Download APChapter-29-Revolutions-and-National-States

Traditions & Encounters Notes
Chapter 29 – Revolutions and National States in the Atlantic World
Intro
 Enlightenment ideas - freedom and equality
 series of revolutions in 18th and early 19th centuries brought huge social and political changes in Europe and
Americas
o broke out first in America, then France, then spread through Europe and Latin America
o by 1830’s – gov’ts changed all over Europe and Americas
 two results of global significance:
o first, helped spread ideas of freedom, equality and popular sovereignty
 leaders said that authority came from the people
 created republican forms of gov’t – select delegates to represent you.
 it was just for a privileged group of white men
 but the way they worded their requests led other groups to seek enfranchisement
 by mid-20th cent. almost every state in the world recognized freedom and equality of all citizens
 also claimed to rule on basis of popular sovereignty
o second, encouraged consolidation of national states as principal form of political organization
 defended states from enemies and sometimes attack foreign countries – so developed sense of
identify with their compatriots
 then began to work towards building states that would advance their interests
 nationalist sentiment created problems for multicultural empires around the world
 had several nationalities within their own borders
 efforts to create states for these people became one of the more powerful movements in world
history.
Popular Sovereignty and Political Upheaval
 revolutionaries wanted to create gov’t that were responsible to the needs and interest of the people.
 attacked monarchical and aristocratic regimes
 wanted _____________________________________ – idea that authority rests not in the kings but in the people
 America declared independence from GB – new gov’t based on PS
 then FR abolished monarchy and redid their social order
o could not create stable alternative to the king
o had turmoil for over 20 years
o then Napoleon brought military rule
Enlightened and Revolutionary Ideas
 in history, kings or emperors ruled almost all settled ag. societies
 small societies did try democratic gov’t (all citizens participate in gov’t) or republican gov’t (elect delegates to
represent)
o some had aristocratic gov’t – elites controlled the gov’t
o but rule by king was most common
o to justify their rule, often identified themselves with gods or claimed divine sanction
 some rulers were priests – others cooperated closely with religious leaders
 17th and 18th – Enlightenment leaders began to question monarchies
o did not often challenge kings rule – just wanted to make them more responsible to the people
o believed gov’t was a contract b/w rulers and ruled
 __________________________ – Second Treatise of Civil Government – 1690
o said that gov’t comes when people work together, form civil society, and appoint rulers to protect and
promote their common interests
o they keep the rights to life, liberty and property
o any ruler who violated that could be overthrown
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also, because the people voluntarily formed societies and est. gov’ts, the ruler got their authority from
the consent of those the governed
___________________________ – disliked the persecution of religious minorities and censorship of royal officials
Philosophes wanted religious toleration and freedom of expression
o often would take their books to other countries to have them published then smuggle them back into
France
o also called for equality
o condemned legal and social privileges of the aristocrats – they believed had not committed more to
society than anyone else.
o wanted a society where all were equal before the law
most prominent advocate of this was FR-Swiss, Rousseau – identified with working people
o resented the elite class
o wrote The Social Contract – said that all members of a society were collectively the sovereign
o ideal society, all people would make the policy and create the laws
all this showed the interest of educated and talented men who wanted to enhance their place in society
o most thinkers were commoners, but of well means
o they didn’t see a society where they would share rights with women, children, peasants, laborers,
slaves, people of color, etc.
even so, this was a huge challenge to traditional gov’t and social order
revolutionary leaders adopted these Enlightenment idea to justify their efforts to change gov’t and society
o ideals did not spread naturally or inevitably.
o spread when revolutionaries claimed and fought for rights
The American Revolution
 Britain oversees 13 colonies in North America
 Colonists viewed themselves as British subjects
 Trade = Prosperity / wealth - British military protects colonists (own interests)
 Britain wages a costly conflict with France - contest for imperial supremacy
 1754-1763: French and Indian War in North America
 1756-1763: ___________________________________ in Europe and India
 Britain wins the war - dominates global trade
 Following the war, Britain levied new taxes on the colonists to help pay for the war
- Sugar Act (1764) - tax on molasses
- Stamp Act (1765) - tax on paper documents
- Townsend Act (1767) - on imported items
- Tea Act (1773) - on tea
- Quartering Act (1765) - provide housing for British troops
 The American colonists resented the taxation imposed by imperial rule. Why ?
