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Research Article
Can community-protected areas conserve biodiversity in
human-modified tropical landscapes? The case of terrestrial
mammals in southern Mexico.
Carlos Muench1,* and Miguel Martínez-Ramos1.
1
Instituto de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas y Sustentabilidad, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM).
Antigua Carretera a Pátzcuaro No. 8701, Ex Hacienda de San José de la Huerta, C.P. 58190, Morelia, Michoacán, México.
*Correspondence author E-mail address: [email protected]
Abstract
Scientists debate two alternative paradigms for tropical biodiversity conservation in human-modified landscapes (HML).
Strict government-managed reserves (GMR) have many limitations, including little social support as they transfer
conservation costs to local communities. Community-protected areas (CPA) retain control and benefits of biodiversity for
local residents, but evidence of their ability to conserve biodiversity is scarce. To test the hypothesis that CPAs are effective
in conserving biodiversity, we used camera-trap data to assess differences in abundance, taxonomic and functional (body
size and trophic guild) diversity and composition of terrestrial mammal assemblages among CPAs, GMR, and open-access
forests (OAF). CPA and OAF sites were located in a HML adjacent to Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve, which is
representative of GMR. CPAs and OAFs did not differ in landscape context (forest cover, distance to towns and roads, patch
size). Our results show that the HML retains all of the species in the regional pool. We found no difference in species
diversity among protection conditions, but species composition was different among them. Abundance of medium-sized
generalist species was higher in the HML than in GMR, while large species and small herbivores were scarcer. Abundance
of omnivorous and insectivorous generalists was highest in OAF, where large predators were not detected. OAFs exhibited
fewer functional groups. No evidence was found that landscape context affected these results. We conclude that CPAs can
play an important role in biodiversity conservation. Spatial integration of conservation initiatives and training communities
in wildlife management would increase the effectiveness of CPAs.
Keywords: Community conservation; Human-modified landscapes; Tropical mammals; Camera-trapping; Selva Lacandona.
Resumen
Dos paradigmas para conservar la biodiversidad tropical en paisajes modificados por humanos (PMH) contienden en el
debate académico. Las reservas manejadas por el gobierno (RMG) transfieren el costo de la conservación a las
comunidades locales. Las áreas protegidas comunitarias (APC) mantienen el control de la biodiversidad en los pobladores
locales, pero existe poca evidencia de su capacidad para conservar la biodiversidad. Para probar la hipótesis de que las APC
son efectivas conservando biodiversidad, usamos fototrampeo para evaluar la abundancia, diversidad y composición
taxonómica y funcional de ensamblajes de mamíferos terrestres entre RMG, APC y bosques de acceso libre (BAL). APC y
BAL están en un PMH adyacente a la Reserva de la Biósfera Montes Azules, representativa de las RMG. APC y BAL no
difieren en cuanto a contexto de paisaje (cobertura de bosque, distancia a caminos y pueblos, área del parche). Nuestros
resultados indican que el PMH mantiene todas las especies del pool regional. No encontramos diferencias en diversidad de
especies entre condiciones de protección, pero sí en composición. Especies generalistas medianas fueron más abundantes
en el PMH, mientras que especies grandes y herbívoros pequeños resultaron más escasos. Omnívoros e insectívoros
fueron más abundantes en BAL, donde no detectamos carnívoros mayores. Los BAL presentaron menos grupos
funcionales. No encontramos evidencia de que el contexto de paisaje afectara estos resultados. Concluimos que las APC
pueden ser importantes para la conservación de la biodiversidad. La integración espacial de las APC y la capacitación en
manejo de fauna silvestre incrementarían su eficiencia.
Palabras Clave: Conservación comunitaria; Paisajes modificados; Mamíferos tropicales; Fototrampeo; Selva Lacandona.
