Download Readings NAME: ______ Grade 8 Social Studies Historical

Readings
Grade 8 Social Studies
NAME: _____________________________
________
Historical Worldviews Examined Book 5
0
1
PRONOUNCIATION GUIDE AND GLOSSARY
The language spoken by the Aztecs was Nahuatl [NAH-wahtl], which meant “clear and
understandable speech.” Although no one today speaks the Classical Nahuatl of the Aztecs, more
than 1.5 million people in Central America continue to use a modern dialect.
The Aztec language was first written in a phonetic alphabet in the sixteenth century by Spanish friars.
Since these friars spoke Spanish, they recorded Nahuatl using the pronunciation rules for their own
European language, which uses letters in different combinations and sound patterns than English.
Below is a pronunciation guide and glossary to help familiarize you with words you will encounter in
the study of the Aztec peoples.
WORD
PRONOUNCIATION
DEFINITION
Aztlán
calmecac
chinampa
Cholula
Cuauhtemoc
Cuitlahuac
Huey Tlatoani
Huitzilopochtli
mestizo
Mexica
Moctezuma
Nahuatl
pochteca
quetzal
Quetzalcoatl
telpochcalli
Tenochtitlan
Teotihuacan
Texcoco
Tezcatlipoca
tlachtli
Tlacopan
Tlaloc
Tlatelolco
Tlaxcala
Tonatiuh
Totonac
Xochimilco
xochiyaoyotl
Zempoala
AHZ-tlahn
call-MEH-cahk
chee-NAHM-pah
choh-LOO-lah
koo-ow-TAY-mohk
kwee-tlah-WATCH
way tlah-toe-AH-nee
wheets-eel-oh-POCH-tlee
meh-STEE-soh
may-SHEE-kah
mo-tek-SO-ma
NAH-wahtl
poach-TEK-a
ket-zal
ket-zal-COH-ahtl
tell-poach-CALL-lee
teh-noch-TEE-tlahn
tay-oh-tee-WA-kahn
taysh-KOE-koe
tez-cah-tlee-POH-kah
TLASH-tlee
TLA-co-pan
TLAH-lohk
tlah-teh-LOL-co
tlahsh-CALL-lah
toe-NAH-teew
tot-OH-nak
sho-chee-MIL-co
sho-chee-ya-OY-otl
sem-POH-ah-la
the mythical homeland of the Aztecs
an Aztec school for nobles
“floating islands” on which Aztecs grew their crops
a Mesoamerican city-state allied with the Aztecs
Cuitlahuac’s cousin; second emperor after Moctezuma
Moctezuma’s brother; the next emperor
“Great Speaker” – the Aztec Emperor
the Aztec god of war; the “Hummingbird on the Left”
people of mixed Spanish and Aztec ancestry
the name the Aztecs gave themselves
the name of two Aztec Emperors
the language of the Aztec and many other Mesoamericans
a traveling merchant
a brilliantly coloured bird; its feathers were highly prized
the Aztec god of wind
an Aztec school for commoners
the Aztec capital city surrounded by Lake Texcoco
the “City of the Gods”; inhabited c.150-700 CE
a city-state of the Triple Alliance; as well as a lake
the Aztec god of the night and the earth
a ball-game played throughout Mesoamerica
a city-state of the Triple Alliance
the Aztec god of rain
the market district of Tenochtitlan
a Mesoamerican city-state hostile to the Aztecs
the Aztec god of the fifth sun
a Mesoamerican city-state conquered by the Aztecs
a Mesoamerican city-state south of Tenochtitlan
ritualistic warfare known as the “war of flowers”
the city of the Totonacs (conquered by the Aztecs)
Over one million people in Mexico speak Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs. Nahuatl also lives on
in several words adopted by English speakers. For instance, tomato, avocado, and chocolate come
from the Nahuatl words tomatl, ahuacatl, and chocalatl.
An online pronunciation guide can be found at Graciela Sánchez and Ian Mursell’s Mexicolore site,
online at www.mexicolore.co.uk/index.php?one=azt&two=apr&tab=pro&id=191 <1 Jan 2011>
1
“The Long Migration”
The Mexica [pronounced may-SHEE-kah] were one of several native tribes who left the desert-like
region of northern Mexico in the eleventh and twelfth centuries CE. They are more commonly
known as the Aztecs—a word given to them by a nineteenth century European anthropologist.
Aztec legends describe the origins of their people as an island city in the middle of a lake.
They called this land “Aztlán” [AHZ-tlahn], which meant “White Place” or “Place of the Herons.”
Aztlán lay somewhere in northern Mexico. The legend claimed that it was like the Biblical Garden
of Eden. It had rushing rivers, lakes crowded with fish, and beautiful wildflowers covering the
ground. Then quite suddenly, around 1100 CE, the Aztecs were forced to leave Aztlán.
According to the legend, the Aztecs left their homeland because they had offended their
god, Huitzilopochtli [wheets-eel-oh-POCH-tlee] by cutting down a forbidden tree. They
were forced to wander until their god told them where to settle. The Aztecs accepted
their fate knowing that it was the will of their god. (Anthropologists, however, believe
that the Aztecs left their original homeland because of famine caused by a drought.)
For nearly 200 years the Aztec led a semi-nomadic life, wandering the desert of northern Mexico
looking for a sign that would tell them where to settle. Throughout their migration they followed
what they believed were the orders of Huitzilopochtli, who spoke to their priests. Since they
represented their god, religious leader had the most power in Aztec society. On instructions from
Huitzilopochtli, the priests would force their followers to keep moving. The Aztecs continued their
difficult journey southward through the desert. They believed they were the chosen people of
Huitzilopochtli, the god who would lead them to the promised land.
Gulf of
Mexico
Priests claimed that Huitzilopochtli gave the tribe a general direction in
which to travel. The god commanded them to keep the Gulf of Mexico
on their left as they walked. For that reason their god was also known
as the “Hummingbird on the Left.” Obeying his command, the Aztecs
moved steadily south. The direction took them out of northern Mexico
and toward their promised land.
The Aztec’s devotion to Huitzilopochtli often created many hardships. In some locations, they built
houses and planted crops. But whenever they became comfortable in a new setting, Huitzilopochtli
ordered that they abandon their settlement and move again. Often he made them leave before their
crops were ready to be harvested, causing many Aztecs to starve. Again, the Aztecs accepted their
fate, knowing that the loss of the old and weak would make the group stronger.
An excerpt from an Aztec codex showing the hardships of their migration.
2
Near the middle of the thirteenth century, the Aztecs entered the Valley of Mexico, a bowl-shaped
depression about 60 kilometres east-to-west and 80 kilometres north-south. As they journeyed south,
the Aztecs came across ruins of gigantic stone statues and pyramids—the remains of the Toltec and
Teotihuacan [tay-oh-tee-WA-kahn] civilizations. As they moved further into the Valley of Mexico,
the Aztecs came across people living in cities of stone houses built around smaller pyramids that
honoured different gods. Never had the wandering tribe dreamed such cities as these existed.
The people living in the Valley of Mexico did not welcome the Aztecs. They described them as
brutes who were lacking in manners and as thieves who could not be trusted. People living in the
Valley of Mexico chased them away, and would not let them settle in one place. Legend has it that
the Culhua [kool-WAH], the most powerful society in the valley, forced the Aztec to live on the
rocky land of Tizapan [tee-SAH-pahn], an area lacking freshwater and overrun with poisonous
snakes. The Culhua thought that this would be the end of the outsiders but, to their surprise,
the Aztecs found wells and captured and roasted the snakes for food.
All around the Aztecs, in the Valley of Mexico, were several city-states. These city-states fought
each other regularly, and this frequent conflict provided the Aztecs with a means of making a living.
Despite being unwanted in the Valley, the Aztecs were well-respected for their fighting abilities.
Decades of living in the desert had hardened the people, making them fierce soldiers. The city-states
hired Aztec warriors to fight their battles. These men became mercenaries—soldiers who fought for
pay. The money they earned went back to the Aztec community, making it stronger.
In time the Culhuas went to war Xochimilco [sho-chee-MIL-co], another neighbouring city-state.
The Aztecs were hired by the Culhua. After winning the battle, the Culhuan king rewarded the
Aztecs by giving his daughter to their chief. Following their customs, the Aztecs sacrificed her to
one of their gods. They believed that this was the greatest honour they could pay her. When the
Culhuan chief arrived to attend his daughter’s wedding and discovered what had happened, he his
army to destroy the Aztecs. Vastly outnumbered, many Aztecs were killed, and those who escaped
fled to a swampy, snake-filled island in Lake Texcoco [Taysh-KOE-koe], the “Lake of the Moon.”
Some of the Aztec records say that when Huitzilopochtli first told his people to seek a new land,
he said they would know the right place when they saw an eagle eating a serpent while perched on a
cactus with red, heart-shaped fruits.