- Claimed monarchs cannot govern without Parliament's consent
- Since colonists had no representation in Parliament...the tax was unfair
- Slogan "no taxation without representation"
 Tensions increased
- Boston Tea Party - colonists dumped cargo of tea in harbor in protest
- Continental Congress meet to discuss options
- Military clashes in Lexington ignite the war of American independence
 July 4, 1776, Continental Congress adapts the Declaration of Independence
- presented a long list of abuses by the British crown
- asserts "all men are created equal"...and have rights including "Life, Liberty, and
the pursuit of happiness."
- proclaimed the colonies were "Free and independent States"
- inspired by the Enlightenment
- reflected John Locke's contractual theory of government; that when government
becomes a tyrant, people have the right to abolish it
 British Advantages:
- Powerful navy and army
- American colonists were divided - 20% were allegiant to Britain
 Colonial Advantages:
- Britain forced to fight a long distance war (long supply lines)
- Military and economic support from France, Spain, & Netherlands
- Strong military leadership from colonial general George Washington.
 A war of attrition results
 American & French forces surround British forces in 1781. Britain surrenders
 _____________________________ (1783) officially ends the war
The French Revolution
 FR was way more radical than the American revolution
 US kept much of GB law and social and cultural heritage
 FR – wanted to change society – the ancient regime “the old order” and replace it with new structure
 money problems put FR on road to revolution
 1780’s – ½ of gov’t money went to pay war debt – some form helping the US
 ¼ went to pay army
 Louis XVI couldn’t raise more money from the already overtaxed peasants – so wanted to increase taxes on the
nobility (had been exempt from most taxes)
 nobility protested – then they forced Louis to summon the _________________________
o 1st estate – 100,000 Catholic clergy
o 2nd estate – 400,000 nobles
o 3rd estate – 24 million serfs, peasants, urban people, artisans, bankers, etc.
o founded in 1303 – had not met since 1614
o 3rd estate had as many delegates as the other two combined
 not an advantage because voting took place by estate – one vote for each
 May 1789 – Louis called into session at Versailles – hoping for new taxes
o never controlled the assembly
 members of the 3rd estate arrived demanding political and social reform
 most 1 & 2 estates kept this from happening
 June 17, 1789 – after weeks of debate, 3rd estate seceded and called themselves the National Assembly
o met at an indoor tennis court – said they wouldn’t disband until they had written a new constitution
 June 14, 1789 – crowd stormed the Bastille looking for weapons – wanted to keep king from overturning events of
the 3rd estate
o garrison mostly was killed by the mob
 news spread – mobs began rioting all over France
 now National Assembly had popular support
o wrote Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen
 influenced by the US Declaration
 equality of all men – sovereignty resided in the people – liberty, property and security
 1789-1791 – altered FR society
o goal of “liberty, equality and fraternity”
o abolished old social order along with fees and labor services the peasants owed landlords
o greatly changed the role of the church in society
o took lands, abolished first estate, made clergy civilians, had to take loyalty to the state oath
o made a constitution that made the king the chief executive, but kept him from legislative authority
o became a constitutional monarchy in which men of property had the right to vote in elections to choose
legislators
 then the revolution took a radical turn
o nobility tried to use influence in foreign countries to support the king and restore the ancient regime
 the Assembly even declared war against Austria and Prussia in 1792
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o then next year, war on SP, GB and NETH
fearing loss and counterrevolution, they created the Convention
o legislative group elected by universal manhood suffrage
o they abolished the monarchy – made FR a republic
o instituted the levee en masse – universal conscription
o drafted people and resources for use in war