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Received: 5 October 2015; Accepted 8 January 2016; Published: 28 March 2016
Copyright: © Carlos Muench and Miguel Martínez-Ramos. This is an open access paper. We use the Creative Commons
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Cite this paper as: Muench, C. and Martínez-Ramos, M. 2016. Can community-protected areas conserve biodiversity in
human-modified tropical landscapes? The case of terrestrial mammals in southern Mexico. Tropical Conservation Science
Vol. 9 (1): 178-202. Available online: www.tropicalconservationscience.org
Disclosure: Neither Tropical Conservation Science (TCS) or the reviewers participating in the peer review process have
an editorial influence or control over the content that is produced by the authors that publish in TCS.
Introduction
Tropical forests are the world´s most biodiverse terrestrial ecosystems [1] and face high deforestation rates [2].
As old-growth forests become scarcer [3], complex landscapes in which secondary and degraded forests coexist
with productive land-cover types tend to be the most common scenario throughout the tropics. This reality has
led to an academic debate on the potential of human-modified landscapes (HML) to conserve tropical
biodiversity. Some authors emphasize the irreplaceability of large tracts of old-growth forest with little or no
human presence, especially for species that face a higher extinction risk [4]. Others argue that the future of
tropical biodiversity depends on our capability to preserve it in HMLs [5, 6]. Even as the latter opinion is gaining
recognition in the scientific community [7], disagreement persists regarding the conservation model best
applicable to HMLs.
The protectionist paradigm to conservation, based on the establishment of strict government-managed
reserves (GMR), has resurged in the voice of some of the most renowned tropical ecologists [8, 9, 10, 11] who
urge the allocation of the largest possible amount of tropical forest under this scheme. The limitations of this
paradigm include not only the poor management of many reserves in developing countries [12], but also the
fact that biodiversity inside reserves is affected by human-induced transformation processes occurring outside
their limits [13, 14]. Most reserves are inhabited or used by local people, and the creation of new ones is not
well accepted in most cases [12]. In practice, strictly protected reserves transfer conservation costs to local
communities, economically, socially, and culturally, by displacing population or restricting access to natural
resources [15].
The radically distinct community conservation paradigm keeps the control of natural areas and the benefits of
biodiversity in the hands of local communities, by means of social norms that regulate access to natural
resources [16]. Community-protected areas (CPA) have existed since ancient times, but their importance to
biological conservation has only recently been recognized [17, 18]. Globally, land surface protected by local
communities equals that of official reserves [17], and CPAs have proved their effectiveness in providing
ecosystem goods and services [19] and preventing deforestation [20, 21], without the adverse social costs of
official reserves.
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The debate about the ability of local communities to preserve biodiversity in HMLs is sustained by the lack of
robust evidence on the status of biodiversity in CPAs. Few studies have quantitatively compared the biodiversity
conservation status in CPAs, GMRs and open-access forests (OAF) subject to unregulated resource use (see [22]
for a review), and no studies have compared species assemblages in CPAs, GMRs and OAFs simultaneously. A
rigorous assessment of the conservation effectiveness of CPAs should focus on the species of greater
conservation concern, those that face a high extinction risk due to their vulnerability to habitat loss and
fragmentation, or are subject to overexploitation. Terrestrial large mammals are a suitable indicator group to
measure the impact of these processes on biodiversity [23], as they include species with large area
requirements, naturally low abundances, and high habitat specialization, and species that are preferred prey for
hunting. Large mammals are of paramount ecological importance, as they exert a strong influence on the
ecosystem via such biotic interactions as predation [24], herbivory [25], seed dispersal [26], and seed predation
[27]. The effects of the disappearance of large mammals on the structure and function of tropical ecosystems
are well documented [28-30].
In this paper, we assessed the effectiveness of CPAs in retaining biodiversity by comparing species richness,
species diversity, species composition, presence of endangered species, and functional diversity and
composition of medium-to-large (>0.3 kg) terrestrial mammal assemblages among CPA, GMR and OAF
protection conditions, with a case study in the Selva Lacandona, southeast Mexico. Also, we evaluated the
effect of the landscape context of CPAs and OAFs on mammal assemblage attributes, given the well-established
importance of landscape configuration for biodiversity in HMLs. [31, 32].
