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AP European History: Unit 10.1 Totalitarianism: c. 1920-1940 Definition: government controls all aspects of the lives of the people. I. Totalitarianism A. Totalitarianism vs. conservative authoritarianism: a contrast 1. Conservative authoritarianism: traditional form of anti-democratic government in Europe (absolutism) a. e.g., Louis XIV, Peter the Great, Frederick the Great, Catherine the Great, Metternich b. Regimes sought to prevent major changes from undermining the existing social order Most people went about their lives and were more concerned with local affairs that directly affected them rather than national affairs c. Popular participation in government was forbidden or severely limited This is a stark contrast to 20th century totalitarianism where people were expected to participate in the system and actively support the regime o Stalin’s 5-Year Plans in Russia o Hitler Youth in Germany d. Limited in power and in objectives (usually sought the status quo) Lacked modern technology and communications and could not control many aspects of their subjects’ lives. Usually limited demands to taxes, army recruits, and passive acceptance of the regime e. Conservative authoritarianism revived after WWI, especially in lessdeveloped eastern Europe and in Spain and Portugal Only Czechoslovakia remained democratic. f. Great Depression in the 1930s ended various levels of democracy in Austria, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, Estonia, and Latvia 2. Totalitarianism a. New technology made this possible: radio, automobile, telephone Governments could wiretap telephone lines to spy on suspected dissenters. Improved communication enabled regimes to coordinate quickly with local officials Radio was a new tool used for propaganda (in addition to the traditional printed media) Automobiles and trucks gave regimes increased mobility b. Tools of totalitarianism: censorship, indoctrination, terror Virtually no freedom of the press; the press became an organ of the government Education was geared to creating loyal citizens of the state while demonizing potential enemies Failure to support or comply with government policy often resulted in physical punishment, imprisonment or death B. Totalitarian regimes were either fascist or communist (see table below) 1. Communist in Russia (Soviet Union) 2. Fascist in Italy and Germany FASCISM COMMUNISM* Glorification of the state World wide "dictatorship of the proletariat" (classless society) Single party; single ruler (dictator) One party (communist) under the control of the Politburo. Dictatorship is not the final goal. Condemns democracy: rival parties destroy unity. Man is unable to successfully govern collectively. Condemns capitalism for exploiting workers (“haves” vs. “have nots”) Supports the idea of capitalism & owning of private property so long as it serves the needs of the state Government controls all means of production (industrial & agricultural). No private ownership. Corporate State: captains of industry become state economic deputies Economy is centralized under the communist party Aggressive nationalism Spread of communism for the benefit of the world's working class (Comintern) Advocates Social Darwinism (powerful states control weaker ones) Condemns imperialism: advocates a world without nationalism with the workers united Believes desire for peace shows weakness of gov't Peace is the ultimate goal Glorification of war (military sacrifice is glorified) Violent revolution to bring about the "dictatorship of the proletariat." War is not the end but merely the means. Emphasizes the inequalities among humans Emphasizes the perfectibility of society. Mankind is basically good. * While Marxist views may appear more benevolent and utopian in theory, 20th century communism in reality became as brutal a system as fascism, perhaps more so considering the massive deaths in the USSR at the hands of the government II. Soviet Union (USSR) A. Under Vladimir I. Lenin 1. Marxist-Leninist philosophy a. Theory of imperialism: imperialism is the highest form of capitalism as the search for new markets and raw materials feeds the bourgeois hunger for more profits Conquered peoples are ruthlessly exploited b. "New type of party": cadre of educated professional revolutionaries to serve development of political class consciousness & guidance of the "Dictatorship of Proletariat" Lenin’s view stood in stark contrast to Marx who did not envision a totalitarian dictatorship from above (by elites) but rather from below (by the workers) c. Like Marx, Lenin sought a world-wide communist movement 1919, Comintern created (Third Communists International) o Was to serve as the preliminary step of the International Republic of Soviets towards the world wide victory of Communism 2. War Communism a. Purpose was to win the Russian Civil War (1918- 1920) b. First mass communist society in world history c. Socialization (nationalization) of all means of production & central planning of the economy d. In reality, the Bolsheviks destroyed the economy: mass starvation from crop failures, decrease in industrial output e. Secret police (Cheka) liquidated about 250,000 opponents 3. Kronstadt Rebellion (1921) a. Mutiny by previously pro-Bolshevik sailors in March at Kronstadt naval base had to be crushed with machine gun fire. b. Caused by the economic disaster and social upheaval of the Russian Civil War. c. Major cause for Lenin instituting the NEP 4. NEP – New Economic Policy, 1921-28 a. Sought to eliminate harsh aspects of War Communism b. Lenin’s response to peasant revolts, military mutiny, and economic ruin c. Some Capitalist measures allowed (Lenin: "necessary step backwards") Gov't would not seize surplus grain; peasants could sell grain on the open market Small manufacturers allowed to run their own businesses d. Gov't was still in control of heavy industry, banks and railroads. e. Results of the NEP: the Russian economy improved Industry and agricultural output back to pre- WWI levels Workers shorter hours/better conditions Temporary relaxing of terror and censorship 5. Lenin’s impact on Russian society a. “Russia” renamed to Soviet Union in 1922 (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics – USSR) b. Old social structure abolished – titles for nobility ended c. Loss of influence for the Greek Orthodox Church d. Women gained equality (in theory) e. Russians had greater expectation of freedom than they had during the Czar’s regime (although expectations were later crushed by Stalin) B. A power struggle ensued after Lenin’s death in 1924 1. Lenin left no chosen successor 2. Joseph Stalin was more a realist and believed in "Socialism in one Country" a. First, Russia had to be strong internally and should defer efforts for an international communist revolution b. Sought establishment of a Socialist economy without the aid of the West 3. Leon Trotsky was more the Marxist ideologue and believed in "permanent revolution"—a continuation of a world communist revolution Party leaders believed Trotsky was too idealistic; Russia first had to survive 4. Stalin gained effective control in 1927 and had total control by 1929 Trotsky was exiled and eventually assassinated by Stalin’s agents in Mexico City (1940) C. Soviet Union under Stalin 1. Entire Politburo from Lenin's time was eventually purged leaving Stalin in absolute control. 2. The 5-year plans a. "Revolution from above" (1st Five-Year Plan), 1928; marked the end of Lenin’s NEP b. Objectives: Increase industrial output by 250%; steel by 300%; agriculture by 150% 20% of peasants were scheduled to give up their private plots and join collective farms “We are 50 or 100 years behind the advanced countries. We must make good this distance in 10 years. Either we do it or we shall go under.” c. Results: Steel up 400% (USSR now 2nd largest steel producer in Europe) Oil production up 300% Massive urbanization: 25 million people moved to cities Yet, quality of goods was substandard and the standard of living did not rise 3. Collectivization was the greatest of all costs under the Fiveyear Plans a. Purpose: bring peasantry under absolute control of the communist state Use of machines in farm production, to free more people to work in industry Gov't control over production Extend socialism to countryside b. Resulted in consolidation of individual peasant farms into large, state-controlled enterprises. c. Farmers were paid according to the amount of work they did A portion of their harvest was taken by the gov't Eventually, the state was assured of grain for urban workers who were more important politically to Stalin than the peasants. Collective farmers first had to meet grain quotas before feeding themselves. d. Results: Significantly opposed by farmers as it placed them in a bound situation (like the mirs). Kulaks, wealthiest peasants, offered greatest resistance to collectivization Stalin ordered party workers to "liquidate them as a class." 10 million peasants died due to collectivization (7 million in forced starvation in Ukraine) Agricultural output no greater than in 1913 By 1933, 60% of peasant families were on collective farms; 93% by 1938 4. Structure of gov't a. Central Committee was the apex of Soviet power (about 70 people in 1930s) b. Politburo: About a dozen members; dominated discussions of policy and personnel c. General Secretary: highest position of power; created by Stalin 5. Stalin's propaganda campaign a. Purpose: glorify work to the Soviet people and encourage worker productivity b. Used technology for propaganda Newspapers like Pravda (“The Truth”), films, and radio broadcasts emphasized socialist achievements and capitalist plots. Sergei Eisenstein (1898-1914): quintessential patriotic filmmaker under Stalin Writers & artists expected to glorify Stalin and the state; their work was closely monitored c. Religion was persecuted: Stalin hoped to turn churches into "museums of atheism" 6. Benefits for workers: a. Old-age pensions, free medical services, free education, and day-care centers for children b. Education was key to improving one’s position: specialized skills and technical education. c. Many Russians saw themselves building the world’s first socialist society while capitalism crumbled during the Great Depression USSR attracted many disillusioned Westerners to communism in the 1930s. 7. Women a. The Russian Revolution immediately proclaimed complete equality of rights for women b. In 1920s divorce and abortion made easily available c. Women were urged by the state to work outside the home and liberate themselves sexually. Many women worked as professionals and in universities. Women still expected to do household chores in off hours as Soviet men considered home and children women’s responsibility. Men continued to monopolize the best jobs. Rapid change and economic hardship led to many broken families. 8. The “Great Terror” (1934-38) a. First directed against peasants after 1929, terror was used increasingly on leading Communists, powerful administrators, and ordinary people, often for no apparent reason. b. The "Great Terror" resulted in 8 million arrests c. Show trials were used to eradicate "enemies of the people" (usually ex-party members) d. Late 1930s, dozens of Old Bolsheviks (had been Lenin’s closest followers) were tried and executed e. Purges: 40,000 army officers were expelled or liquidated (weakened USSR in WWII) f. Millions of citizens were killed, died in gulags (forced labor camps), or simply disappeared III. Fascist Italy A. Causes for the rise of fascism in Italy 1. In the early 20th century, Italy was a liberal state with civil rights and a constitutional monarchy. 2. Versailles Treaty (1919): Italian nationalists were angry that Italy did not receive any Austrian or Ottoman territory, (Italia Irredenta) or Germany’s African colonies as promised. Prime minister Vittorio Orlando angrily left the Paris Peace Conference before it was completed 3. Depression in 1919 caused nationwide strikes and class tension 4. Wealthy classes fearful of communist revolution looked to a strong anti-communist leader 5. By 1921 revolutionary socialists, conservatives and property owners were all opposed to liberal parliamentary government. 6. Fascism in Italy eventually was a combination of conservative authoritarianism and modern totalitarianism (although not as extreme as Russia or Germany) B. Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) rises to power ("Il Duce") 1. Although he was the editor of a socialist newspaper, he was, at heart, a nationalist. 2. Organized the Fascist party a. Combined socialism and nationalism: territorial expansion, benefits for workers, and land reform for peasants. b. Party was named after fasces: the rods carried by Imperial Roman officials as symbols of power. c. Initially, his party failed to prevail because of competition from the well-organized Socialists. 3. 1920, Mussolini gained support of the conservative classes and frightened middle class for anti-Socialist rhetoric; abandoned his socialist programs. 4. Blackshirts (squadristi): Paramilitary forces attacked Communists, Socialists, and other enemies of the fascist program (later, Hitler's "Brown Shirts" followed this example) This significantly undermined the stability of the government. 5. March on Rome, October 1922: led to Mussolini taking power a. Mussolini demanded resignation of existing gov’t and his own appointment by the king. b. Large group of Fascists marched on Rome to threaten the king to accept Mussolini's demands. c. Government collapsed; Mussolini received right to organize a new cabinet (government). d. King Victor Emmanuel III gave him dictatorial powers for 1 year to end nation’s social unrest. C. Corporate State (syndicalist-corporate system) was the economic basis for Italian fascism. 1. “Everything in the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state.” 2. By 1928, all independent labor unions were organized into government-controlled syndicates a. Established organizations of workers and employers; outlawed strikes and walkouts. b. Created corporations which coordinated activities between worker-employer syndicates. c. Authority from the top, unlike socialist corporate states where workers made decisions. D. Mussolini created a dictatorship 1. Right to vote was severely limited. 2. All candidates for the Italian parliament were selected by the Fascist party. 3. Gov’t ruled by decree. 4. Dedicated fascists put in control of schools. 5. Gov’t sought to regulate leisure time of the people. Fascist youth movement (Balilla) Labor unions The Dopolavoro (“After Work”): social activities for the working class 6. Italy never truly became a totalitarian regime a. Mussolini never became all-powerful b. Failed in attempt to “Fascistize” Italian society by controlling leisure time c. Old power structure of conservatives, military, and church remained intact. Mussolini never attempted to purge conservative classes. He propagandized and controlled labor but left big business to regulate itself. No land reform occurred d. Did not establish ruthless police state (only 23 political prisoners executed between 1926-1944) e. Racial laws not passed until 1938 and savage persecution of Jews did not occur until late in WWII when Italy was under German Nazi control. 7. Women a. Unlike Russia’s more modern approach to gender issues, Italy’s social structure emphasized a traditional role for women This also became the case in Nazi Germany b. Divorce was abolished and women told to stay home and procreate. c. In an attempt to promote marriage, Mussolini decreed a special tax on bachelors in 1934. d. By 1938, women were limited by law to a maximum of 10% of better-paying jobs in industry & gov't E. Accomplishments under Mussolini 1. Internal improvements made such as electrification and road building. 2. More efficient government at the municipal (city) level. 3. Suppression of the Mafia (which was especially strong in southern Italy and Sicily) 4. Improvement of the justice system (except for “enemies of the state”) 5. Lateran Pact, 1929, resulted in reconciliation with the papacy a. Vatican recognized as a tiny independent state; received $92 mil for seized church lands b. In return, Pope Pius XII recognized the legitimacy of the Italian state. F. Fascist legacy 1. Italian democracy destroyed 2. Terrorism became a state policy. 3. Poor industrial growth due to militarism and colonialism. 4. Disastrous wars resulted (from attempt to recapture imperialistic glories of Ancient Rome). IV. Nazi Germany A. Roots of Nazism: Extreme nationalism + racism = Nazism 1. Hyper-nationalism fed the impulse to conquer other nations The alleged “stab in the back”—the Weimar Republic’s signing of the Versailles Treaty—fed the nation’s frustration 2. Racist ideas a. Racial superiority of the Aryan Race—Germanic peoples b. Inferiority of Jews and Slavs B. Rise of Adolf Hitler 1. Became leader of National Socialist German Workers Party (NAZI) after WWI Tiny group of only 7 members that grew dramatically within just a few years 2. S.A. ("Brown Shirts"): Nazi paramilitary group that terrorized political opponents on the streets. In effect, the private army of the Nazis who were very loyal to Hitler 3. Beer Hall Putsch, 1923: Hitler failed in his attempt to overthrow the state of Bavaria (and ultimately, Germany) and was sentenced to a 1year jail term a. The issue gave Hitler national attention b. Hitler realized in the future he'd have to take control of Germany legally, not through revolution 4. Mein Kampf (1923) written while in jail: became the blueprint for Hitler's future plans a. Lebensraum (“living space”): Germans should expand east, remove the Jews and turn the Slavs into slave labor b. Anti-Semitism: Hitler blamed the Jews for Germany's political and economic problems c. Leader-dictator, Führer, would have unlimited arbitrary power 5. Fall of Weimar Republic was a result of the Great Depression a. Unemployment reached 43% by end of 1932 b. Economic chaos and political impotence played into Hitler’s hands Hitler began promising German voters economic, political, and military salvation. Hitler promised big business leaders he would restore the economy by breaking Germany’s strong labor movement and reducing workers’ wages if necessary. Hitler assured top army leaders that the Nazis would reject the Versailles Treaty and rearm Germany. Nazis also appealed to the German youth: o 40% of party under age 30 in 1931; 67% under 40 c. 1930, Chancellor gained permission from President Hindenburg for emergency rule by decree Struggle between Social Democrats & Communists contributed to the breakdown of the