Download Psychology – Language

Psychology
Language & Communication - Paper I
Prologue
Introduction
Language Definition and theories
Skinner’s Theory of Language Acquisition
*Chomsky’s Theory (Father of Language development)
LAD (Language Acquisition Device)
Language chapter is from Psychology Paper – I.
Very interesting topic. I am sure you will enjoy it
Language – The attribute exclusive to human beings
We will start by paying homage to the Father of modern linguistics – Noam Chomsky (A great
Intellect)
Noam Chomsky is not a psychologist or a psychiatrist, but he has had a large impact on
psychology, linguistics, and other fields. Chomsky is credited with the creation of the theory of
generative grammar, considered to be one of the most significant contributions to the field of
theoretical linguistics made in the 20th century.
Although Chomsky did not believe that language was innate, he did theorize that animals and
humans were both capable of similar types of comprehension when exposed to specific linguistic
information, but only humans could continue to develop those abilities through a process he
called a “language acquisition device” (LAD). Chomsky thought that if the LAD for all human
languages could be discovered, it could result in features that would be universal to all tongues,
known as “universal grammar
If you are not understanding anything don’t worry you will surely njoy it later on.
What is Language - the method of human communication, either spoken or written, consisting of
the use of words in a structured and conventional way
Language is a system of sounds & symbols that when combined according to certain rules, result
in meaning that is intelligible to all speakers
Humans, especially children, have an amazing capability to learn language(Explained below)
It is an attribute exclusive to human beings
This diagram shows the location of the brain areas associated with language.
B.F. Skinner believed children learned language through operant conditioning; children receive
"rewards" for using language in a functional manner.
Noam Chomsky discussed the biological basis for language and believed children have innate
abilities to learn language; however, his theory has not been supported by genetic or neurological
studies.
Jean Piaget's theory of language development suggests that children use both assimilation and
accommodation to learn language, and Lev Vygotsky's theory of language development focused
on social learning and the zone of proximal development (ZPD).(Not discussing about Piaget and
Vygotsky in the article)
Several areas of the brain must function together in order for a person to develop, utilize and
understand language, including Broca's area, Wernicke's area, the primary auditory cortex and
angular gyrus. Damage to these areas of the brain can result in language and comprehension
problems.
Origins of Language
Written records of language date back 5,000 years, but language probably dates back 150,000200,000 (when the larynx dropped to its unusual position allowing speech).
Gestures may have developed in tandem rather than as the precursor of speech.
Large brains—or reorganized brains—may have been crucial; or they may have emerged
together in a positive feedback loop created by social interaction in large groups
Quality of human language
1) Duality of Patterning in Language
In human language a limited range of distinguishable sounds can be combined & recombined
into enormous vocabulary this is called as duality of patterning. It essentially implies even
though the signal elements may themselves be meaningless but a patterned combination of them
happens to be meaningful. It is this capacity to combine and recombine that makes human
language and effective tool for communication
2) Productivity
Vocalization of animals is limited. Human beings are capable of producing & understanding
words/sounds/utterances which never has been produced before. It is this productivity of human
language that makes it capable of infinite extension & thus human language is a open system &
vocalization of animals is a closed system.
Structure of language
1) Units of language
2) rules of language
Units of language
1) Phoneme - In a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.
Arun( that’s me ) has three phonemes, A, ru, n
Chug has three phonemes, ch, u, g
You can try it for your name. And in human language there are 45 phonemes
Q) What is a syllable?
a) Syllable – it is the smallest unit of speech perception
2) Morphemes
In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning.
Can be a word or part of a word (prefix or suffix).
e.g. unhappy, unaccepted
3) Bound Morpheme – They get their meaning only when combined with words
e.g. anti-social, pro-social
Rules of language
1) Rules of Phonology – They indicate which sound combinations are permissible &
which are not
e.g. Tsunami, Knife
2) Rules of Morphology – These are the rules which indicate phonemes are combined to form
words. Rules of syntax how words combine to form sentences & the rule of pragmatics they deal
with the use of language in social context.
Stages of language development(5 STAGES)
1) The first stage of language development is known as the prelinguistic, babbling or cooing
stage. During this period, which typically lasts from the age of three to nine months,
babies begin to make vowel sounds such as oooooo and aaaaaaa.
By five months, infants typically begin to babble and add consonant sounds to their
sounds such as ba-ba-ba, ma-ma-ma or da-da-da.
2) The second stage is known as the one-word or holophase stage of language development.
Around the age of 10 to 13 months, children will begin to produce their first real words.