We test the hypothesis that CPAs sustain higher abundances and taxonomic and functional diversity than OAFs,
and that assemblage attributes in CPAs are comparable to that of GMRs. If community conservation is effective,
management practices and social norms regulating resource use should result in lower hunting pressure and
reduced levels of other human-driven disturbances (e. g. timber extraction, land use change) inside CPAs. These
conditions would enhance the probabilities for disturbance-sensitive mammal species to persist in CPAs in
higher abundances, leading to a species-rich, functionally diverse terrestrial mammal assemblage similar to that
in strictly protected GMRs. Higher levels of human disturbance in OAFs would benefit generalist species and
affect large mammals, which play a critical regulating role in the food web (e. g., top predators), modifying the
composition of the assemblage and reducing abundance and taxonomic and functional diversity. We conclude
by discussing current limitations of CPAs as a conservation strategy, and public policy issues that could enhance
their performance in wildlife management and conservation.
Methods
Study Region
The study was conducted in the eastern part of the Selva Lacandona region, located in the state of Chiapas in
southern Mexico (16°, 17° N and 90° 30´, 91° 30´ W). This region comprises the largest remaining tract of
tropical rainforest in North America, is an important part of the Mesoamerican biodiversity hotspot [33], and
has been identified as a priority for conservation at national [34] and international scales [33]. The climate of
the region is hot (24-26°C) and humid, with a mean annual rainfall greater than 2,500 mm, 80% of which falls
between June and November [35]. The vegetation is tropical rainforest, its structure and composition varying
with soil, topographical, and hydrological features [36]. This region harbors the greatest mammalian richness of
any area in Mexico, with about 115 species representing all the orders and 27 of the 33 families reported for
the country [37]. Many severely threatened mammals, such as the Mesoamerican Tapir (Tapirus bairdii), the
White Lipped Peccary (Tayassu pecari), and the Jaguar (Panthera onca) have important populations in the
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region.
Official conservation efforts in the Selva Lacandona have focused on the establishment of strict reserves, known
in Mexico as Protected Natural Areas (PNAs), managed by the federal government with little or no participation
of local communities [38]. The largest PNA in the region, with 331,200 ha, is the Montes Azules Biosphere
Reserve (MABR), created in the late 1970s. Marqués de Comillas (MC), located in the easternmost part of the
Selva Lacandona and adjacent to the MABR, presents an interesting opportunity to study new approaches to
biodiversity conservation in HMLs. This region has undergone rapid deforestation since its government-induced
colonization in the 1970s [39]. Today, the predominant land cover is pasture for cattle ranching, and additional
deforestation is ongoing. However, old-growth tropical forest and second-growth forest cover approximately
47% of the region´s area, and maintain a high level of connectivity across the landscape, with large patches
(500-9,900 ha) connected by remnant vegetation corridors [40]. Some of these large forest patches are CPAs
with a legal community resolution to be preserved in the long term, with clearly established boundaries and a
management plan. Although the Mexican government has a mechanism to certify CPAs and other social
conservation schemes, this program lacks financial and human resources as well as clearly established
incentives [41], and most CPAs in the region remain uncertified. The majority of the forest patches remaining in
MC are OAFs, also in community tenure but without protection status, and are currently subject to selective
logging, hunting and other extractive activities, or are being cleared for agriculture.
Fig. 1. Map of the sampling localities in the human-modified landscape of Marqués de Comillas. The upper panel
includes the sampling localities inside the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve and indicates the area enlarged in the main
panel.
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Study system and mammal sampling
For this study, we selected eight sites in MC, four corresponding to CPAs and four to OAFs (Fig. 1). Due to time
and equipment limitations, only two sites were sampled inside the MABR, representing the GMR condition. The
two GMR sampling sites were separated by 2km, while MC sites were separated by a minimum of 3km. Basic
descriptive landscape measures were obtained for each of the eight MC study sites: percentage of forest cover
in a circle of 2.5 km radius around the center of sampling sites, distance to the nearest road and town, and area
of the forest patch (delimited according to Muench [40]).