Weimar gov't. d. The Nazis won the largest percentage of votes in the Reichstag in 1933 elections (though not a majority) Demanded that Hitler play a leadership role in the government e. Hitler became Chancellor on January 30, 1933; appointed by President Paul von Hindenburg. C. The Third Reich (1933-1945) 1. Hitler quickly consolidated power a. Reichstag fire occurred during violent electoral campaign in 1933 Incident used by the Nazis to crack down on the communists b. The S.A. stepped up its terrorism of political opponents c. Enabling Act (March 1933) passed by Reichstag Gave Hitler absolute dictatorial power for four years Only the Nazi party was legal d. Hitler outlawed strikes and abolished independent labor unions. e. Publishers, universities, and writers brought into line Democratic, socialist, and Jewish literature put on blacklists. Students and professors burned forbidden books in public squares. Modern art and architecture were prohibited (dubbed "degenerate art" by the Nazis) 2. Joseph Goebbles: minister of propaganda effectively glorified Hitler and the Nazi state Leni Riefenstal’s Triumph of the Will (a documentary of the Nuremburg rally of 1934) was used by the regime as propaganda to make Hitler look larger than life and glorify the Nazi regime. 3. “Night of Long Knives” (June 1934) a. Hitler was warned that the army and big business were suspicious of the S.A. b. To please conservatives, Hitler’s elite personal guard—the S.S.—arrested and shot without trial about 1,000 SA leaders and other political enemies. c. The S.S. grew dramatically in influence as Hitler's private army and secret police Led by Heinrich Himmler 4. The S.S. joined with the political police, the Gestapo, to expand its network of special courts and concentration camps. 5. Hitler Youth: Nazis indoctrinated German youths with views of German racial superiority and Jews as the source of Germany’s problems a. Eventually, membership in the Hitler Youth effectively became mandatory This is an example of how totalitarian regimes demanded participation by the masses (in contrast to 17th century absolutism where regimes merely sought obedience) b. Children were encouraged to turn in their teachers or even their parents if they seemed disloyal to the Reich 6. Persecution of Jews a. By the end of 1934, most Jewish lawyers, doctors, professors, civil servants, and musicians had lost their jobs and the right to practice their professions. b. Nuremburg Laws of 1935 deprived Jews of all rights of citizenship. Marriage or sex between Jews and other Germans was prohibited Jews could not hire German women under the age of 45 as domestic workers Jews were forbidden from displaying the Reich or national flag c. Other laws were passed: Jews could not use hospitals; could not be educated past the age of 14; were prohibited from using parks, libraries and beaches; war memorials were to have Jewish names removed d. By 1939, 50% of Germany’s 500,000 Jews had emigrated (many were the "cream of the crop") Huge emigration fees and confiscation of Jewish property helped the government to finance economy recovery. e. Kristallnacht (“The Night of Broken Glass”) -- 1938 Hitler ordered an attack on Jewish communities (using the assassination of a German diplomat in Paris by young Jewish boy as pretense) Well-organized wave of violence destroyed homes, synagogues, and businesses. Thousands of Jews were arrested and made to pay for the damage. f. Holocaust: 6 million European Jews were eventually killed during WWII ("Final Solution") 7. Other victims of Nazi persecution included Slavs, Gypsies, Jehovah’s Witnesses, communists, homosexuals, mentally handicapped, and political opponents (totaled 6 million by 1945) a. T4 project: 200,000 handicapped and elderly people were murdered by 1939 in the name of maintaining Aryan purity. D. German economic recovery 1. Major reason for Hitler's soaring popularity Hitler delivered on his economic promise of “work and bread.” 2. Large public works program started to get Germany out of the depression. Included superhighways (autobahn), offices, gigantic sports stadiums, and public housing. 3. 1936 Olympics were held in Berlin, signaling Germany’s legitimacy by the international community 4. 1936, Germany began rearmament and government spending began to focus on the military. 5. Results of Nazi economic policies b. Unemployment dropped from 6 million in January 1933, to about one million in late 1936. c. By 1938, shortage of workers existed; women took many jobs earlier denied by antifeminist Nazis. d. By 1938 standard of living for the average employed worker increased moderately. e. Profits of business rose sharply. E. Nazi society: was there really a social revolution? 1. Well-educated classes held on to most of the advantages they possessed prior to the rise of Hitler 2. Only a modest social leveling occurred. 3. Like fascist Italy, women were viewed as housewives and mothers. a. Hitler implored German women to “make babies for the Reich” b. Birth control information and abortions were forbidden for German women (although allowed for unwanted groups such as Jews, Gypsies and Slavs c. Women were denied most meaningful occupations outside the home d. Only in wartime were large numbers of women mobilized for work in offices & factories. Essay Questions Note: This sub-unit is a very-high probability area for the AP exam. In the past 10 years, 12 questions have come wholly or in part from the material in this chapter. Below are some practice questions that will help you study the topics that have appeared on previous exams or may appear on future exams. 1. Compare and contrast conservative authoritarianism in Fascist Italy with totalitarianism in the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany. 2. To what extent did Lenin and Stalin adhere to the ideas of Karl Marx in governing the USSR between 1918 and 1940? 3. Compare and contrast totalitarianism in the USSR and Nazi Germany. 4. Compare and contrast totalitarianism in the 1920s and 1930s with absolutism in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. 5. To what extent did the rise of fascism in Italy and Germany constitute a social revolution in each of those two countries? 