While children are only capable of producing a few, single words at this point, it is
important to realize that they are able to understand considerably more. Infants begin to
comprehend language about twice as fast as they are able to produce it
3) Two Words: The third stage begins around the age of 18 months, when children begin to
use two word sentences. These sentences usually consist of just nouns and verbs, such as
"Where daddy?" and "Puppy big!
4)
Multi-word Sentences: Around the age of two, children begin to produce short, multiword sentences that have a subject and predicate. For example, a child might say
"Mommy is nice" or "Want more candy."
Importance of language
Empiricist believe that language is primarily acquired by the conditioning process &
child acquires words, phrases & sentences through reinforced repetition of adult speech
to which he is exposed.
Parental reinforcement serves to gradually shape the Childs verbal behavior through
successive approximation until it becomes more & more like an adult speech. Some
empirist also believe that he children pickup words, phrases & sentences directly by
imitation & through reinforcement & generalization
Skinner’s theory of language acquisition
Its all about these 3 words
1) R – Reinforcement
2) G – Generalization
3) D- Discrimination
(Easy to remember for roadies fan – roadies group discussion)
How does a child learn language?
The main principle of operant conditioning, as defined by Skinner is positive and negative
reinforcement. Reinforcement is the process in which a behavior is strengthened, and thus,
more likely to happen again. Positive Reinforcement is making a behavior stronger by
following the behavior with a pleasant stimulus. For example, a rat presses a lever and
receives food. Negative Reinforcement is making a behavior stronger by taking away a
negative stimulus. For example, a rat presses a lever and turns off the electric shock.
Skinner viewed babies as ‘empty vessels’ which language had to be ‘put in to’. He said
children learn language from their environment and consequences of their actions (a nurture
view of language).
Skinner would say that a child learns language through positive reinforcement! His basic
explanation for the development of speech was that parents tend to reward infant
vocalizations (such as babbling) by giving the infant attention. This increases the frequency
of vocalization. He would suggest that the child will not progress from babbling to language
unless the parent’s shape the child’s language behavior.
After rewarding vocalizations for a while, parents become used to a child’s babbling and pay
less attention to it. This motivates the infant to vary the babbling. Sometimes, by accident,
the child produces more recognizable speech sounds e.g. if an infant suddenly said
‘Dadadada’, parents might respond excitedly to this, thinking that the child is trying to say
the word ‘Daddy’. The response reinforces the child’s production of this type of speech
sound. Other sounds that are less like actual speech tend to be ignored. However, parents
soon get bored by repetitions of ‘Dadadada’, and this motivates the child to modify such
sounds until the shaping process results in recognizable words. This process continues,
resulting in sentences of increasing complexity and grammatical correctness. In addition, the
use of language is rewarded when a child asks for something and as a result, succeeds in
getting it. Skinner did not claim that parents intentionally set out to shape the language
development of infants, but that this happens naturally(THIS IS VERY SKINNER DUG
THE GRAVE FOR HIMSELF)!
Another important feature of Skinner’s theory is the idea that children imitate speech sounds
and words spoken by caregivers and, provided this imitation is rewarded, learning will take
place. This is how children learn new words. However, this theory assumes that without
reinforcement, imitation.
•
Skinner thought that we can explain language development through social learning
theory (which is?).
The young boy imitates his dad, and then gets a reward.
Limitations of Skinner
1) There is a little evidence to show that parents train their children in the use of language
by systematically setting up the schedules of reinforcement
2) Childs initial grammatical constructions are not the crude approximation of the adults
speech as conditioning would demand
3) High degree of linguistic competence is acquired by the child in very short time, it is
impossible that vocabulary syntax & other features of language could be acquired in such
a short time
4) Children having congenital defects of speech or who is deaf show well developed
comprehension of language. These defects imply that these children could not have
acquired this ability through reinforcement.
Chomsky’s theory of language development
Chomsky is of the opinion that all children have an innate theory of language that enables them
to utilize verbal community
According to Chomsky
•
•
We acquire language too quickly for it to be learned.
We have this “learning box” inside our heads that enable us to learn any human language.
He termed this innate ability the Language Acquisition Device(LAD). Chomsky believed
children instinctively learn language without any formal instruction. He also believed children
have a natural need to use language, and in the absence of formal language, children will develop
a system of communication to meet their needs. He observed that all children make the same
type of language errors, regardless of the language they are taught. His theory is based on
inference, and no genetic basis or brain location has been located demonstrating an innate ability
for language.
LAD(Language acquisition devices)
Chomsky postulated existence of hypothetical LAD.