We used digital camera traps (Bushnell Trophy Cam, Primos Truth Cam and Wild View Stealth Cam) for sampling
mammals at each study site. Each sampling site consisted of four camera trap stations arranged in a square
near the central part of each forest patch, with an approximate distance of 1 km between stations. Cameras
were attached to trees 50-60 cm above ground in places with signs of animal presence, and no bait was used. In
each site, half of the stations were placed near a stream or other water source. Cameras were active for 3-6
months between April 2012 and April 2014, with a CPA and an OAF site being sampled simultaneously at any
time. GMR sites were also sampled simultaneously with a CPA and an OAF site. Sampling sites were visited
every 40 days to check operation, retrieve images, and replace batteries.
We identified mammal images to the species level (except for the genus Sciurus) following Wilson and Reeder´s
[42] nomenclature, and sorted images to independent capture events, considering as independent two images
of the same species in the same site separated by more than 12 hours. This relatively long time span between
independent captures was used to avoid overestimation of the abundance of species with small home ranges,
where the same individual can be captured on several occasions during a single day. Although some arboreal
and aquatic species were recorded, these captures can be considered fortuitous and do not reflect the species’
incidence patterns or abundance in a sampling site; because this study was limited to terrestrial mammal
assemblages, these records were omitted from our analyses.
Data analysis
To assess the completeness of our sampling, sample coverage was calculated for each of the ten study sites,
using the C.hat estimator proposed by Chao and Jost [43]. We then compared several attributes (abundance,
taxonomic and functional diversity and composition) of the terrestrial mammal assemblages among CPA, GMR
and OAF conditions. We used capture rate as a proxy for abundance, quantified as the number of captures per
unit time. Observed species richness and capture rate were calculated for each of the ten study sites, rarefying
or extrapolating the results to a common sampling effort in trap-days (td). To do this, we used EstimateS v. 9.1.0
[44] to generate accumulation curves of captures and species as a function of cumulated sampling effort. To
retain the maximum possible information from our samples, we established 400 td as the common sample size
for comparisons. In four sites we rarefied abundance and species richness, as sampling effort was higher than
400 td. In the remaining six sites, where samples were smaller than the established criterion, we used
rarefaction curves to extrapolate abundance and species richness to 400 td, following Colwell et al. [45].
Observed species richness was also obtained via rarefaction to a common number of individuals (the minimum
recorded among all study sites). Total richness was estimated using the Chao2 non-parametric estimator.
Diversity and evenness for each assemblage were calculated using the inversed Simpson and Simpson´s
evenness indices, respectively. After transformation of the variables that did not adjust to a normal distribution,
ANOVA tests were used to assess differences in assemblage attributes among protection conditions, using the R
programing environment [46].
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To compare the structure of assemblages among protection conditions, rank-abundance graphs were prepared
following Magurran [47]. In these graphs, the y-axis values represent capture rates for each species and x-axis
the species ranked by capture rate (from higher to lower values). Capture rates per species were calculated as
(nij/tdj)*100, where nij is the number of captures of the species i in site j, tdj is the sampling effort accumulated
in site j, and 100 is a conventional unit of time used to produce a standardized abundance index [48]. To avoid
sampling effects of the fewer sites in the GMR condition, we elaborated a rank-abundance graph for each site,
and then averaged the results to produce a single mean rank-abundance graph per protection condition.
Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) was used to evaluate similarity in species composition among
protection conditions. This ordination analysis was based on a matrix of 10 columns (representing the study
sites) and 24 rows (representing recorded terrestrial mammal species) with cells containing capture rates. The
scores of the 10 sites in three NMDS dimensions were used to test for significance in compositional differences
among protection conditions, using MANOVA and a posteriori Bonferroni test. We performed NMDS using
Primer-E v.5 [49] and MANOVA using Data Desk [50]. Finally, we tested whether capture rate for each species
differed between pairs of protection conditions, using Student´s t tests for samples with unequal variance.