6. Analyze the extent to which women’s roles changed in the USSR, Italy and Germany in the years 1917 to 1940. AP European History: Unit 10.2 World War II I. Failure of collective security and peace A. Treaty of Versailles (1919) did not create an enduring peace 1. Severe punishment of Germany due to Article 231 resulted in conservative German resentment against the "dictated peace" (“diktat”) 2. League of Nations, without the U.S. & USSR, didn't have the will nor the support to maintain peace. During the 1930s, the League essentially stood by while aggressors like Germany and Italy invaded other countries and violated provisions of the Versailles Treaty. B. Washington Naval Conference, 1921-22: did not stop the naval arms race between the West and Japan 1. Five Power Treaty: created a 5-5-3 battleship ratio between U.S., Britain and Japan Yet, smaller naval vessels were exempt from the agreement 2. Four Power Treaty a. Replaced Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902 b. Bound Britain, Japan, France, and the U.S. to preserve status quo in the Pacific, a concession to Japan’s favor. C. “Paper agreements” of the 1920s had few enforcement mechanisms 1. Locarno Pact, 1925: Germany and other European nations agreed to settle all disputes peacefully. a. Gave Europeans a false sense of security about the future b. “Spirit of Locarno" was no longer relevant once Hitler took power c. Provisions were not enforceable 2. Kellogg-Briand Pact, 1928 a. 62 nations signed the treaty proclaiming "war is illegal" (unless for purely defensive purposes) b. Once again, the treaty lacked enforcement provisions c. Hitler later claimed that his aggressive military ventures were for “defensive purposes” D. Great Depression resulted in the rise of fascism in Japan and Germany 1. Japan invaded Manchuria, 1931 a. League of Nations condemned the invasion but did little by way of sanctions b. Japan pulled out of the League 2. Hitler withdrew from League of Nations in 1933 and secretly began rearmament 3. London Economic Conference in 1933 failed to achieve international cooperation in remedying the depression a. The U.S. played a major role in undermining the treaty b. The conference’s failure sent a strong signal to Hitler that the democracies lacked the organization and will to address international crises E. Stresa Front, 1935 1. Mussolini and others grew concerned when Hitler withdrew from Versailles Treaty 2. Italy, France, and Britain protested strongly, understanding the danger Agreed to use force to maintain the political status quo in Europe 3. Ironically, a year later Mussolini allied Italy with Hitler to help fascists win in the Spanish civil war. F. Italian invasion of Ethiopia, 1935 1. Italy gained a measure of revenge for its earlier defeat by the Ethiopians in 1896. 500,000 Ethiopians died in the war compared to only 5,000 Italians. 2. League of Nations imposed sanctions on Italy, but did not include oil on the list of embargoed goods. a. No attempt was made to prevent Italy’s navy from using the Suez Canal on its way toward Ethiopia. b. France and Britain were not willing to press Italy because they needed Italy’s help in keeping Hitler in check. Britain, in particular, sought to appease Italy to end the crisis and only placed an embargo on the sale British weapons to Italy. c. In 1936, the League lifted its sanction on Italy. d. The Stresa Front was now defunct as Mussolini clearly defied the League of Nations 3. Hitler was further encouraged that the international community lacked the will to enforce peace G. Spanish Civil War, 1936-1939 1. Generalissimo Francisco Franco, a fascist, sought to overthrow the republican government in Spain a. Franco sought to restore power of the Catholic Church & destroy socialism & communism in Spain b. Civil War erupted between the fascists (Falangists or Royalists) and the republican Loyalists 2. Mussolini and Hitler supported Franco and used the conflict as a testing ground for their military forces a. Italy sent 100,000 soldiers to Spain and the Italian army gained practical experience in warfare b. Germany's air force – the Luftwaffe—bombed republican-held cities The bombing of innocent civilians in the city of Guernica prompted Pablo Picasso to paint his masterpiece— Guernica—in 1937. 3. Franco won the war and imposed a fascist dictatorship in Spain a. Help from Germany and Italy was a major cause for the fascist victory. b. Britain and France officially recognized Franco’s government c. The League of Nations once again proved ineffective, this time in helping republican Loyalists against Franco. Ineffective in patrolling Spain’s borders to prevent supplies from reaching Franco’s forces d. Hoping to maintain peace, the British government did little to help the Loyalists e. In France, the issue of the war split the government and led to the fall of the leftist Popular Front. 4. In response to military cooperation in Spain, the Rome-Berlin Axis was formed ("Fascintern"): an alliance between fascist Italy and Germany H. Germany reoccupied the Rhineland, 1936 1. Directly violated the Versailles Treaty (as well as the Locarno Pact) a. The Rhineland—a region between the Franco-German border and the Rhine River—had been demilitarized in the Versailles Treaty. This would guarantee France that German forces were not directly across the border. b. The German military high command was very nervous: feared Germany was still too weak to effectively resist a Franco-British invasion and that Hitler was being reckless c. The League of Nation’s futility in earlier crises convinced Hitler that France and Britain would do nothing 2. France was unwilling to enforce the treaty without British aid a. This may have been the turning point in the balance of power France was still more powerful than Germany and may have been able to defeat and remove Hitler b. Pacifism in Britain, stemming from the horrible memories of World War I, made the government reluctant to risk another world war with Germany. By the mid 1930s, there were many in Britain who believed Germany had been unfairly punished by the Versailles Treaty 3. For the first time since World War I, Germany now had troops close to the Franco-German border Posed a major threat to France’s