When the Aztecs arrived on the island in Lake Texcoco and saw this eagle, they knew they had found
their promised land and were free to seek the glory promised them by their Hummingbird god.
modified from Levin, Phyllis et. al. (2007). Our Worldviews (232-233). Toronto, ON: Thomson-Nelson; Beck, Barbara L. (1983). The Aztecs, 2nd edition (9-10). New York, NY: Franklin Watts Inc.;
and Stein, R. Conrad. (1996). The Aztec Empire (6-10). Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corp.
3
“The Geography of Mesoamerica”
Mesoamerica refers to a region between North and South America that includes much of modern-day
Mexico in the north to central Honduras and northwestern Costa Rica to the south. The geography of the
area is quite diverse and includes deserts, mountains, tropical forests, ranch land, rich farm land and
seacoasts to the east and west. The harsh Chihuahua [chee-wah-wah] Desert borders the region to the
north; the Pacific Ocean lays to the west, and the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea are to the east.
The region’s dominant landform, the Sierra Madre mountains, consists of a number of smaller ranges,
running north-northwest to south-southeast through the region. The chain features 83 volcanoes,
16 of which are still active. Most of these mountain ranges criss-cross Mexico’s central plateau [a large
raised area of mostly level land]. The southern reaches of the plateau feature extensive rainforests.
In order to expand agricultural land in the area, ancient and modern peoples use “slash and burn”
methods. After the trees in an area were killed and dried out, a fire was set to burn away the vegetation.
The ash from the burned trees and vegetation fertilized the ground and made the soil good for growing
food for two to three years, after which the cycle of clearing forest was repeated.
Lake Texcoco
This high central plateau provided all the essentials of life for earlier Mesoamerican civilizations: fresh
water; rich, deep soil; all kinds of plant and animal life; fuel for cooking, heat and light; rich deposits of
gold and silver, and a comfortable climate. The rainy season, during which it usually rains briefly every
day in the afternoon, normally lasts from late May until early October and accounts for 80% of the annual
850 mm of rainfall. The dry season runs from November to April and is characterized by droughts.
The Valley of Mexico, a large basin 60 km wide and 80 km long, is located between the region’s major
mountain ranges. Most of the original societies of Mesoamerica lived in this central basin. Surrounded
by forested mountains on three sides and large hills on the fourth, the area was easy to protect from
invaders.
The basin had plenty of water from a system of five interconnected lakes.
The lakes maintained the mild climate of the Valley. These shallow lakes also provided a reliable source
of water and a fast and efficient transportation system. The largest lake, Lake Texcoco [taysh-KOE-koe],
was at the lowest elevation in the Valley, so all drainage flowed into it, making it saline [salty].
This meant that the soil around that lake was also saline and not suitable for agriculture.
Three other lakes had freshwater and supported fertile soil that could grow two crops annually.
modified from Levin, Phyllis et. al. (2007). Our Worldviews (228-229,240). Toronto, ON: Thomson-Nelson; and Peppas, Lynn. (2005). Life in Ancient Mesoamerica (12). St. Catharines, ON: Crabtree Publishing Company.
4
“The Rise of the Aztecs”
On their journey to the Valley of Mexico, the Aztecs came across the ruins of
Toltec cities. The Toltec were a society of warriors that controlled a large part
of central Mexico between the tenth and twelfth centuries. They created many
new towns and cities including Tula [too-lah], the capital of their empire,
and Culhuacan [cool-WAH-kahn], which would continue after the empire fell.
The Aztecs believed that Quetzalcoatl [ket-zal-COH-ahtl] had given the Toltecs
knowledge of medicine, engineering, picture writing, and agriculture.
The Toltecs were also very skilled stone workers, master builders, and expert
craftsmen. They left behind many beautiful works of art and majestic cities
that featured statues of warriors standing over 5.5 metres (18 feet) tall. Many
Mesoamerican cultures had such high respect for the Toltecs that they started
using the word “tolteca” to describe the best of their own craftsmen. Wanting
to be respected as well, the Aztecs adopted many of the ways of the Toltecs.
The Aztecs entered the Valley of Mexico near the middle of the thirteenth century and soon
started working as mercenaries (soldiers for hire) for the powerful city-state of Culhuacan.
As the Aztecs won battle after battle, the king of Culhuacan chose to reward them by
offering his daughter in marriage. Wanting to honour the Culhuacan king for such a
wonderful gift, the Aztecs sacrificed her to their god. The Culhuacans were so angry that
they used their army to drive all of the Aztecs from the mainland to a swampy island in
Lake Texcoco [taysh-KOE-koe]. The Aztecs saw the island as their “promised land” and
turned it into the great city of Tenochtitlan [teh-noch-TEE-tlahn].
In planning their city, the Aztecs copied the layout of Tula, the ruined Toltec capital.
They so wanted to be like the Toltecs that they stole sculptures and murals from Tula and put
them up in their own temples. The Aztecs were also inspired by the pyramids of
Teotihuacan [tay-oh-tee-WA-kahn] and wanted to build one even larger in order to honour
their god of war Huitzilopochtli [wheets-eel-oh-POCH-tlee].
As time went by, the Aztecs were able to pay for their city and its gigantic
pyramids by working as mercenaries for the Tepanecs. The job paid very
well, and the Aztecs grew wealthy were able to expand their territory.
The Tepanecs, however, began to fear the growing power of the Aztecs.
To keep them weak, they assassinated the Aztec king. The Aztecs knew that
their next leader would have to be strong in order to deal with the murderous
Tepanecs, so in 1428 they chose Itzcoatl [eets-COH-ahtl], the uncle of the
murdered king, to be their ruler. Itzcoatl [which means “Obsidian Serpent”]
wanted revenge on the Tepanecs. He immediately allied himself with
Texcoco and Tlacopan [TLA-co-pan], two other city-states that hated the
Tepanecs, and then launched his attack. After nearly one hundred days under
siege, the Tepanecs surrendered to the Aztec forces.
5
Seeing the success of working together, Itzcoatl convinced the other two city-states to join him in
a TRIPLE ALLIANCE. Together they would take over their weaker neighbours and rule the
valley. Within twelve years, they took control of most of the city-states in the Valley of Mexico.
Among the conquests was Xochimilco [sho-chee-MIL-co], a city-state that featured many
manmade islands called chinampas [chee-NAHM-pahs] and fertile soil on the slopes of the
nearby mountains. At last the Aztecs had the farmland they so desperately needed to feed the
growing population of Tenochtitlan.
In addition to strengthening Aztec territory, Itzcoatl introduced a number of cultural and political
changes. He did not like the idea that many people in the Valley of Mexico saw the Aztecs as
uncivilized nomads. To solve this problem, he ordered the destruction of all the writings that told
the history of the Aztecs. These were replaced with stories that said that the Aztecs came from
the same place as the Toltecs, and that the two tribes were closely related. Itzcoatl’s leadership
also brought changes to the government and religious hierarchy as well. Both were reorganized
so that they could efficiently manage the expanding empire. He ordered a series of engineering
projects as well. By the time of Itzcoatl’s death in 1440, Tenochtitlan had added many new
temples and roads, and was linked to the mainland by a number of causeways.
By 1465, most of the region from the Pacific to the Gulf of Mexico was under the control of the
Triple
Alliance,
except
for
the
powerful
Tlaxcalans
[tlahsh-CALL-lahns].
The Tlaxcalan Confederacy was an association of groups that included Tlaxcala itself,
Huexotzinco [way-sho-TSEEN-coh], and the city of Cholula [choh-LOO-la]. Despite expanding
their territory and power, the Aztecs remained in constant conflict with the Tlaxcalan
Confederacy.
Tlaxcalan
Confederacy
Teotitlan
Yopitzinco
Mixtec
Clare, John D. (2006). Aztec Life (2-3). Irvine, CA: Saddleback Publishing Inc.; Levin, Phyllis et. al. (2007). Our Worldviews (247-249). Toronto, ON: Thomson-Nelson; Peppas, Lynn. (2005). Life in Ancient Mesoamerica (10).
St. Catharines, ON: Crabtree Publishing Company; and Stuart, Gene S. (1981). The Mighty Aztecs (61). Washington, DC: The National Geographic Society.
6
“Tenochtitlan: Heart of the Aztec Empire”
After centuries of wandering in the desert the Aztecs entered the Valley of Mexico and came upon a
swampy island in the broad but shallow Lake Texcoco [taysh-KOE-koe]. On the island they saw the
sign that had been foretold by their god Huitzilopochtli [wheets-eel-oh-POCH-tlee]: an eagle sitting
on a cactus while eating a snake. They knew they had finally found their home.
At this location the Aztec leader Tenoch [teh-noch]
instructed his people to build their city. They named their
new home Tenochtitlan [teh-noch-TEE-tlahn], the city of
Tenoch, which also meant the “Place of the Prickly Pear”
(or the “Place of the Fruit of the Prickly Pear Cactus”).