o rooted out enemies at home
o used the guillotine
o 1793 – Louis XVI and Marie – Convention found them guilty of treason
 king had been reluctant to approve constitution , opposed anticlerical legislation – also had fled
from Paris
 Marie was unpopular – Austrian, extravagant, influence over Louis
revolution peaked in 1793-1794 – Maximilien Robespierre and radical ______________ party dominated the
Convention
o he dominated the Comm. of Public Safety – which was the executive authority of the Republic
o Jacobins believed FR needed restructuring
o campaign of terror
o limit influence of Church – closed churches, forced priests to take wives
o reorganized calendar so there were no days of religious observances
inauguration of new era – the First Republic – the Year I – began on Sept. 22, 1792
o people were addressed as “citizen”
o wanted them to wear working class clothes
o gave women right to inherit property and divorce
o not allow them to vote or be in politics
o used the guillotine – 93-94 – they executed 40,000 and imprisoned another 300,000
o many were even fellow radicals who fell out of favor
o this made it very unstable
o July 1794 – Convention arrested Robespierre and allies – convicted of tyranny and killed
group of conservatives seized power – created the _________________________
o weren’t nearly as violent
o couldn’t solve all the problems of France
o couldn’t find a middle path that would make everyone happy
o faced many challenges from people who wanted power
o ended in Nov. 1799 when Napoleon came to power.
Napoleon
 minor noble family born on Corsica – Med isle annexed by FR
 studied at FR military schools
 officer in army of Louis XVI
 was general by 24
 supporter of revolution – defender of the Directory
 drove the Austrian army out of northern Italy – est. FR rule
 invaded Egypt in 1798 to get access to Red Sea and Threaten GB control of sea route to India – GB won
 back in FR in 1799 – joined the Directory
 AUS, RU, GB – coalition to attack FR and end revolution
 Nap overthrew Directory – new constitution – named himself first consul
 in 1802 – became ________________________ for life
 1804 – crowned himself emperor
 brought political stability
 made peace with Church
 1801 – agreement with pope called the Concordat – said FR would keep lands taken, but State would pay clerics’
salaries and recognize Roman Catholicism as preferred faith
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o also give freedom of religion to Protestants and Jews
o this got Nap a lot of support form the people
1804 – he created the Civil Code – revised body of civil law to help stabilize FR society
o political and legal equality of all adult men
o est. merit based society where people qualified for education and jobs because of talent rather than
standing.
o protected private property
allowed aristocrats to return and take back some of their property
took back a lot of the radical measures passed by the Convention
restored patriarchal authority
did not like the idea of intellectual freedom or representative gov’t
o limited free speech and censored newspapers
o est. secret police – used spies – detained suspected political opponents
o used propaganda to manipulate public opinion
o ignored elective bodies – used loyal military officers
o founded a dynasty that set family above and apart from the people
Napoleon was the greatest general of his time
o wanted to rule vast lands
o conquered the Iberian and Italian peninsula
o occupied the Netherlands
o defeated the Austrian and Prussian forces
 sent brothers and other relatives to rule in those lands
o forced AUS, PRU and RU to ally with him and respect his hegemony in Europe
o empire began to fall when he decided to invade Russia in 1812
 thought tsar was conspiring with GB
 led his Grand Army of 600,000 to Moscow
 captured the city, tsar withdrew, would not surrender
 Russians set city on fire – left Nap’s army without food and supplies
 ordered a retreat, but winter had seat in and destroyed his army
 about 30,000 made it back to FR
o this made his enemies stronger
o coalition of GB, AUS, PRU, and RU attacked FR
 forced Napoleon to abdicate in April of 1814
 restored monarchy
 Napoleon forced to Mediterranean island of Elba
 March 1815 – he escaped – returned to France – recreated army.