security I. Japan invaded China in 1937 The League of Nations watched the "rape of Shanghai" but did little to punish Japan II. Germany’s conquests in Europe lead to World War II A. Hitler repudiated the Versailles Treaty and began massive rearmament in the mid-1930s This was an important reason for Germany’s economic recovery from the depression B. Anschluss (March 1938): Germany annexed Austria 1. Germany’s threat of military action forced the Austrian Chancellor to resign 2. Austrian Nazi party assumed control and requested that Germany annex Austria 3. Germany marched into and absorbed Austria without firing a shot 4. British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain rejected joining an alliance with France and Russia a. Believed it to be too aggressive diplomatically and that it might destroy future attempts to negotiate peace with Hitler. b. As a result, the international community did nothing in response C. Czechoslovakia 1. Sudetenland a. Hitler demanded that Germany receive the German-speaking province in western Czechoslovakia or else there would be war b. Czechoslovakia refused It had well-defended borders along its border with Germany and had France as an ally Another world war now seemed imminent 2. Munich Conference, 1938 a. Issue of the Sudetenland was to be resolved in a conference arranged by British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain b. Conference attended by Germany, Britain, France, and Italy Czechoslovakia or its ally, Russia, were not invited c. Chamberlain adopted a policy of appeasement Definition of appeasement: making concessions to an aggressor in order to achieve peace Pacifist sentiment in Britain and France was very strong d. Solution: Czechoslovakia was forced to give away the Sudetenland Germany, in return, guaranteed the independence of Czechoslovakia o Czechs were shocked that the fate of its country was decided by other countries Hitler promised he would make no more territorial demands in Europe If Czechoslovakia refused to comply, it would receive no military support from Britain or France e. Chamberlain returned to Britain a hero claiming he had achieved "peace in our time" 3. Germany invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia, March 1939 a. Hitler had double-crossed Chamberlain b. Czechoslovakia did not resist the invasion c. In the space of a year, Hitler had taken both Austria and Czechoslovakia without engaging in war D. Germany’s invasion of Poland began World War II 1. One week after taking Czechoslovakia, Hitler demanded the Baltic port city of Danzig (located in the Polish Corridor that separated East Prussia from Germany) a. As he had done with Sudetenland, Hitler used the alleged poor treatment of ethnic Germans in Poland as a pretext for his demand b. Chamberlain threatened that if Germany attacked Poland, Britain would fight a war to protect Poland c. Hitler sought to avoid a two-front war against France & Britain in the west and Russia in the east 2. German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, Aug. 1939 a. Hitler sought assurances that Russia would not attack Germany if he invaded Poland. A guarantee of non-aggression would ensure that Germany would only have to fight a one front war against France and Britain b. The world was shocked that the archenemies Hitler and Stalin would make such an agreement c. Public provisions of the treaty: 10-year nonaggression pact between Germany and Russia d. Private agreement: Germany and USSR would invade Poland and split the country in half. Stalin would also get the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania France & Britain had offered Stalin military risk without gain; Hitler had offered Stalin territorial gain without risk 3. Germany invaded Poland on Sept. 1, 1939 a. Marked the beginning of World War II b. September 3, Britain & France declared war on Germany III. Germany’s conquests: 1939-1941 A. Blitzkrieg ("lightning war") used against Poland 1. New form of warfare used by Germany to quickly defeat an enemy by poking a hole in enemy line and cutting off front lines from the rear thus surrounding enemy. 2. Used coordinated attack on one part of enemy line with air force, tanks, and artillery 3. Strategy sought to avoid trench warfare of WWI 4. Poland defeated in about a month 5. Partition occurred when USSR attacked from east a. Stalin invaded Finland (1939) b. USSR annexed Estonia, Latvia, & Lithuania (1940) to create a buffer zone against Germany Believed Hitler would one day invade Russia 6. Sitzkrieg (“phony war”): After Poland, a 7-month lull ensued, causing some to say WWII was a myth. The world waited to see where Hitler might strike next. B. 1940 1. April: Hitler invaded Denmark, Sweden, Norway 2. May: Netherlands, Belgium & Luxembourg fell to Germany 3. June: Fall of France occurred in less than six weeks a. Dunkirk: thousands of French and British soldiers were trapped on beaches of France Before Germans came in for the kill, thousands were rescued by an armada of British vessels b. Vichy France created Hitler did not wish to waste time subduing all of France Puppet gov't created in southern France o Marshal Henri-Philippe Pétain in charge (later executed for treason by the French gov’t) Pétain had been a war hero in WWI at the battle of Verdun. Vichy France eventually was taken over completely by Germany later in the war c. The “Free French” were led by General Charles De Gaulle, who fled to Britain during France’s fall 4. Tripartite Pact, 1940: Japan added to Rome-Berlin axis for mutual defense and military support. C. Battle of Britain: one of most critical battles of the war 1. Hitler offered Britain peace if it accepted Germany’s control of western Europe British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, who had replaced Chamberlain, flatly refused 2. Hitler then planned a massive German invasion of England (“Operation Sealion”) Germany tried to soften Britain up for a German invasion with massive aerial bombings 3. August, Luftwaffe (led by Herman Goring, one of Hitler's inner circle) was ordered by Hitler to destroy the Royal Air Force (RAF) Britain effectively used radar (a new technology) to detect Germany’s air attacks 4. After almost destroying