They drained marshes and cut canals through the island
settlement, laying them out in a grid-like manner. Broad
causeways were constructed to allow foot traffic from the
island to the mainland. Engineers expanded the island by
sinking timbers out in the waters and filling in the gaps
with boulders and mud. Immigrants from neighbouring
tribes began to pour in, seeking Aztec citizenship.
By the early sixteenth century, Tenochtitlan had grown
from a collection of reed huts into a magnificent city of
white buildings surrounded by gardens. The city covered
over 12 square kilometres and had a population between
200,000 to 300,000 people.
Tenochtitlan was designed to allow a steady flow of traffic and to protect the city from invaders. The
island city was connected to the lake’s shores by three broad causeways stretching from the shores of
Lake Texcoco. These causeways were guarded by warriors, which let Aztec citizens enter and leave
the city while keeping enemies out. Besides walking, the Aztecs’ only form of transportation was the
canoe. An extensive canal network dug through Tenochtitlan allowed canoes of different sizes to
navigate the city. Some of the canoes were so large that they could hold forty people.
All roads led to the Temple Quarter. Here the layout featured regular geometrical shapes of
ceremonial buildings arranged symmetrically [similar in size, shape, and relative position]
and oriented along a dominant east-west axis. This was an area of many temples located in the heart
of the city. Built in the shape of pyramids, the temples were built as high as possible so that the
priests were closer to the gods and so that everyone could see sacrifices and other ceremonies.
Upper Class School
7
The Temple Quarter of Tenochtitlan was dominated by the Great Temple of Blue Hummingbird
[Huitzilopochtli], a pyramid almost 30 metres (100 feet) high. This temple could be seen by the
surrounding residential area and from the shores around Lake Texcoco, several kilometres away.
Over one hundred steps led to the top where two brightly coloured temples stood out against the dark
background of the mountains in the distance. One was a red temple sacred to Huitzilopochtli, the sun
and war god, and the other was a blue and white temple that was sacred to Tlaloc [TLAH-lohk],
the god of rain. The walls of the temple were covered in a type of plaster and decorated with
sculptures and paintings in bright colours. Located on a terrace in front of both temples were altars
and stone slabs that were used for human sacrifice.
The urban skyline was broken by other pyramids rising above lesser ritual centers in the four wards
of the city. One of these pyramids was the second tallest temple in Tenochtitlan. It was dedicated to
Quetzalcoatl [ket-zal-COH-ahtl], god of life and learning and of the wind. The door of its shrine was
carved and painted to look like a serpent’s mouth. Other temples that dominated the Temple Quarter
included the Temple of Tezcatlipoca [tez-cah-tlee-POH-kah] and the Temple of the Sun.
The Temple Quarter in Tenochtitlan was enclosed by a wall with carved figures of serpent heads.
In addition to the many temples within this “Wall of Serpents” were priests’ quarters and a school for
training novice priests, storehouses of food that were kept for emergencies and times of war,
a sacred ball court, and the tzompantli [ch-om-PAN-tli]—a wooden rack that proudly displayed the
skulls of thousands of sacrificial victims.
Many temples and priests’ quarters within the ceremonial center of the city had special boarding
schools for the sons of rich people. In these upper class schools, boys learned to read and write,
studied books on history, medicine and astrology.
They also learned about religion.
In contrast, schools for the lower class were scattered throughout the city to provide commoners with
a practical and military education. It was important that males could serve the public interest by
learning a trade and being able to fight.
The Temple Quarter also featured a tlachtli [TLASH-tlee] court. This was a ball game played
throughout Mesoamerica. Two teams of three players each competed to aim a rubber ball through a
stone ring on the side of the court wall. It was a rough game and players were often injured and even
killed. The game was considered sacred and was usually played on important religious days.
It was also played to make predictions about the future and, like games today, played for fun.
Regardless of the purpose, everyone was permitted to watch and cheer their favourite teams.
Beyond the Wall of Serpents was the beautiful palace of the Emperor. The royal palace
was an enormous building, two stories high. Inside were treasure rooms, kitchens,
storage rooms, hanging gardens, a zoo containing jaguars and pumas, an aviary with
rare birds, and lagoons surrounded by flower and herb gardens. The ruler and his
servants used the upper level, and government officials worked in rooms on the lower
level. This was also the meeting place of the prime minister (who, despite always
being male, was known as “Snake Woman”), the military commanders of each of the
Empire’s four wards, and the ruling council.
The Aztecs were a fierce, military people who glorified warfare. Their history taught that
Huitzilopochtli, the god of war, had told them to leave Aztlán and conquer the land.
This belief served them well. They expanded their territory and the tribute payments collected from
defeated cities greatly improved their wealth. Even more importantly, the Aztecs secured a constant
supply of captives that made ideal blood sacrifices to their gods.
8
One of the highest Aztec military orders based in Tenochtitlan were the Eagle knights.
Only warriors who had taken many captives would be allowed to join the order.
These special knights were based in Eagle House, which was located near the
Great Pyramid in Tenochtitlan. Here the most accomplished warriors of the noble class
gathered for their ceremonies. Altars, statues and braziers [large metal container in
which things are burned] found at the site reveal some of their ancient rituals, as does a
mural that shows eagle warriors poking themselves with cactus spines, drawing blood
in order to please their god of war and guaranteeing them a good victory in battle.
A pair of life-sized statues of these heroic warriors dressed in full eagle regalia stood
guard at the entrance to the House.
By far the biggest market was at Tlatelolco [tlah-teh-LOL-co], a business center on the outskirts of
Tenochtitlan.
Every day, the Tlatelolco marketplace brought about 25,000 customers.
Every fifth day a special, bigger market was held, attracting as many as 60,000 people.
The market was made possible by two of the most important groups of people in Aztec society:
the craftspeople that made the goods and the merchants who bought and sold them. Merchants got
most of their products from farming families living nearby. Many crafts like basket weaving and
pottery making were done part-time at home. Specialized goods that needed metal-working or
stone-working were usually made by full-time professional craftspeople. Specialists in these crafts
laboured alongside other craftsmen in small workshops located in or near their houses, producing
large numbers of goods in order to export to other cities. Some merchants traveled great distances to
exchange these exports for more exotic goods. Many of these merchants were hired directly by the
nobles, buying specific goods to satisfy their sponsors’ tastes.
Tlatelolco offered a wide variety of things which had been brought from all over Central America.
Customers could buy corn, tortillas, fish, eggs, vegetables, honey, chocolate, and all kinds of game
animals—from rabbits to deer.
People could also buy salt, tobacco, and medicines.
There were bricks, stones, and other building materials, as well as firewood, clothing, paint, and
animal skins of all kinds. For those who had things to trade—or for those people who were lucky
enough to have cacao beans, which were so precious that they could be used as money—there were
beautiful ornaments made out of gold, silver, precious stones, shells, and even delicate bird feathers.
There was just about anything an Aztec could need or want.
Given the size of the crowds at Tlatelolco, the marketplace was amazingly well organized. It was all
laid out in an orderly manner and every different kind of merchandise had its own fixed, separate
place. Stallholders paid a fee to the market superintendent. Inspectors mingled with the crowd to see
that poor quality goods were not sold and that prices were fair. Anyone believing he or she was
cheated could sue in a special court that served the market only. The judge at the market court
listened to both arguments and handed down decisions immediately. The theft of goods was not
tolerated. Petty thieves could be punished by having their heads shaved. Stealing valuable items
such as gold or feathers carried stiffer penalties such as being sentenced to slavery or death.
A death sentence was carried out on the spot, often with the offender having his head crushed
between two large rocks.
SOURCES
Beck, Barbara L. (1966). The Aztecs (53,56). Toronto, ON: Franklin Watts Inc.
Brown, Dale M. (1992). Aztecs: Reign of Blood and Splendor (122). Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books Inc.
Clare, John D. (2006). Aztec Life (2,22-23). Irvine, CA: Saddleback Publishing Inc.
Crosher, Judith. (1976). The Aztecs (9,28). London, UK: Macdonald Educational.
Dineen, Jacqueline. (1992). The Aztecs (21-22,26,35). New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Company,
Hughes, Jill. (1980). Aztecs (8). London, ON: Gloucester Press
Sonneborn, Liz. (2005). The Ancient Aztecs (34,52-60). Toronto, ON: Scholastic Inc.
Stein, R. Conrad. (1996). The Aztec Empire (10,27). Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corp.
Thomson, Ruth. (1992). Aztecs (10,22). New York, NY: Franklin Watts Inc.
Townsend, Richard F. (1992). The Aztecs (33,180-186). London, UK: Thames and Hudson Ltd.
Wyborny, Sheila. (2004). The Aztec Empire (32,38). New York, NY: Thomson Gale.