 100 days he ruled
 then GB army defeated him at the _________________________ in Belgium
 European powers then banished him to St. Helena in the South Atlantic
 died of natural causes in 1821
The Influence of Revolution
 ideas of the American and French revolutions inspired people in Europe and America
 slave in St. Dominique rose up – est. Haiti
 Euro-American leaders brought independence to Mex, Central America and South American countries
 encouraged social reformers to extend political and legal rights to women and slaves
 19th cent. – EUR, NA & SA abolished slavery
 freed slaves and families still oppressed
Haitian Revolution
 only successful slave revolt – Hispaniola
 center of sugar production – 100s of plantation
 Island of Hispaniola made up of two countries:
o Santo Domingo (east) – now called the Dominican Republic
o Saint-Dominique (west) – now called Haiti
 Very wealthy – sugar, coffee, cotton was almost 1/3 of FR trade
 Slaves outnumbered whites about 10 to 1
 Social ladder: planters, gens de couleur (farmers, artisans)
 Then slaves – mortality very high
 Had many maroons – own societies –attacked others for supplies
 Kept importing new slaves
 FR had supported American Revolution – sent gens de couleur as soldiers
o They came home with revolutionary ideas of political and legal rights
 When a voodoo priest was killed, it set of a riot of slaves killing whites
o Then gens de couleur killing slaves
 FR had to send army in 1792 to bring back order – GB and SP also tried to help
 Slave forces began to be led by Toussaint Louverture (he had helped his masters escape)
o By 1793 – he had organized a strong army – gained control of most of the country
o 1801 – wrote a constitution that gave equality & citizenship to all people
o didn’t declare independence – didn’t want to make Napoleon attack
o 1802 – Napoleon did send troops
o Toussaint tried to negotiate peace, but he was arrested and sent to FR – died in jail
o By that time, yellow fever had killed most of the FR army – Toussaint successors managed to defeat the
rest.
 1803 – Haiti declared independence
Wars of Independence in Latin America
 revolutionary ideas traveled to rest of LA
 governed by peninsulares, but had many creoles – 3.5 million
 then had 10 million lesser classes
 creoles resented being controlled by Spain and Portugal
o they really wanted to replace the peninsulares but keep their high place in society
o they looked to US as a model
 by 1825 – everyone except Cuba & Puerto Rico had independence
 their countries were Creole dominated republics
 Mexican Revolution
o Peasant rebellion led by priest, __________________________________________
 Led the mestizos and indigenous against colonial rule
 Many thought he was warring against the elites
 They captured and executed him.
o Rebellion continued
o Creole general Augustin de Iturbide declared independence from Spain in 1821 – declared himself
emperor
 He was incompetent – deposed by Creole elites in 1823
o They established a republic
o Two years later, southern regions declared independence
o They formed Central American Federation until 1838 – then split into Guatemala, El Salvador,
Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica
 South America – Creole elite – Simon Bolivar led the independence movement
o He was a zealous republican who believed in popular sovereignty
o Inspired by George Washington
o His army began their struggle in 1811
o Early days – went into exile several times.
o 1819 – assembled army that crushed the SP army in Colombia
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o later he went to Venezuela, Ecuador and Peru and helped their leaders with their movements.
Bolivar had wanted to make a great confederation of states like the US
Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador formed republic called Gran Colombia – tried to bring in Peru and Bolivia
o By 1830 – there were political and regional differences that ended the Confederation
Brazilian Independence
o when Napoleon invaded Portugal in 1807, the king and his court fled and established a government in
exile in Rio de Janiero
o 1821 – king returned to Portugal
o left son, Pedro in Brazil as regent
o 1822 – creoles called for independence and Pedro agreed
o he declared independence and became Emperor Pedro I
o they were a monarchy instead of republic
o creole elites dominated
results in Latin America
o most peninsulares returned to Europe
o new states gave military authority to local bullies known as __________________ – allied with the
Creole elite
o allowed slavery to continue
o confirmed wealth and authority of Roman Catholic church
o repressed the lower classes.