the RAF, Hitler ordered the bombing of London (“the Blitz”): fatal error RAF recovered and ultimately defeated the Luftwaffe 5. Hitler forced to call off invasion of Britain in September a. Germany lost 2,433 planes; RAF lost 900 b. The “Blitz” continued until May, 1941 6. Significance: Hitler now had to guard against a future twofront war D-Day in 1944 was launched from Britain D. German invasion of the Soviet Union, June 1941 1. Hitler all along had planned on invading Russia to fulfill his dream of "lebensraum" (“living space”) in the east Constituted Hitler’s greatest blunder 2. "Scorched Earth": Soviets destroyed anything of value as they withdrew to deprive German army of resources; thousands of towns in the USSR destroyed 3. By winter, Germans were at the gates of Moscow while laying siege to Leningrad (St. Petersburg) that lasted two years 4. In the USSR, WWII became known as “Great Patriotic War of the Fatherland” 5. Atlantic Charter (Aug 1941): Churchill and U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt met secretly after the invasion of Soviet Union a. Agreement: once Axis Powers were defeated, there would be no territorial changes contrary to the wishes of inhabitants (self-determination) b. Called for “a permanent system of general security”: later became the United Nations c. Stalin endorsed the agreement soon thereafter d. Meanwhile, the U.S. remained militarily neutral until December, 1941 Neutrality Acts in 1930s prevented FDR from drawing U.S. into the conflict earlier Lend-Lease Act (1941) gave large amounts of money and supplies to help Britain and Soviets; effectively ended U.S. neutrality Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Dec. 7, 1941, resulted in U.S. entry into the war E. Hitler declared war on U.S. on December 11 1. Proved to be another fatal blunder 2. Instead of focusing on Japan (who had attacked the U.S.), the U.S. (along with Britain) would now instead focus on defeating Germany first. F. The Grand Alliance formed in 1942 Consisted of Britain, the Soviet Union and the U.S. as well as two dozen other countries IV. Nazi Empire in Europe A. German victories by the end of 1941 1. Controlled all of western Europe (except for neutral Switzerland & Sweden): Austria, Czechoslovakia, western Poland, France, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Norway, western Russia. 2. Spain allowed Germany the use of its ports (although Spain remained essentially neutral) 3. German allies: Italy, Japan, Romania, Hungary, & Bulgaria. 4. Britain isolated, although gained much aid from U.S. B. The Nazi “New Order” 1. Nazis exploited Europe for its economic value 2. Nordic peoples – Dutch, Norwegians, and Danes— received preferential treatment as they were racially related to Germans. 3. Hitler heavily taxed the French as they were seen as “inferior” Latin people; they were tolerated as a race. 4. Slavs in eastern Europe were seen as “subhuman” a. Seized men & women for slave labor to work in German factories. b. Hitler planned that Poles, Ukrainians, and Russians would be enslaved and forced to die out, while Germanic peasants resettled the resulting abandoned lands. c. Polish workers and Soviet prisoners of war were transported to Germany where they did most of the heavy labor and were systematically worked to death. 80% of Soviet prisoners did not survive the war. C. Genocide of Jews, Gypsies, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and captured communists 1. Businesses and property was confiscated 2. Jews had to register with gov't authorities & wear yellow ID stars. 3. In Poland, Jews were forced to live in ghettos (e.g. Warsaw and Krakow) a. Deprived of adequate supplies b. Several families crammed into a single apartment c. Forbidden contact with the outside world 4. “Final Solution” to the Jewish Problem: began in late 1941 a. Formal plan came at Wannsee Conference in 1942 b. Six death camps built in Poland in addition to hundreds of concentration camps Auschwitz was the most notorious c. 6 million Jews killed (approximately 2/3 of the pre-war Jewish population) d. Between 5-6 million others also murdered including political prisoners, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and Gypsies D. Underground movements sprang up and increased during the war. 1. Sabotaged Nazi supply depots, derailed trains, blew up bridges. The French Underground is the most famous example 2. Supplied allies with valuable information & aid: detailed troop movements, published secret newspapers, hid escaped Allied prisoners and downed Allied pilots V. Turning points in the war A. El Alamein, Nov. 1942 1. By November, British forces (led by Bernard Montgomery) drove the Germans (led by Erwin Rommel—the “Desert Fox”) out of Egypt German forces were pushed westward across North Africa. 2. “Operation Torch” (Nov. 1942) a. Meanwhile, U.S. and British forces landed on the beaches of Morocco and Algeria and engaged retreating German forces b. Rommel’s Afrikakorps were surrounded by Allied armies and defeated by May, 1943 and removed from Africa while suffering mass casualties and prisoners of war. 3. Hitler’s decision to invade the USSR instead of defeating Britain in the Mediterranean now proved disastrous 4. Allied victory in North Africa opened the door for the invasion of Italy in July, 1943 B. Stalingrad (Nov. 1942—Feb. 1943) 1. Critical battle of the Eastern Front First German land defeat in Europe 2. Hitler sought to take the industrial city of Stalingrad en route to taking control of Soviet oil fields in the Caucasus Mountains. 3. German armies were eventually surrounded by Soviet forces. Hitler refused to allow the German forces to surrender and thus the bulk of the German army in Stalingrad (300,000 men) was destroyed in the battle. 4. After the battle, the Soviets began the 2 ½-year campaign of pushing the German army back to Berlin 5. Subsequent battle of Kursk (July 1943) was the largest tank battle in human history ending in a Russian victory 6. By February 1945 Soviet armies had penetrated to the outskirts of Berlin. C. D-Day, “Operation Overlord”, June 6, 1944 1. 