9
“War and Tribute”
War was an expression of the Aztec’s religious beliefs. They believed that the universe was
constantly at war with itself. Their god of war, Huitzilopochtli, fought against the darkness
every night and was reborn every morning. Even different elements of nature fought against
themselves, bringing the world sun and rain, hot and cold. The Aztec warrior in battle was just
part of the larger conflict in the universe. Death in battle brought glory and immortality serving
alongside their god. Even more importantly, war provided an opportunity to take captives that
could be sacrificed to Huitzilopochtli and the other gods.
According to Aztec tradition, Huitzilopochtli said: “We shall conquer all the people in the
universe. I will make you lords and kings of every place in the world.” Combined with their
view of the universe, this prophecy [knowledge of the future believed to have been passed down
from a divine source] gave the Aztecs the belief that they were invincible. Their ferocious
courage in battle reflected their faith in Huitzilopochtli’s words, and they went on to create a
great empire—the largest in North America.
To keep their empire strong, the Aztecs required a large and well-trained army. Military service
was mandatory among the Aztecs. The law required that all physically fit males in the empire—
both commoners and nobles—were expected to fight in wars. Fanatical courage was demanded
and received from almost all Aztec boys and young men. Cowardice was punishable by death.
A lack of courage in any soldier weakened the army, which then left the Empire vulnerable.
The Aztecs firmly believed that the group—their society—was much more important than the
individuals within it. Every Aztec was prepared to sacrifice his or her own life for the good of
the Empire.
Even women were seen as having a role in warfare. During childbirth, women were considered
warriors. As they went through labour, midwives [people who assist the mother during
childbirth] let out war cries, rallying them to a successful delivery. In the eyes of the Aztecs,
women won a battle when they gave birth to a child. Newborns were compared to captives taken
in war. Like warriors slain on the battlefield, women who died in childbirth became the sun’s
companions in the afterlife.
At times when no formal wars were being fought, the Aztecs and their allies often challenged the
rulers of other areas to participate in ritualistic battles called “WAR OF FLOWERS.”
These wars were opportunities for young warriors to train and to improve their skills and to take
captives for sacrifices. Although war was not formally declared, warriors on both sides took the
battles seriously and took prisoners.
10
Before declaring war on a city, they made three simple demands:
1. trade with the Aztecs;
2. worship Huitzilopochtli; and
3. send tribute in the form of gifts to Tenochtitlan every year
If the demands were refused, Aztec representatives would leave peacefully. Twenty days later,
the Aztecs would return and present the city with a generous gift of spears and shields.
This action showed that the Aztecs were much stronger than those they threatened; it also upheld
the Aztec sense of honour by showing that they would not attack unarmed or weaker city-states.
The demands would then be repeated a second time. If they were refused, the Aztec
representatives would once again leave peacefully. They would only return after their priests
chose a lucky day to fight.
Through conquest after conquest, the Aztecs developed an effective military strategy.
The Aztecs first defeated weaker societies around those that were stronger and more challenging.
They then attacked the isolated city-state, capturing its temples and taking prisoners back to
Tenochtitlan to be sacrificed. The Aztecs immediately set up statues of their god Huitzilopochtli
and ordered that he be worshipped.
The Aztecs then negotiated the tribute the city was
required to pay in order to continue its survival.
The harder the city resisted, the harsher the tribute that
had to be paid every year. Tribute consisted of things
that the Aztecs needed or could not get from anywhere
else. Regardless of the terms, tributes were not so severe
that the city could not meet its basic needs or create
products that could still be traded for profit.
Unlike most other conquering armies, the Aztecs left peacefully without leaving behind warriors
to keep control over the city. The defeated people were allowed to worship their other gods and
practice their laws, customs, and beliefs. As long as the city continued to trade with the Aztecs,
worship Huitzilopochtli, and send tribute to Tenochtitlan, they were left in peace.
The Aztecs did not tolerate any disobedience from vassal cities.
example:
Consider the following
The people of Oztoman [ohs-TOH-mahn] refused to pay their tribute
to the Aztecs.
The army attacked, broke
through the
fortifications, set fire to the temples and razed [demolished]
the city.
All the adults were killed, and more than forty
thousand children were taken and distributed throughout the rest
of the empire.
To remind others of the consequences of defying the Aztecs, the emperor ordered neighbouring
city-states to participate in the destruction of a disobedient city. Allies often helped
enthusiastically as they were rewarded with plunder taken from the destroyed city.
Crosher, Judith. (1976). The Aztecs (43). London, UK: Macdonald Educational and Levin, Phyllis et. al. (2007). Our Worldviews (251-252). Toronto, ON: Thomson-Nelson.
11
“Expansionism and Trade”
Many of the precious things which flowed into Tenochtitlan [teh-noch-TEE-tlahn] came as
tribute from defeated or vassal states. In most cases, however, Aztec merchants traveled great
distances to trade with other Mesoamerican peoples. Many merchants were hired by nobles, who
told them what to buy on their behalf. For the most part, nobles wanted luxury items, such as
gold jewelry, woven cloaks, jade carvings, and the iridescent [displaying rainbow colours]
turquoise feathers of the quetzal [ket-zal] bird. These objects were symbols of the nobles’ higher
social position. Wearing beautiful clothes or showing off an expensive piece of art told the rest
of Aztec society that these nobles deserved respect.
Another highly prized item was the cacao bean, which comes from pods harvested from the
cacao tree. Cacao beans were valuable because they were difficult to grow. The delicate cacao
trees grew only in shady areas with high humidity. Once allowed to dry in the sun, the valuable
beans were easy to carry and often used as money by both the Maya and the Aztecs.
They were also ground and used to make a chocolate-flavoured drink.
To obtain the valuable objects their sponsors wanted, Aztec merchants had
to travel all over the empire. They were accompanied by porters—
men employed to carry their merchandise. The Aztecs did not use wheels to
make vehicles like carts and they did not have pack animals such as
donkeys. Food and household items that were being traded had to be carried
over land using a backpack called a tumpline. A tumpline rested on a
person’s back and was secured to the forehead by a headband. A porter
could walk 24 kilometres a day carrying up to 30 kilograms (65 pounds).
The merchants had to travel through many different types of countryside to find the resources
and products they wanted. They passed through every type of climate. Tenochtitlan was in the
mountains in the middle of Mexico and had a consistently spring-like climate. By contrast,
highly prized goods such as avocados, papayas, cacao, rubber, exotic feathers, and precious
stones came from the tropical lowlands along the Atlantic coast. Parts of the coast were very hot
and dry, with burning sandy plains. Other parts were hot and damp, with tropical forests.
To reach the tropics the merchants had to cross ranges of mountains with snow on their peaks.
Travelers had many things to fear. The merchants had to hike over hills and mountains.
A misstep could lead to a fatal accident. They also had to watch out for vicious wild animals.
Even the people they met during their travels could pose a danger. Often, the merchants
journeyed to the edges of the empire through lands occupied by enemies of the Aztecs.
If a merchant were captured by enemy warriors, he could be jailed, tortured, or even killed.
Only the armies and the merchants traveled long distances. Because expeditions took the
merchants into areas few other Aztecs cared to go, the emperor often enlisted their services as
spies. Wearing the clothing and hairstyles of the enemy, the spies tried to blend into the local
population. In disguise, they kept their eyes and ears open, learning everything they could about
the enemy so they could give the emperor a complete report. If caught, they would have been
executed immediately and that city-state would most likely declare war on Tenochtitlan.
Dineen, Jacqueline. (1992). The Aztecs (42-43). New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Company; Peppas, Lynn. (2005). Life in Ancient Mesoamerica (13). St. Catharines, ON: Crabtree Publishing Company;
Sonneborn, Liz. (2005). The Ancient Aztecs (52-60). Toronto, ON: Scholastic Inc ; Unstead, R.J. (1974). Living in Aztec Times (11). London, UK: A&C Black Ltd.
12
“Education in Aztec Society”
Aztec children were educated at home until they started school. Here they learned the basic elements of
their culture. Aztec books (called codices) tell us that all classes in Aztec society pampered their children
until the age of three. After that, children were expected to be hard-working and be respectful of their
elders. By the age of five, children helped with household chores, such as collecting firewood or spinning
cotton. Older boys helped with farming or the family trade. Regardless of age, all children learned the
importance of physical activity early in life. They were taught to eat nutritiously, not to overeat, and to
stay away from alcohol. Staying healthy kept the Aztecs in constant readiness for serving in the army.
Aztec education taught children to submit to authority. They were trained to think like everyone else,
not to think for themselves. No one was allowed to be different. Parents were expected to give constant
lectures on working hard, behaving politely, and being honest. Punishments for disobedience and
misbehaviour were harsh. Teenage boys were could be punished by being poked with cactus spines or
being held over a fire and made to breathe the bitter smoke of chili peppers. The aim of this discipline
was to turn them into citizens with “a stone heart and a stone face.”
Although Aztec education was free, there were separate school systems for children of commoners and
nobility. Commoners went to schools called telpochcalli [tale-poach-CAHL-lee]; sons of noble families
went to special schools called calmecac [cahl-MAY-kahk]. Schooling began in the early teens regardless
of their rank. Students attended classes until they married.