Body mass (in kg) and general trophic guild (carnivore, insectivore, omnivore or herbivore) were used to classify
recorded species into a-posteriori functional groups. Body mass was obtained from a global database [51],
while trophic guild was defined according to Arita et al. [52]. A cluster analysis (using Ward´s method and
Euclidean distance) was used for the classification. To quantify functional diversity for each site, we calculated
functional group richness (FGR), which corresponds to the number of a-posteriori functional groups, and the
functional evenness index (FEve), which ponders the distribution of abundances in a functional trait space [53],
using the FD package for R [54]. Differences among protection conditions in functional diversity, as well as in
the abundance of each functional group, were tested for using ANOVA. Functional similarity among sites in
abundance of the functional groups was explored with a NMDS analysis based on a matrix with 10 columns
(sites) and seven rows (functional groups). A MANOVA test was used to assess differences in functional
composition among protection conditions, considering the scores of the sites in three NMDS dimensions.
We assessed to what extent landscape context varied between protection conditions in MC and affected
mammal assemblages. For the former, we conducted Student´s t test comparing percentage of forest cover,
distance to roads and towns, and patch area between CPA and OAF sites. GMR sites were not considered in
these comparisons, as they were placed in a single forest patch of more than 300,000 ha with 100% forest cover
and far away from roads or towns, and thus were evidently different from MC sites. Finally, to assess whether
mammal species and functional diversity in MC sites were affected by landscape context, we used a MANOVA
test.
Results
With an accumulated sampling effort of 3,479 effective trap-days, we obtained a total of 965 independent
captures representing 29 mammalian species (Appendix 1). Of this total, 677 captures (70.2%) were obtained in
CPA and OAF sites, with an accumulated effort of 2,702 td (77.7%), accounting for 28 species. In the GMR sites,
with an effort of 777 td (22.3%), we recorded 288 captures (29.8%) corresponding to 18 species. A summary of
the attained sampling effort, sample coverage, total number of captures, global capture rate, as well as
observed and estimated species richness for each study site is presented in Appendix 2. Most sites attained a
completeness level (C.hat) above 95%, except for one site that attained 90%. With the data from all sites
grouped by protection condition, all conditions attained a coverage level of 99%. Four species were excluded
from analyses, because they are almost strictly arboreal (Black Howler Monkey Alouatta pigra, Spider Monkey
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Ateles geoffroyi and Mexican Mouse Opossum Marmosa mexicana) or aquatic (Neotropical Otter Lontra
longicaudis). We recorded a similar average number of endangered mammal species (according to the Mexican
official norm NOM-059) in all protection conditions. Incidence data for these species are shown in Appendix 3.
Difference in taxonomic diversity among protection conditions
No significant differences were detected among conditions for species richness after both sample-based and
individual-based rarefaction/extrapolation, or for Simpson´s diversity and evenness indices (Fig. 2). However,
global mammalian abundance (i.e. number of captures at equal sampling effort) was significantly higher in GMR
than in CPA (ANOVA F= 4.6, p= 0.05).
Difference in species dominance and species composition among protection conditions
Assemblage structure for sites under different protection conditions is presented as rank-abundance graphs in
Fig. 3. The dominant species (i.e. the one with the highest capture rate) changed among protection conditions,
although the Spotted Paca (Cuniculus paca) and the Red Brocket (Mazama temama) were consistently among
the four most abundant species in all conditions. It is noteworthy that inter-site variation in capture rate per
species was lower in the GMR condition.
Fig. 2. Mean and standard error of species richness and diversity measures for the terrestrial mammal assemblage
under different protection conditions in the Selva Lacandona, southern Mexico. CPA= Community-protected areas
(n=4); OAF= Open-access forests (n=4); GMR= Government-managed reserve (n=2).