120,000 troops crossed the English Channel from southern England and invaded France in an amphibious assault on Normandy (northern French coast) Success of D-Day demonstrated how important the Battle of Britain had been in 1940 when Germany failed to defeat the RAF and invade England. Had the invasion failed, Germany would have been able to concentrate its forces against the Soviets on the eastern front, perhaps resulting in a stalemate. 2. Western front established a. Spelled the end of Nazi domination of Europe b. Paris was liberated 1 month later c. Hitler now fighting on three fronts: east against Russians; west against U.S. and Britain (& France); and in Italy against U.S. and Britain d. By the fall, Allied troops reached the German border and were preparing an invasion of Germany. D. Battle of the Bulge, Dec. 1944 1. Hitler's last gasp offensive to drive Allies away from the western German border 2. Brutal fighting in the dead of winter resulted in frightful casualties on both sides. 3. After Hitler’s counteroffensive failed, the Allies quickly penetrated deep into Germany in 1945. E. May 8, 1945: Germany surrendered (Hitler committed suicide a few days earlier) F. End of the war against Japan: Aug. 1945 1. U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki 2. Japan surrendered although the emperor was allowed to remain on the throne VI. Diplomacy during the war A. Casablanca Conference, 1943: 1. FDR and Churchill declared a policy of unconditional surrender for “all enemies” 2. Italy would be invaded first before opening 2nd Front in France Stalin never forgave the Allies for putting off an invasion of France until 1944: it ensured the Russians would have to fight the brunt of the German army alone B. Tehran Conference, 1943: First meeting of the “Big Three”— Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin 1. Allies agreed to an invasion of the Western Europe in 1944. 2. Stalin reaffirmed the Soviet commitment to enter the war against Japan once Germany had been defeated 3. Stalin insisted on Soviet control of eastern Europe and the carving up of Germany amongst the Allies Churchill demanded free governments in eastern Europe and a strong Germany after the war to preserve a balance of power in Europe. 4. Roosevelt acted as a mediator and believed he could work with Stalin to achieve a post-world peace within the construct of the United Nations. C. Yalta Conference, 1945: "Big Three" met again 1. Stalin agreed to enter Pacific war within 3 months after Germany surrendered 2. Stalin agreed to a “Declaration of Liberated Europe” which called for free elections. 3. Called for United Nations to meet in U.S. beginning in April 1945 a. Soviets would have 3 votes in General Assembly b. U.S., Britain, USSR, France & China to be permanent members of Security Council. 4. Germany to be divided into occupied zones and a coalition government of communists and non-communists was agreed to for Poland. 5. U.S.S.R. allowed to keep its pre-1939 territory. 6. FDR accepted Soviet control of Outer Mongolia, the Kurile Islands, the southern half of Sakhalin Island, Port Arthur (Darien), and partial operation of the Manchurian railroads. D. Potsdam Conference, July 1945: Stalin, Harry Truman and Clement Atlee 1. Issued warning to Japan of unconditional surrender or face utter devastation During conference Truman ordered dropping of atomic bomb on Japan 2. Stalin reversed his position on eastern Europe stating there would be no free elections 3. Approvals given to concept of war-crimes trials and the demilitarization and de-Nazification of Germany. 4. Reparations from Germany could be taken from each respective zone. VII. Results of the war A. Human losses: About 55 million dead (including missing) 1. 22 million in the USSR alone 2. Holocaust resulted in deaths of 6 million Jews and 6 million other B. Millions left homeless and millions relocated (especially Germans living outside Germany) C. Much of Europe lay in ruins: would take years to rebuild the economy D. Women played even larger role in the war economy than in WWI (gained more rights after the war) E. The U.S. and Soviet Union emerged as the two dominant powers in the postwar world. Post-war competition for influence in Europe led resulted in the Cold War VIII. Why did Germany lose the war? A. Three-front war: Russia, France and Italy 1. German army stretched across an entire continent 2. Eventually, Germany began running out of soldiers Resorted to using children and older men near the end of the war B. Major blunders 1. Allowed Britain to remain intact after the Battle of Britain 2. Invasion of the Soviet Union (and later decision to engage Soviet army at Stalingrad) 3. Hitler’s declaration of war against the U.S. immediately after Pearl Harbor guaranteed the U.S. and Britain would focus first on Germany before defeating Japan. C. Industrial capacity not equal to Allies 1. U.S. out-produced all the Axis powers combined 2. Allied bombing of German cities destroyed factories 3. Use of slave labor (Slavs, Jews) not as effective 4. Much economic energy spent on the “Final Solution” 5. Germany did not shift its economy to “total war” until 1943. By that time, the Germans were being severely outproduced D. Axis alliance proved to be a liability 1. Italy’s failures in Greece and Yugoslavia drew Germany into the Balkans when it should have focused on the Mediterranean 2. German forces eventually had to take control of Italy after the Allies began penetrating up the peninsula Mussolini caught and executed by his own people in 1944 3. Japan’s attack on the U.S. drew Germany into war against the U.S. E. Grand Alliance proved overwhelming 1. Included U.S., Britain, Russia and over 40 other countries 2. Alliance worked together to achieve “unconditional surrender” for Germany Essay Questions Note: This sub-unit is a low-medium probability area for the AP exam. In the past 10 years, 5 questions have come wholly or in part from the material in this chapter. Below are some practice questions that will help you study the topics that have appeared on previous exams or may appear on future exams. 1. Analyze political, economic and diplomatic factors for the failure of peace after World War I. 2. How did diplomacy during the war play a role in the war’s outcome? 3. Analyze military, economic and political reasons for Germany’s loss in WWII.