Emergence of Ideologies
 US and FR revolutions made political and social theorists develop the modern ideas of conservatism and liberalism
 Ideology is a vision of human nature, human society, & larger world that proposes some particular form of political
and social organization as ideal
 Ideologists try to design a political and social order appropriate for their communities
 Conservatism:
o Conservatives saw society as an organism that changed slowly over generation
o English political philosopher Edmund Burke believed society was a compact between people’s ancestors
and the present generation and future generations
 He condemned radical or revolutionary change – he thought it would lead to anarchy
 He approved of American rev because he thought it was a natural change to the historical
development of North American society
 He believed the FR revolution was too radical
 Liberalism:
o Liberals liked change – thought conservatism was an effort to justify status quo and a way to keep from
dealing with inequality and injustice
o Liberals believed change should come in the best interest of society
o They liked freedom and equality – believed it would lead to better morality and prosperity
o Liked republican forms of gov’t
o Wanted constitutions
o Many liberals during the 19th century believed democracy was dangerous because it believed in mass
participation
Testing the Limits of Revolutionary Ideals: Slavery
 Revolutionary ideas of freedom and equality began to extend to other areas – like slavery
 Freed slaves were some of the first to champion the cause of abolition
 By the 1780’s, European Christian moralists also began to show their opposition
 After the three major revolutions, the movement began to gather steam
 William Wilberforce, elected to the English Parliament worked for the cause of abolition of the slave trade
 After the Haitian Revolution, others began to join his call for abolition
 GB ended the slave trade in 1807
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GB then pressured other nations to abolish the slave trade
US in 1808, France in 1814, the Netherlands in 1817, and Spain in 1845
British navy tried to patrol the coast of Africa to keep slave trader ships away from Africa
Abolition of slavery itself was a little harder
Planters and wealthy merchants resisted the end of slavery because of the wealth they would lose
However, by ending the slave trade, that was the beginning of the end of slavery itself
Most Latin American nations ended slavery along with gaining their independence
The US ended slavery after the Civil War with the 13th amendment in 1865
Abolition brought legal freedom for Africans, but it did not bring equality
o Didn’t have very many rights
o Forced into segregation (separate public facilities for blacks and whites)
o Kept in low paying jobs
o Many were tenant farmers and sharecroppers
Testing the Limits of Revolutionary Ideals: Women’s Rights
 Women worked with men to end slavery, then worked on seeking their own equality
 Said that they had many of the same legal disabilities as slaves: not much access to education, no access to
professional jobs that required higher education (doctor, lawyer), could not vote
 Philosophes of the Enlightenment did not promote change for women, but social reformers used Enlightenment
idea to argue for women’s rights
 __________________________ – self educated – 1792 published essay called A Vindication of the Rights of Woman
o Said that women had the same rights that John Locke said men have
o She said education would make them better wives and mothers
o Would also help them contribute to society when prepared for professional occupations (jobs) and
activity in politics
 Women helped during the revolutions, but didn’t really gain many rights from them
 Elizabeth Cady Stanton (America) 1840 – went to antislavery convention in London and was denied entrance
because she was a woman
o She returned home to the US and helped launch the women’s rights movement
o She helped organize the Seneca Falls Convention – 1848 (first women’s rights convention)
 They passed 12 resolutions demanding the same rights that were enjoyed by men: voting,
public education, professional jobs, being in public affairs
 These early ladies of the movement didn’t have much success, but they laid the foundations for changes that would
come in the 20th century
Nations and Nationalism
 Enlightenment ideas helped inspire revolutions and revolutions helped spread Enlightenment ideas
 The French Revolution and Napoleon years also inspired nationalism
 Experiences during wartimes helped people think of themselves as distinct national communities
 Nation – type of community that became prominent in the 19th century
 Prior to this, people had associated themselves with clans, families, cities, religions, etc. but now members of a
nation
 Members of a nation have these things in common:
o Language
o Customs
o Traditions
o Values
o Historical experiences