NMDS analysis (stress = 0.04, considering three dimensions) and MANOVA test indicated a significant difference
(F = 4.5, P = 0.02) in species composition among CPA and GMR (p<0.01) and OAF (p<0.05), while GMR and OAF
were not different (p>0.05; Fig. 4). Two species, the Spotted Paca and the Central American Agouti (Dasyprocta
punctata), were significantly (Student´s t test P<0.05) more abundant in GMRs and OAFs than in CPAs
(Appendix 4).
Difference in functional diversity and composition among protection conditions
Cluster analysis of species based on body mass and general trophic guild detected seven a-posteriori functional
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groups (Appendix 5). Functional group richness (FGR) was not significantly different between CPA and GMR
conditions, while OAFs showed a significantly lower FGR (ANOVA F= 4.9, p= <0.05). No significant differences
were detected among protection conditions for the functional evenness index (FEve; Appendix 6). Regarding
functional composition, the NMDS ordination (stress = 0.04, considering three dimensions) and MANOVA test
(F= 4.6, p= 0.02) showed that, along the dimension 1, CPA was different from GMR and OAF conditions (p<0.01;
Fig. 5). These differences were mostly due to the fact that large carnivores were more abundant in GMR than in
CPA and OAF (ANOVA F= 10.2, p< 0.01, Fig. 6), and that abundance of small herbivores was higher in GMR,
medium in OAF and lower in CPA (ANOVA F= 77.4, p< 0.001, Fig. 6). Mean body mass of the mammal
assemblage did not differ among CPA, GMR and OAF conditions (Fig. 6).
Landscape context and assemblage attributes
Landscape context varied widely among sites, but none of the variables we considered were significantly
different between CPA and OAF protection conditions (Appendix 7). The results of MANOVA tests did not detect
a significant effect of percentage forest cover, distance to roads and towns or patch area on any of the
assemblage attributes (richness estimates, taxonomic and functional diversity indices) obtained for CPA and
OAF sites.
Fig. 3. Rank-abundance graphs for the
mammal assemblage under three
protection conditions in the Selva
Lacandona, southern Mexico. Each
panel shows mean capture rate (bars)
and standard error (lines) values for
each species recorded in a given
protection condition. Identification
codes for species are presented in
Appendix 1.
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Fig. 4. Non-metric multidimensional scaling
ordination of sampling sites based on
capture rates of terrestrial mammal species
in sites under different protection
conditions in the Selva Lacandona,
southern Mexico. Ellipses enclose sites
under the same protection condition. CPA=
Community-protected areas; OAF= Openaccess forests; GMR= Governmentmanaged reserve.
Fig. 5. Non-metric multidimensional
scaling ordination of sampling sites
based on abundance of terrestrial
mammal functional groups in sites
under different protection conditions in
the Selva Lacandona, southern Mexico.
Ellipses enclose sites under the same
protection condition. CPA= Communityprotected areas; OAF= Open-access
forests; GMR= Government-managed
reserve.
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Fig. 6. Mean, range and standard error of the relative abundance (n/100 td) of functional groups of terrestrial mammals
and community-level weighted mean of body mass (kg) for each protection condition in the Selva Lacandona, southern
Mexico. CPA= Community-protected areas; OAF= Open-access forests; GMR= Government-managed reserve. Protection
conditions with different capital letters are different (p<0.05); the p value obtained from ANOVA test is shown inside
each panel.
Discussion
Our results show that a species-rich terrestrial mammal assemblage exists at the HML of Marqués de Comillas.
We hypothesized that CPAs would sustain a mammal assemblage similar to GMRs and more diverse than OAFs.
However, the three protection conditions showed similar species richness and diversity values, indicating that
conservation effectiveness of both CPA and GMR conditions is not noticeable in terms of taxonomic diversity.
Nonetheless, functional group richness did not differ between the CPA and GMR conditions, and was lower in
the OAF condition, supporting our hypothesis of CPA effectiveness. In summary, our assessment of the
effectiveness of CPAs as a conservation strategy shows that compared to OAFs, CPAs: (1) maintain healthier
populations of large carnivores; (2) are less dominated by omnivorous and insectivorous generalist species; and
(3) retain the same number of functional groups as our GMR protection condition. These results were
independent of the landscape context variables we measured.