The law required that every group of households build a commoner school in their neighbourhood.
Boys slept at the school but went home for part of the day for meals and to work with their fathers,
learning practical skills that prepared them for the family trade. The teachers were usually warriors who
had proved themselves in battle. Lessons were given in Aztec history, religion, and characteristics of
good citizenship. Since commoners did not learn to read and write, all instruction was spoken; students
needed to memorize their lessons. As music was important in their religion, students also learned to play
flutes and drums and dance the sacred dances.
The general idea of commoner school was to toughen the boys and teach them to be good citizens.
Boys had to sweep and clean the buildings, fetch firewood, make bricks and work on the city’s roads and
irrigation canals. Warriors also taught them to use weapons and to fight mock battles.
Noble boys lived at priest-run schools and received training that was more difficult than that given to
common boys. While living at their school boys were made to get up several times each night to pray or
take cold baths. They were expected to practice making sacrifices by going alone into the mountains to
fast, offer incense to the gods, and by poking themselves repeatedly with thorns. Even though all Aztecs
were expected to deal with hardships without complaining, sons of nobles were expected to endure
greater challenges and be the role models for others. Like commoners, noble children were made to do
hard work in the forest and on temple farms. Even though they were nobility, they were taught to put the
group ahead of themselves. They learned that no one, not even the greatest warrior, was to boast about
personal achievements or do anything else to stand out from the group. In addition to practicing with
weapons, noble sons had the privilege of going into battle to watch experienced warriors.
In addition to the history, religion, morality and characteristics of good citizenship taught to commoners,
noble children were expected to memorize religious codices and learn writing, math, astrology, law,
medicine, and how to govern and move up the ranks of government. Schooling focused on self-control,
humility, and unselfishness—qualities that were highly valued in Aztec society. It was expected that
students of noble schools would become generals in the army, judges, priests, scribes, high government
officials, diplomats, and teachers. As the future leaders of Aztec society, they were expected to have the
best training and set positive examples.
Fitton, Avis, Donna M. Goodman, and Edward O’Connor. (2007). Worldviews: Contact and Change (183). Toronto: Pearson Education Canada; Clare, John D. (2006). Aztec Life (20). Irvine, CA: Saddleback Publishing Inc.; Levin, Phyllis et. al.
(2007). Our Worldviews (267-268). Toronto, ON: Thomson-Nelson; Thomson, Ruth. (1992). Aztecs (30). New York, NY: Franklin Watts Inc.; and Unstead, R.J. (1974). Living in Aztec Times (28-29). London, UK: A&C Black Ltd
13
“Reclaiming the Iberian Peninsula”
When the Moorish Muslims came to the Iberian Peninsula, they reduced the Christian territory to
a narrow strip along the northern coast. From the 730s, only one Christian Kingdom survived in
the Peninsula. The territory resisted continuous raids and survived only by working with the
Moors. In the early 900s, the Christian king was able to defeat some of the weaker Moorish
leaders and take back some of the land that they had lost nearly two centuries earlier.
By the early 1000s, Moorish control of the Iberian Peninsula began to weaken. A series of
Moorish rulers began to argue with each other over who should control their territory.
Their disagreements often led them to plot against each other, even hiring Christian mercenaries
to fight battles and assassinate their own leaders. This situation gave European Christians the
opportunity to regain even more territory that was lost three centuries earlier.
This move to retake the Iberian Peninsula from the control of Muslim Moors was called the
Reconquista, which was the Spanish word for “reconquest.” These wars between the Moors and
the Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula were off and on for nearly 800 years.
The Reconquista gained momentum in the eleventh century after the Christian Kingdom of
Castile captured Toledo—a major Moorish city—in 1085. The Christian Kingdoms of Aragon
and Catalonia joined their armies in the 1100s and took even more territory from the Moors.
Pope Innocent III (r.1198-1216) declared his support for the Reconquista in 1212, which made
sure that Christian crusaders from all across Europe would come to the Iberian Peninsula to help
fight Moorish Muslims. Many of these Christians believed that it was their duty to fight in the
name of God and convert “non-believers” to the Roman Catholic religion. Spanish
CONQUISTADORS [soldiers who fought for God and their country] carried on this tradition,
fighting to regain territory from Moorish Muslims. It was generally believed that converting or
defeating unbelievers would guarantee crusaders and conquistadors a place in heaven.
The
mid-thirteenth
century
brought decisive victories by
Christian Europeans, with Castile
capturing the major Moorish
cities of Cordoba in 1235, Seville
in 1248, and Cadiz in 1263.
By 1270, the Moors were
confined to one small kingdom,
Granada, in the south. Granada
was captured on January 2, 1492,
after nearly ten years of fighting.
The Reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula, 710-1492
From the Pyrenees Mountains in
the north to the Rock of Gibraltar
in the south, the Iberian
Peninsula was again Christian.
Levin, Phyllis et. al. (2007). Our Worldviews (236-237). Toronto, ON: Thomson-Nelson; Fitton, Avis, Donna M. Goodman, and Edward O’Connor. (2007). Worldviews: Contact and Change (199-200). Toronto: Pearson Education Canada;
SparkNotes. (2006). “Reconquista, 1000-1250.” Retrieved 20 Feb 2008 from http://www.sparknotes.com/history/european/middle2/summary_2.html; and Wikipedia contributors. (2007). “Al-Andalus.” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.
Retrieved 17 Feb 2008 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus
14
“The Spanish Monarchy and the Inquisition”
By the 1400s, Muslim Moors in the Iberian Peninsula had been pushed back to a small territory in the
south known as Granada. Although the rest of the Peninsula was controlled by Christians, Spain was
not yet the country we know today. Instead, it was divided into several small Christian kingdoms.
The two largest kingdoms, Aragon and Castile, were joined together with the marriage of Ferdinand
of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, who became King and Queen of the combined areas in 1479.
Over the next several years, the king and queen would use the power of the Spanish Inquisition to
unite the rest of the peninsula under Christianity. The process would take nearly 350 years.
Today, more than 500 years after their rule, Spain’s population is 94 percent Roman Catholic.
This strong Catholic population is a direct result of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella’s reign and
shows just how powerful and far-reaching a leader’s belief system can be.
The Roman Catholic Church was a powerful force during the Middle Ages. Law and order was
based on Catholic teachings. Those Christians that did not agree with Catholic beliefs were seen as
heretics—people who went against the beliefs and authority of the Church. Heresy was not just a
crime against the church, but also against the king and queen.
The Roman Catholic Church had a history of dealing with heretics. They were often arrested and
questioned people accused of heresy, and steps were taken so that these people could be brought back
to the true Catholic faith. These “inquiries” into a person’s faith became known as the Inquisition,
and the questioning was often associated with brutal torture.
By the time Isabella and Ferdinand came to power, the Inquisition had long been active elsewhere in
Europe. The two rulers dreamed of a Spain united behind Christianity. Their kingdoms had
experienced nearly 800 years of war trying to reconquer their territory from the Moors. A kingdom
with only one religion, they believed, would be a loyal and stable kingdom. Unlike today,
a kingdom’s subjects were considered loyal if they practiced the same religious beliefs as their ruler.
In her quest for “spiritual purity” among her people, Queen Isabella consulted her religious advisor,
the Dominican Monk Tomás de Torquemada. He warned her that there were many “renegades from
God and the Saints in the kingdom.” Torquemada was referring to Muslims and Jews who lived in
Christian cities. Many of these people were well-educated and wealthy merchants and businessmen.
They were also doctors, lawyers, teachers, and even advisors to the king and queen. In order to keep
their important positions and their property, many Jews and some Muslims had converted to
Catholicism and were known as CONVERSOS, or “new Christians.” Many Christians claimed that
these conversos continued to practice their own religions and only pretended to be Catholics in order
to keep their status. Such accusations raised the level of mistrust against conversos, and there was a
lot of discrimination and persecution against them.
In order to create a kingdom with one religion, Torquemada insisted that Spain had to be rid of
conversos. Although Queen Isabella was unwilling at first, King Ferdinand saw an opportunity to
increase the kingdom’s wealth with property and money confiscated from these rich people.
Taking the methods used by the Roman Catholic Church elsewhere in Europe, the king and queen
appointed Torquemada as the Grand Inquisitor and gave him permission to set up a system of courts.
These courts would be run by Church officials who would put on trial people who did not follow the
Catholic religion. The result came to be known as the Spanish Inquisition. To make sure that the
accused received a “fair” trial, they were offered the services of a lawyer (selected by the Church),
and two neutral priests that would help prepare their defence. The accused were then required to
prove their innocence. They were almost always found guilty.