o Most of the times – religion
 The nation must be the focus of political loyalty
 Leaders believe one should organize independent national states and pursue national interests
 Focused on appreciating the historical experiences they had to help bring pride to the nation and people
 Johan Gottfried von Herder – praised the German _________________ (people) for their language
o They were unique – valued literature
o They were the best example of the Volkgeist (popular soul, spirit or essence of their community)
 Eventually these nations would become more strict
 Leaders began demanding loyalty and solidarity from their people
 Giuseppe Mazzini formed Young Italy to promote Italian freedom from Austrian and Spanish rule and to start their
own Italian state
o He had to lead a lot of his life in exile
o So, he tried to encourage it in other lands like Ireland, Sweden, and Hungary
 Nationalism brought conflict between different groups (even minority groups within their own society)
 This helps explain the Zionist movement (movement to establish a free Jewish state called Palestine)
o Jews lived all over Europe – however, they were minorities everywhere
o People mistrusted them
o Many were victims of persecution and violence
o Millions migrated to other European lands and US
o When Alfred Dreyfus was convinced of spying for Germany, anti-Semitism (anti-Jew) hit its high point
 At his trial was a Jewish journalist named Theodor Herzl – he became convinced that the Jews
would never live in peace
 He decided to launch a movement to establish a state in Palestine (land of the Hebrew David
and Solomon)
 Migrants trickled in there for ½ a century
o They won the right to have a state in 1948 – called it Israel
o Resentful Muslim Palestinians were displaced
The Emergence of National Communities
 After the fall of Napoleon, conservative political leaders of Europe feared that nationalism would bring revolutions
to more countries
 At the _____________________________________________ , they tried to stop this from happening
o GB, Austria, Prussia, and Russia tried to take things back to the way they were before any revolutions
happened
o The Congress was led by the Finance Minister of Austria, Prince Klemens von Metternich
 They divided the old Napoleonic Empire
 Put the old royal families back in control
 Tried to create a balance of power
 Created Poland
 This balance of power survived until WWI in 1914
 The leaders of Europe tried to censor publications to keep Enlightenment and revolutionary ideas from spreading
o It didn’t work
 In the 1820’s-1840’s there were many rebellions that spread throughout Europe
 In 1821, the Greeks fought the Ottoman Turks and gained their independence in 1830
The Unification of Italy and Germany
 Since the fall of Rome, Italy and Germany had been disunited
 Small regional kingdoms ruled Italy for over 1000 years
 German princes ruled Germany in over 300 semiautonomous provinces
 The Holy Roman Empire claimed authority over both Germany and Italy, but didn’t have the power to enforce their
domination
 The Congress of Vienna put most of northern Italy under the rule of Austria
o Most of southern Italy was already under Spanish rule
 Formation of Italy as a nation-state:
o The Young Italy movement engaged in a major uprising from 182-1848
o
Camillo di Cavour, the Prime Minister of King Emmanuel II of Sardinia combined with other nationalist
groups in Italy
 He allied with France and they booted Austria out of northern Italy
o In southern Italy, Guiseppe Garibaldi and his _____________________ (army of 1,000) swept through
Sicily and southern Italy gaining recruits for their forces and outmaneuvering Spanish forces
 In 1860, he met with King Emmanuel and gave him southern Italy
o During the next decade, more territories were admitted – Rome and Venice
 Formation of Germany as a nation-state:
o The Congress of Vienna had created the German Confederation (39 states controlled by Austria and
Prussia
o Many rebellions were put down leaving many people angry with the authorities
o In 1862, King Wilhelm I of Prussia appointed Otto von Bismarck as the Prime Minister
 Bismarck used the policy of Realpolitik (the politics of reality)
 He used “blood and iron” to build a powerful German state
 He reformed and expanded the Prussian army
 He provoked 3 wars with Denmark, Austria and France which he all defeated quickly
o This was a huge boost to German pride
o 1871 – Wilhelm I proclaimed the Second Reich
 All German speaking people outside of Austria and Switzerland united in a state – Germany
 Positive effects of nationalism:
o All new nations adopted flags, national anthems, national holidays, etc.
o Created bureaucracies to take censuses, keep track of births, marriage and death statistics
o Built schools with patriotic values – recruited young men into armies
o By the mid 20th century, political leaders had adopted the nation-state as the primary form of political
organization all over the world