Sample coverage and species list of terrestrial mammals.
Our sampling attained a high completeness level, which enabled us to confidently assess the effects of
protection condition on mammalian assemblages. Overall, we detected 24 terrestrial mammal species in MC.
The White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and the Northern Naked-tail Armadillo (Cabassous centralis)
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have been captured by camera traps set by us in the region for a different purpose. We have observed the
Coyote (Canis latrans) and the Brown Four-eyed Opossum (Metachirus nudicaudus) in MC, but they were not
registered by our sampling protocol. Other species that may be present are the Spotted Skunk (Spilogale
angustifrons) [55], the Long-tailed Weasel (Mustela frenata), the Eastern Cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus) and
the Red-bellied Squirrel (Sciurus aureogaster) [37]. Most of these species are associated with severely disturbed
habitats, which may explain their absence from the forest sites we studied. Considering these species, the
medium-to-large terrestrial mammal species list for MC should be 32 species, which is close to the upper limit
predicted by our Chao2 richness estimate.
We registered several threatened mammal species in the studied HML. These include the White-lipped Peccary,
an extremely space-demanding forest dweller [56] detected in one of the bigger OAF patches (7,560 ha). The
Baird´s Tapir was recorded in several sites, both in CPA and OAF conditions. The Jaguar was photographed only
in one CPA, but footprints were observed in other CPA sites. The Margay (Leopardus wiedii) was also present
throughout our MC study sites. The Northern Tamandua (Tamandua mexicana) and the Striped Hog-nosed
Skunk (Conepatus semistriatus) were more abundant in MC than in the GMR. The White-lipped Peccary, the
Grey Fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) and the Greater Grison (Galictis vittata) were captured only in MC sites,
but their detection occurred in unique capture events, and so may be attributed to chance rather than
biological pattern. No effect of protection condition is apparent in the incidence of endangered mammals, thus
we conclude that the GMR as well as the protected and unprotected patches in the HML play a role in the
conservation of these species.
Effect of protection condition on species richness, diversity and composition
Our results show that species richness and species diversity did not differ among protection conditions,
although inter-site variation in richness was high among OAF sites, with some sites showing a species-poor
assemblage and others having a richness value similar to GMR sites. Such variation can result from a
combination of landscape context [57, 58] and management factors [59, 60], as found in several studies.
Although no effect of the landscape context variables we measured was found, other variables may be
important. For example, low species richness was recorded in isolated forest patches, while patches connected
by corridors showed higher richness (data not shown). Inter-site variation in species richness in the CPA
condition was not higher than in GMR sites (Fig. 2, Appendix 2). It is likely that conservation efforts in CPAs
result in the maintenance of several disturbance-sensitive mammals, contributing to high species richness.
In contrast to species richness and diversity, and contrary to our hypothesis, species composition of the
terrestrial mammal assemblage was different between CPA and GMR conditions. Some species showed higher
capture rates in CPA than in GMR sites, like the Red Brocket, which was dominant in CPAs. Other species
showing increased abundance in CPAs (the White-nosed Coati, Nasua narica, and the Collared Peccary, Pecari
tajacu) or present in CPAs and not detected in GMRs (e. g. the Northern Raccoon, Procyon lotor, and the
Virginia Opossum, Didelphis virginiana) are medium-sized generalists that may benefit from supplementary
resources provided by crops [61, 62]. Conversely, old-growth forest specialists like the Baird´s Tapir and the
Ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) showed lower capture rates in CPAs than in GMR sites. However, the only
significant differences in species abundance were detected for the Central American Agouti and the Spotted
Paca, which had lower capture rates in CPA than in GMR. Overall, these results concur with those of Sahabuddin
and Rao [22], who found no difference in species richness or diversity between CPAs and GMRs in several
localities in the tropics, but identified consistent differences in species composition between the two protection
conditions. Specialized and large bodied animals seem to be less abundant in CPAs, which tend to be smaller
forest patches and more isolated than GMRs.