15
Wearing white robes with black hoods, the Inquisitors first arrived in
Seville [a city in southern Spain] in October 1480. The Inquisitors would
announce a “pardon” of thirty to forty days, during which “heretics”
(who had usually been named by other citizens), were expected to come
forward and “confess” that they were only pretending to be Roman
Catholic. If they did confess, they had to wear a coarse woolen robe,
called a sanbenito, and a foolish-looking conical hat. Such clothes singled
them out and they became targets of public discrimination.
Those people who were accused but did not confess were arrested and
brought to trial. All were assumed guilty until proved innocent. No one—
rich or poor, male or female, adult or child—was spared.
A Converso wearing a sanbenito.
Immediately, there were riots and thousands of conversos and others who thought that they were
in danger fled to other parts of Europe. They abandoned their properties and businesses, which
were then confiscated by the government. Soon after they left, the economy of the region began
to decline. Then, beginning in January 1481, the king and queen ordered everyone’s help in the
accusation and arrest of suspected heretics. To save their own lives, people accused others until
there were soon thousands of victims held for trial. On January 6, six men and women were
burned at the stake in the first public auto-da-fé or “act of faith” ceremony. The families of the
accused were forced to watch. The intent was to show the power of the church and kingdom and
to intimidate further “offenders.” Fear and terror ruled the land.
Over the next eight years in Seville alone, seven hundred people—mostly conversos—
were burned alive and five thousand more were imprisoned for life. Even the bones of those
long dead but suspected of heresy were dug up and publicly burned. Their children were
forbidden to hold any important government jobs and their property was confiscated by the king
and queen. The pattern was repeated in city after city and town after town across Spain.
As the Inquisition gathered momentum, it began to interfere in every aspect of daily life. People
could be arrested and “tried” for speaking out against their kingdom, for general misbehaviour,
or doing anything that seemed suspicious. Books that were considered heretical were banned
and burned. Laws were passed, called the limpieza de sangre, or “purity of blood” laws, which
made it illegal for anyone with the slightest hint of Moorish or Jewish blood to marry a Christian.
Meanwhile, there were small pockets of Jewish resistance. In Aragon, an Inquisitor was
murdered. But the accomplices suffered such savage deaths that no one else dared to act.
Worse was yet to come. On March 31, 1492, Isabella and Ferdinand responded to resistance by
announcing that all Jews in Spain had four months to convert to Christianity or be expelled from
the country. The Jews’ attempts to buy or persuade their way out of this situation failed.
Many—in absolute despair—accepted baptism and became Christian. By August, the rest—
perhaps 100,000 Jews—had fled Spain.
In the end, the expulsion of the Jews and Muslims had serious negative effects on Spain.
For example, both the Spanish Jews and Muslims had formed a large part of the educated middle
class. Many were bankers and business people. The loss of their skills made it difficult for
Spain to maintain economic growth at the end of the 1400s. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella,
however, had changed the future of their kingdom, creating the foundation for a united Spain.
Mann, Kenny. (2002). Rulers and Their Times: Isabel, Ferdinand and Fifteenth-Century Spain (28-34). New York, NY: Benchmark Books;
Fitton, Avis, Donna M. Goodman, and Edward O’Connor. (2007). Worldviews: Contact and Change (203-205). Toronto: Pearson Education Canada
16
“Hernándo Cortés and the Spanish Worldview”
Hernándo (Hernán) Cortés [1485-1547] was born in Castile to a family of
lesser nobility (hidalgo) and grew up in Spain during a period of great
change. The defeat of the Muslims Moors and the authority of the
Inquisition over everyday life had created a country united by the monarchy
and the Roman Catholic Church. Like many Spaniards, Cortés strongly
believed that a powerful king and queen and the leadership of the Church
would make the kingdom a better place.
Even with a strong monarchy to make decisions for Spain, the country’s people had a lot of
control over their own lives. Cortés was no exception. Like many Spaniards at the time,
he was an adventurous and ambitious young man. He had heard people talking about the gold
that Columbus brought back from the Caribbean islands and decided to go to the Caribbean,
where Spain was building colonies. He shared the dream of so many other Spaniards: the desire
to become rich and live a life of luxury. At the age of nineteen, he set sail for what was known
as the “New World.” When he arrived on the island of Hispaniola [the present-day countries of
Dominican Republic and Haiti] in 1504, the governor immediately gave him a large farm.
“But I came to get gold,” said the disappointed Cortés, “not to farm the land like a peasant!”
Cortés was later asked to join an expedition to conquer Cuba, an island just west of Hispaniola.
He eagerly accepted. With just 300 men, the Spanish conquered Cuba. Cortés then remained in
Cuba, second in command to the Governor of Cuba Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar.
But after serving under Velázquez for eight years, Cortés grew restless. When rumours of a rich
empire on the mainland reached the Spanish in Cuba, Governor Velázquez suggested that Cortés
lead an expedition to find this wealthy civilization.
This was the opportunity Cortés had been waiting for. He received money and other support
from the Governor and set up the expedition. As the ships were about to set sail, Velázquez
changed his mind about sending Cortés, but Cortés was determined to lead, even if it meant
angering the Governor. He sailed from Cuba on February 18, 1519, before the voyage could be
officially cancelled. He had 11 ships, 508 fighting men, 100 sailors, 200 Native slaves, and
16 horses.
Because he disobeyed an order, Cortés knew that he would be imprisoned by Velázquez if he
returned to Cuba. The only thing Cortés could do was conquer and settle wherever he landed.
He created the settlement of Veracruz on the east coast of what is now Central Mexico and his
crew became its citizens. Cortés gave himself the title of “captain-general” and wrote to
King Carlos I of Spain (Isabella’s and Ferdinand’s grandson) that he wanted to conquer territory
in the name of Christianity and the Spanish crown. Cortés hoped that the King would overlook
his earlier defiance of the Governor in favour of expanding Spanish territory.
Once he and his sailors had settled in Veracruz, he feared they would mutiny since they were
surrounded by enemy kingdoms. Fearing an uprising, he ordered his fleet of ships destroyed,
claiming that they were no longer good enough for sailing. The crew was now forced to stay in
hostile territory and deal with the enemies that surrounded them.
Fitton, Avis, Donna M. Goodman, and Edward O’Connor. (2007). Worldviews: Contact and Change (216-217, 221). Toronto: Pearson Education Canada; and Levin, Phyllis et. al. (2007). Our Worldviews (302). Toronto, ON: Thomson-Nelson.
17
“The Spaniards in Tenochtitlan”
Thousands of Aztec warriors protected Moctezuma II [mo-tek-SO-ma] and he could have ordered the
death of Cortés at any time. Instead, Cortés and his men were treated royally and given luxurious
accommodations. Moctezuma had his servants prepare the palace of his father for the Spaniards and
their Tlaxcalan [tlahsh-CALL-lahn] and Totonac allies. Several days after their arrival, Moctezuma
toured them around Tenochtitlan. The Spaniards were amazed at the marketplace and palaces and
were astounded at the size and architectural features of the temples.
Moctezuma Held Hostage
Cortés knew that Moctezuma was the highest political and religious leader in Aztec society and that
he had to be cautious. Cortés waited for an opportunity and, about a week after his arrival,
he took Moctezuma hostage in the palace where he was staying. The Spaniards replaced the Aztec
idols of their gods in the palace with statues of Roman Catholic saints. Cortés also had large idols
from the main temple replaced. Moctezuma’s advisors were disgusted that he had let the Spaniards
into the city and that he was allowing them to set up statues of the Christian religion.
They felt Moctezuma was weak and had let down his people and damaged their reputation.
Massacre of Unarmed Aztecs
During the following six months, Cortés and his men remained in Tenochtitlan, but tensions between
the Spaniards and the Aztecs increased. Cortés soon received the message that Diego Velázquez, the
Spanish Governor of Cuba, had sent men to arrest him for disobeying his orders. Cortés left Pedro
de Alvarado in charge of Tenochtitlan and took more than half of his soldiers to intercept Velázquez.
During Cortés’s absence, the Aztecs prepared for the main festival honouring their god
Huitzilopochtli [wheets-eel-oh-POCH-tlee]. Many nobles, priests, and warriors gathered inside the
palace courtyard to dance at the celebration. Alvarado ordered the festival suspended, but the Aztecs
went ahead anyway. Alvarado responded by surrounding the courtyard and massacring the unarmed
men. The Aztecs were outraged. Several of their high-ranking nobles and priests had been killed.
They gathered their arms and fought so ferociously that the Spaniards had to retreat to the palace of
Moctezuma’s father, away from centre of the city.
NOCHE TRISTE (“THE NIGHT OF SORROW”)
Meanwhile, Cortés and his allies had convinced Velázquez’s men to join him in conquering the
Aztecs and taking their gold. Most joined Cortés, increasing the size of his army and adding nearly
50 horses. When Cortés returned to Tenochtitlan, he found the city in rebellion and his men trapped.
With some effort, he was able to reach the palace where they were staying. He ordered Moctezuma
to speak to his people in order to calm them, but the Aztecs threw stones at their emperor instead.