LAD hears great variety of utterances from people some grammatically correct and some
grammatical incorrect & from this body of overheard sentences LAD develops a theory of
consistent structural properties of the sentences it has heard
LAD can generalize or apply its knowledge to create sentences & this grammatical knowledge as
determines the structure of utterances LAD may desire to make. Thus the child posses a general
& highly analytical linguistic structure which results in linguistic development
Language development refers to unfolding of maturational processes as they interact with
learning. Children hear only a limited body of speech, much of which is poorly formed & yet
they rapidly & uniformly develop an intricate system of rules for creating unlimited number of
sentences. Their knowledge extends beyond their experiences. This implies that children are
genetically programmed to develop or build grammars and this genetic programming is which
Chomsky described in the form of LAD enables the child to process the verbalization heard in
the environment in such a manner as to produce implicit grammar which can be used in
generating sentences
Critical period hypothesis (अनुमान)
There is a critical period for language learning.
There is no agreement about how long this sensitive period lasts.
Genie – the American wild child – provided evidence that language cannot be learned after
puberty.
Story of genie
In the fall of 1970, social workers took custody of a 13-year-old child who had spent much of
her life chained to a potty chair in her bedroom. She could not speak, walk, or respond to
other people. She was called "Genie." Her case attracted psychologists who were interested
in finding out whether she could still learn to speak. At the time, some linguists, led by MIT's
Noam Chomsky, believed that human speech is a genetically programmed ability. Eric
Lenneberg, a neuropsychologist, agreed with Chomsky and added further that if a person did
not learn to speak by adolescence, then the natural ability to learn language might be lost
forever. This theory was the so-called "critical period hypothesis."
Although Genie's situation was one that scientists would never create intentionally to test
their theories, her unfortunate circumstances made her a prime candidate for
experimentation. Genie was past puberty. If she could still learn language, it would cast
doubt on the critical period hypothesis. Ultimately, Genie's caretakers were criticized for
combining their research with her treatment.
Genie's vocabulary grew by leaps and bounds, but she was still not able to string words
together into meaningful sentences. Normal children begin by learning to say simple
sentences, like "No have toy." Soon they are able to say "I not have toy." Eventually they
will learn to say, "I do not have the toy.' Later they will refine the sentence to say, "I don't
have the toy." Genie seemed to be stuck at the first stage.
We do learn many words from experience, from seeing, hearing, reading, and asking. But
some scientists think that learning how to speak in sentences and sensing how words get put
together in logical order also depends on something that is built into our brains from birth.
Was Genie's brain missing something which was necessary for learning language?
Over the next couple of years, some scientists concluded that Genie was not mentally
retarded, even though she was still unable to master language. She was brilliant at nonverbal
communication. Sometimes she would be so frustrated at not being able to say what she
wanted that she would grab a pencil and paper and in a few strokes, illustrate fairly complex
ideas and even feelings. She scored the highest recorded score ever on tests that measure a
person's ability to make sense out of chaos and to see patterns. Her abilities to understand and
to think logically were also strong. She had a perfect score on an adult-level test that
measured spatial abilities. One test required that she use a set of colored sticks to recreate a
complicated structure from memory. She was not only able to build the structure perfectly,
she built it with sticks of the exact same color as the first structure! Despite all this, Genie
remained unable to master the basics of language
Interactionist theories:
Children require interaction with a care-giver to develop language.
Children follow the attention of the care-giver and learn to direct the attention of the care-giver;
these activities involve intention reading and pattern finding skills.
Communication is 3-way: child, adult, object.
Language structure emerges from language use.
Second language learning …(was it easy for all of us to learn second language)
Think about these questions related to learning a second language as an adult:
Does an adult learn a second language the way a child learns a first language?
If not, what happened to the LAD?
Is there a critical period for L2 acquisition?
Which is better … classroom learning or immersion experience?
Most people agree that there is a fundamental difference between L1 and L2 learning because:
All children learn their first language easily and well whereas adults vary in their ultimate
mastery of a second language.
Children do not need to be taught their first language whereas adults benefit from formal
instruction.
Children are intrinsically motivated to learn their native language whereas adult mastery of a
second language is dependent upon attitude, motivation, and aptitude
Despite the disadvantages of learning a second language in adulthood you are naturally endowed
with important L2 learning abilities:
mature problem-solving abilities
general understanding about the nature of human interaction.
competence in your native language.
Does language influence our thinking?
Whorf’s Linguistic Relativity
The idea that language determines the way we think (not vice versa).
The Hopi tribe has no past tense in their language, so Whorf says they rarely think of the past.
According to me its bi-directional i.e. language does influence our thinking in the same way our
thought also do influence the way we speak
References –
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