datagram packet switching across networks z z Hosts have two-port IP address: z z Networks are treated as data links Network address + Host address Routers do table lookup on network address z This reduces size of routing table Packet Switching – Virtual Circuit Packet Packet Packet Packet Virtual circuit z z z z z z Call set-up phase sets ups pointers in fixed path along network All packets for a connection follow the same path Abbreviated header identifies connection on each link Packets queue for transmission Variable bit rates possible, negotiated during call set-up Delays variable, cannot be less than circuit switching 16 Connection Setup Connect request Connect confirm z z z z z Connect request SW 1 SW 2 Connect confirm SW n … Connect request Connect confirm Signaling messages propagate as route is selected Signaling messages identify connection and setup tables in switches Typically a connection is identified by a local tag, Virtual Circuit Identifier (VCI) Each switch only needs to know how to relate an incoming tag in one input to an outgoing tag in the corresponding output Once tables are setup, packets can flow along path Connection Setup Delay t Connect request CC CR CC CR z z z Connect confirm 1 2 3 1 2 Release 3 t t 1 2 3 t Connection setup delay is incurred before any packet can be transferred Delay is acceptable for sustained transfer of large number of packets This delay may be unacceptably high if only a few packets are being transferred 17 Virtual Circuit Forwarding Tables Input VCI Output port Output VCI z 12 13 44 z 15 15 23 27 13 16 Each input port of packet switch has a forwarding table Lookup entry for VCI of incoming packet Determine output port (next hop) and insert VCI for next link Very high speeds are possible Table can also include priority or other information about how packet should be treated z z z 58 7 34 Cut-Through switching Source t Switch 1 2 1 3 t Switch 2 2 1 3 t 1 Destination z z 2 3 t Minimum delay = 3τ + T Some networks perform error checking on header only, so packet can be forwarded as soon as header is received & processed Delays reduced further with cut-through switching 18 Message vs. Packet Minimum Delay z z z Message: Lτ + LT = L τ + (L – 1) T + T Packet L τ + L P + (k – 1) P = L τ + (L – 1) P + T Cut-Through Packet (Immediate forwarding after header) = Lτ+ T Above neglect header processing delays Chapter 7 Packet-Switching Networks Datagrams and Virtual Circuits Structure of a Packet Switch 19