Shortly after this, Moctezuma died either from the thrown rocks or by being strangled by the
Spaniards. His brother Cuitlahuac [kwee-tlah-WATCH] was elected the new Emperor of the Aztecs.
Cuitlahuac continued the attack. In June 1520, the Spaniards tried to escape to the coast in the
middle of the night under cover of darkness, but the Aztecs discovered them crossing the causeways
and attacked. The Aztecs assaulted the Spaniards from all sides, even from canoes in the water.
Many of the Spaniards carried stolen gold and could not move quickly because of the added weight.
Unwilling to give up the gold, many were quickly killed or drowned. Nearly 600 Spaniards,
4000 of their Native allies, and 47 horses were killed. The Spaniards later referred to this battle and
the huge loss of life as the noche triste, “The Night of Sorrow.” Cortés, Doña Marina, and Alvarado
escaped. (Three years later, Alvarado would go on to conquer the Maya in modern-day Guatemala.)
Fitton, Avis, Donna M. Goodman, and Edward O’Connor. (2007). Worldviews: Contact and Change (232). Toronto: Pearson Education Canada; Levin, Phyllis et. al. (2007). Our Worldviews (309-311). Toronto, ON: Thomson-Nelson;
and Sonneborn, Liz. (2005). The Ancient Aztecs (79-95). Toronto, ON: Scholastic Inc.
18
“The Fall of Tenochtitlan”
“Who could conquer Tenochtitlan [teh-noch-TEE-tlahn]? Who could shake the foundation of the
heavens?” When an Aztec poet asked these questions, it seemed impossible that there could be an
answer. In the early sixteenth century, the Aztec Empire was large and powerful. Certainly, to those
under the Emperor’s rule, the end of the great Aztec capital could not be imagined.
After recovering from their injuries, Cortés and his men returned to the Aztec capital with their allies the
Tlaxacalans [tlahsh-CALL-lahns], the warriors of Texcoco [taysh-KOE-koe], who had once been
members of the Triple Alliance, and the Totonacs, and the Tabascans. The siege of Tenochtitlan went on
for several months. During this time, many Aztecs who were not injured became very ill. At some point
before or during the siege, Cuitlahuac [kwee-tlah-WATCH] died of smallpox. He was replaced by
Moctezuma’s warlike nephew Cuauhtemoc [koo-ow-TAY-mohk].
Even though the Spaniards had horses and better weapons, the Aztecs knew that there were not enough
Spaniards to be a real threat. Just to be sure that they were safe, however, the Aztecs took apart sections
of their causeways to keep attackers from entering the city. They went one step further by building a
large wall around the city to protect it, much like European cities were defended. The wall would keep
out invaders trying to land by ship. The Aztecs had even fortified their rooftops, which allowed them to
safely use their slings and throw spears at anyone who got into the city. With their aqueducts bringing
fresh water into the city, the Aztecs could hold off attacks for months.
One thing that helped Cortés and his men was the knowledge of siege warfare. The centuries-long
Reconquista of Spain had given them a variety of strategies to weaken Tenochtitlan. While Cortés was in
Tlaxcala, he thought of what would be the perfect solution to defeat the Aztecs: he would construct a
number of sail-powered portable brigantines [flat, barge-like ships with two masts], carry them in pieces
overland, and then put them together on the coast of Lake Texcoco, across from Tenochtitlan.
These brigantines would carry cannons and conquistadors and be covered with canopies to protect the
horses and men from sling stones, arrows, and spears. The ships could be used to carry Spanish
conquistadors and their Native allies to the city without the need to use the heavily guarded causeways.
Cortés also planned to use these ships to block the canals in and out of Tenochtitlan, cutting off the city’s
food supply. The Spaniards further isolated the city by destroying its aqueduct. This would cut off the
fresh water supply to the city. Many of the citizens who had survived the plague died from hunger and
contaminated drinking water.
After successfully blockading Tenochtitlan, the Spaniards and their allies entered the city. Here they met
fierce resistance from the surviving Aztecs. Unable to hold any territory they gained, the Spaniards began
to destroy the city as they captured it. They used the cannons on the brigantines to blast away at the wall
around the city. They pulled down pyramids and temples, ripped down palaces and homes, and set what
they could on fire so that no one could hide. They filled the canals with rubble so no one could escape by
boat. Thousands of innocent Aztec women and children were slaughtered and their homes looted.
The last group of Aztecs surrendered on August 13, 1521, seventy-five days after the siege began.
The Aztec emperor Cuauhtemoc was taken prisoner and hanged, ending the Aztecs’ defence of their city.
Determined to have their revenge, the Tlaxcalan warriors went on to massacre many of the remaining
survivors of Tenochtitlan.
Beginning with a population of more than 200,000, only 60,000 Aztecs survived in Tenochtitlan,
which lay in ruins around them. The heart of the Aztec Empire had been destroyed.
Fitch, Nancy. (2007). “The Reconquest of Mexico: An Overview” from AHA Teaching and Learning in the Digital Age. Retrieved 24 Feb 2008 from http://www.historians.org/tl/LessonPlans/ca/Fitch/reconquest.htm; Fitton, Avis, Donna M.
Goodman, and Edward O’Connor. (2007). Worldviews: Contact and Change (233). Toronto: Pearson Education Canada; Innes, Hammond. (1969). The Conquistadors (282-286). New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf; Levin, Phyllis et. al.
(2007). Our Worldviews (313, 322). Toronto, ON: Thomson-Nelson; Fitton; and Sonneborn, Liz. (2005). The Ancient Aztecs (79-95). Toronto, ON: Scholastic Inc.
19
“IDEOLOGICAL CHANGE: Converting the Population”
During the final siege of their capital city
Tenochtitlan
[teh-noch-TEE-tlahn],
Aztec priests kept telling their leaders
that if the Aztecs continued their
sacrifices and prayers, the gods would
lead them to victory.
Afterwards,
when the Aztecs looked back on their
suffering during the war and their final
defeat, many believed that their gods had
abandoned them. The Aztec poem on the
right expresses their mood of despair.
Nothing but flowers and songs of sorrow
are left in Mexico and Tlatelolco [tlah-teh-LOL-co],
where once we saw warriors and wise men.
We wander here and there
in our desolate poverty.
We are crushed to the ground;
we lie in ruins.
Have you grown weary of your servants?
Are you angry with your servants,
O Giver of Life?
Hernándo Cortés wrote to King Carlos I, asking him to send “religious persons of goodly life and
character.”
Three years after the conquest, priests of the Franciscan Order arrived.
The FRANCISCAN ORDER was a group of Catholic priests who took a vow of poverty and
obedience. They worked with the poor and lower classes, trying to improve their lives. Barefoot and
thin from fasting, they started walking through the jungles and over the mountains to Mexico City
(formerly Tenochtitlan), about 500 kilometres away. When they arrived weeks later, Cortés knelt in
the dirt and kissed the hem of each priest’s robe. The Aztecs who witnessed this meeting were
amazed. They had never seen the conquistador treat anyone with such respect.
The Spanish viewed the Aztecs as heathens—as people who did not worship the Christian god.
As part of their strategy to convert Native peoples, Spanish priests ordered the destruction of Aztec
temples and burned all the Aztec codices they could find. In their place they built new churches and
images of Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary, and Roman Catholic saints.
Priests worked closely with the Aztecs who had survived the conquest and converted them to the
Roman Catholic religion. They worked first with the nobles, hoping that if the upper class converted,
the common people would do the same. While Catholic priests performed their missionary work,
European diseases continued to kill, often wiping out entire villages. Mesoamerican peoples could
not understand why their people were dying off in such horrible numbers while the Spanish felt little
or no effects. The Europeans were immune to the sicknesses they brought to the New World, and for
this reason stayed relatively healthy. But Spanish priests were quick to claim that their god protected
the Spanish from the evil forces that were striking down Native Americans by the thousands.
To the frightened Aztecs, the priests’ argument was powerful. Many historians today believe the
Native American people eagerly converted to Christianity with the hope that they would get the
protection from sickness that the Spanish seemed to enjoy.
The religious beliefs of the Mesoamerican peoples have proven quite adaptable. Even today, many
of the gods worshipped in Tenochtitlan continue to be acknowledged by the descendents of the
Aztecs. The peaceful philosophy and rule of Quetzalcoatl [ket-zal-COH-ahtl] fit with the teachings
of Jesus Christ. Other gods were worshipped in the form of Christian saints. For example,
the rain god Tlaloc [TLAH-lohk] was celebrated as John the Baptist because of his association with
baptismal waters. Over time, most of the citizens of New Spain eventually became devoted Roman
Catholics.
Innes, Hammond. (1969). The Conquistadors (274). New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf; Levin, Phyllis et. al. (2007). Our Worldviews (325). Toronto, ON: Thomson-Nelson; Fitton, Avis, Donna M. Goodman, and Edward O’Connor. (2007).
Worldviews: Contact and Change (239-240). Toronto: Pearson Education Canada; Stein, R. Conrad. (1996). The Aztec Empire (61). Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corp.;
and Woolf, Greg. (2007). Ancient Civilizations: The Illustrated Guide to Belief, Mythology, and Art (539). New York, NY: Barnes and Noble Inc.
20
“ECONOMIC CHANGE: The Wealth of New Spain”
Shortly after the Aztecs surrendered, Cortés’s men threatened to rebel. Before they left Cuba, Cortés
had promised to make the men he recruited rich beyond their wildest dreams. In Tenochtitlan
[teh-noch-TEE-tlahn], they had seen Moctezuma’s treasure rooms, loaded with gold and silver, and
heard rumours of even more wealth in the region. During the long siege of the city, however,
most of this treasure was sent back to Spain. The Spanish had been fighting for years with no pay
except what they could take in battle from the Aztecs. Cortés agreed that his soldiers deserved more
and even wrote to the Spanish King asking that they get paid.
Cortés’s wanted to make New Spain (the former Aztec Empire) a colony of the Spanish Empire.
The growing anger of his soldiers, however, meant that he was quickly losing support.
Some were disobedient while others were planning on returning to Spain. Cortés needed his fighting
men to help him carry out his goal of ruling the new colony. Facing revolt, he desperately needed to
come up with a strategy to reward them for their hardships and keep them in New Spain.
Cortés had two solutions for the problem. He began by dividing up conquered territory into large
plots of land. With each piece of land, the settlers were given a number of Aztec workers.
This was known as the ENCOMIENDA [en-koh-mee-EN-duh] SYSTEM. This was the same
economic system the Spanish used in all their colonies in the Americas. The success of this system
made Spain the wealthiest country in Europe. The rich mineral wealth of New Spain made it the
jewel in the crown of the Spanish Empire. The encomienda system allowed the Spanish to take
advantage of Native peoples and plunder their resources. The laws required that they pay the
“King’s Fifth”—one-fifth of all gold and other valuables in New Spain had to be paid to the King.
Thousands of tonnes of gold and silver and countless emeralds were shipped across the ocean to
Spain, making it the wealthiest country in Europe for a time.
Although the Spanish did not pay their Native workers, in theory, they had legal rights.
|The landowners were supposed to treat them well and educate them in the Christian religion.
In reality, many landowners abused their workers and treated them as little more than slaves.
The Spanish monarchy passed laws to stop these abuses, but the colonies were so far away that the
laws had little effect. Many Native people that survived European diseases later died as a result of
overwork and mistreatment under their Spanish conquerors.
The second policy introduced by Cortés was a “marriage law.”
Under this new law, every Spaniard in New Spain had six months
to get married or lose their encomienda. Some brought their
wives over from Spain. Most married Native women.
What did Cortés achieve by giving his soldiers land grants and
getting them to marry? First, he shifted their focus from
short-term goals—finding gold and returning to Spain—
to the long-term project of colonizing New Spain. Second, Cortés
knew that if the men married Native women, it would strengthen
their ties to the colony. The children they had with their Native
wives were the beginning of the MESTIZO [meh-STEE-sohs],
the mixed-race people who now make up the largest part of
Mexico’s population.
Fitton, Avis, Donna M. Goodman, and Edward O’Connor. (2007). Worldviews: Contact and Change (135, 242, 247-249). Toronto: Pearson Education Canada.
21
“POLITICAL CHANGE: New Leadership and a New Spain”
In 1521, Cortés claimed the land of the Aztecs for the Spanish King and renamed it New Spain.
In return for their services, the conquistadors were rewarded with huge areas of land.
The conquistadors became the new nobility of New Spain; they would not do any physical labour
themselves. The Aztecs and other conquered societies were forced to do all the actual work on the
farms and in the mines in return for little more than basic necessities—food, clothing, and shelter.
Back in Spain, Queen Isabella died in 1504. In her final will and testament she declared that the
Native Peoples of the Americas “should not receive any offense to their person or properties but
rather [the Spaniards] must make sure they are properly and fairly treated.” In 1512, King Ferdinand
passed laws that called for fair treatment of the Natives. The laws gave great power to the
landholders, but laid down specific rules to prevent abuse of the workers. These laws said that:
• Native peoples could not be used to carry goods on their backs like pack animals.
• children under 14 and pregnant women were not to do heavy work in the mines.
• Spanish masters were prohibited from beating, whipping, or calling any Native “dog.”
These laws were usually ignored and no one in the colonies enforced them.
Just as Cortés was busy turning his soldiers into settlers, King Carlos I took the leadership of
New Spain away from him. He gave the job to one of his most trusted councilors, Don Antonio de
Mendoza. Mendoza became the first viceroy, or royal representative, in New Spain. He collected
heavy taxes to support himself, the government of the colony, and the Spanish Crown.
The Aztec Social Hierarchy zz
The Hierarchy of New Spain zz
By appointing a viceroy to govern New Spain, King Carlos made it clear that the colony was under
the direct control of the Spanish Crown. Governing the colony meant keeping a steady stream of
tribute—gold, silver, and farm products—flowing to Spain to pay for the King’s European wars.
One-fifth of all gold and other valuables recovered in the colony would be sent to the King in Spain.
The people of New Spain—even the newly-arrived settlers from Spain—could see that what was
good for the King was not always good for them. The colony was making Spain extremely wealthy,
but New Spain itself had a shortage of good roads, schools, and housing. Frustration was rising in
every class of society in New Spain. Three hundred years later, this discontent would lead to open
rebellion and, in 1821, Mexico became its own country, independent from Spain.
Levin, Phyllis et. al. (2007). Our Worldviews (324-325). Toronto, ON: Thomson-Nelson; and Fitton, Avis, Donna M. Goodman, and Edward O’Connor. (2007). Worldviews: Contact and Change (242,249-250). Toronto: Pearson Education Canada.
22
“CULTURAL CHANGE: Adapting to a New Society”
After the Spanish defeated the Aztecs and took over their territory, they tried to wipe out as
much Aztec culture as they could. Aztec religion, arts, architecture, and sciences were targeted.
Almost all of their codices, sculpture, and other records were burned or smashed.
Precious gold and silver jewelry was melted down and its metal sent back to Spain. Most of the
great Aztec city of Tenochtitlan [teh-noch-TEE-tlahn] was destroyed. Its ruins were used to
build Mexico City, the new capital of the colony, on the same site. The Spanish forced the
conquered Aztecs to tear down their sacred Great Temple and build a Roman Catholic cathedral
using its stones. In the process of demolition and rebuilding, Spanish rulers also ordered the
Aztecs to fill in the surrounding lakes that once provided food, water, and protection.
With so much of their culture destroyed, our knowledge of the conquest of the Aztec Empire is
based on Spanish eyewitnesses and their written descriptions. Priests coming to Mexico to teach
the people about Christianity became interested in the Aztecs’ old way of life. They encouraged
the Aztec survivors to draw pictures to record how they had lived before the Spanish invasion.
One of these, Father Bernadino de Sahagún [sah-ah-GOON], who arrived in New Spain in 1529,
studied the Aztec language, Nahuatl [NAH-wahtl], and talked to Aztec leaders about their past.
Most of our knowledge of the Aztecs is based on the work of priests such as Sahagún.
The two pictures below show how the
Aztecs’ style of drawing changed after the
conquest. The eagle warrior on the left was
painted in Mixtec-style before the conquest.
He is outlined in black and filled in with
bright, flat colours. The details in the
drawing tell us his rank and who he was.
The eagle warrior on the right was painted
after the conquest and its impersonal style
no longer tells us a great deal about him. He
appears like any other eagle warrior would.
Many of the surviving Aztec nobles slowly adapted to Spanish ways. They learned bookkeeping
and the European ways of doing business. They became merchants, buying the goods coming
from Spain and then selling them in the colony, especially to other Native peoples. Many of this
new elite class learned to speak and write Spanish. By learning a written alphabet, many more
observers were able to record Aztec history and traditional culture. They could also write about
their lives under Spanish rule. They often included traditional pictographs in their work.
Some of the conquistadors that settled on land grants in New Spain invited their wives from
Spain to the New World. The children of European parents became known as CREOLES,
and they were the most privileged and wealthiest class in New Spain. Most Spanish settlers,
however, took Aztec women as their wives. Soon there was a ruling class that was made up of
the sons and daughters of mixed Spanish and Aztec blood. These people of this mixed blood
were called MESTIZOS [meh-STEE-sohs]. Over time, a new society developed that was neither
completely Spanish nor completely Aztec, but a new people who formed a culture that grew into
modern Mexico.
Crosher, Judith. (1976). The Aztecs (52-53). London, UK: Macdonald Educational; Levin, Phyllis et. al. (2007). Our Worldviews (325,327). Toronto, ON: Thomson-Nelson;
and Sonneborn, Liz. (2005). The Ancient Aztecs (79-95). Toronto, ON: Scholastic Inc.
23