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In OAF sites, a trend towards more generalist-dominated assemblages was notable, with species like the Ninebanded Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus), the Tayra (Eira barbara), the Striped Hog-nosed Skunk and the
Northern Raccoon increasing their abundance even further. As these insectivores and carnivore-omnivores
proliferate, specialized predators like the Ocelot were scarcer than in CPAs, and top predators like the Jaguar
were not detected. Nevertheless, the Central American Agouti and the Spotted Paca were significantly more
abundant in OAFs than in CPAs, determining a greater similarity between GMR and OAF sites, as these species
are dominant in both conditions.
Effect of protection condition on functional diversity
The shift in species composition described above determines a decrease in functional diversity in OAFs relative
to GMRs, measured as the number of functional groups present at each site, suggesting that CPAs are effective
in retaining functional diversity of mammal assemblages. Large carnivores were not found in OAFs, and large
herbivores tended to be scarce. Conservation of large mammals is a fundamental conservation goal, as they
exert a strong influence on the ecosystem´s structure and function, and this is an important accomplishment of
CPAs in our study region.
Large carnivores require large amounts of habitat, and this requirement is best met in the MABR, the largest
tract of continuous old-growth forest in the Selva Lacandona, where our GMR sites were established. Prey
availability does not explain the low abundance or absence of large carnivores, because both CPA and OAF sites
had high capture rates for medium-sized herbivores. Perhaps even more important than habitat availability is
the fact that large carnivores are hunted in MC as retaliation for cattle predation. The conflict between cattle
ranching and large carnivores seems to be the main threat for these mammals in the region, and its effects may
cascade down the trophic web [30]. Some of these cascade effects may be already evident: the increased
abundance of medium-size herbivores outside GMR may indicate a deficient demographic regulation of these
species by their natural predators.
The other significant functional difference between protection conditions was the scarcity of small herbivorous
mammals in CPA compared to GMR sites. The Spotted Paca and the Central American Agouti were by far the
most frequently captured species in all sites except for CPAs, a pattern that strongly influences the lower global
capture rate at these sites. Low abundance of small herbivores may be related to hunting patterns, as these
animals are preferred prey for traditional hunters. Hunting is not permitted in CPAs, but poaching endures and
is perhaps the problem most frequently reported by CPA managers. Poachers may prefer smaller prey, which is
easier to conceal, and this kind of selective harvest may cause a decline in small herbivore populations.
As stated by the mesopredator release hypothesis [63, 64], the loss of the large carnivores can open
colonization opportunities for smaller, less specialized predators, which may in turn have strong impacts on
small herbivore populations. Our data indicate that OAFs, where no large carnivore was detected, have the
highest capture rates for carnivorous-omnivorous medium-sized mammals such as the Tayra, the Northern
Raccoon and the Striped Hog-nosed Skunk (Appendix 4). Bottom–up effects caused by resource availability and
habitat heterogeneity supplemented by anthropic land covers may also benefit generalist mesopredators. Strict
carnivore medium-sized species like the Ocelot and the Margay do not appear to benefit from the absence of
large predators, as their capture rates were lower in the HML than in the GMR.
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Implications for conservation
Our results show that the forest patches in the HML that we studied have a high conservation value,
maintaining species-rich terrestrial mammal assemblages. All endangered species with distribution in the Selva
Lacandona are present in MC´s forest patches. Conservation of these patches most probably benefits many
species inside the official reserves, not only providing a buffer against disturbance and resource extraction, but
also enhancing landscape supplementation [61] and metapopulation dynamics [65].
The importance of CPAs for tropical mammal conservation in the region is straightforward, as community
agreements guarantee persistence of forest cover in the long term. CPAs have great opportunities to grow as a
conservation strategy in our study region. The larger remaining forest patches do not have community
agreements to be destined to conservation, and many are being cleared for agriculture or degraded by
mismanaged logging. Our results show that these patches (OAFs) retain a high conservation value, and even
sustain populations of disturbance-sensitive forest specialists like the White-lipped Peccary. Supporting existing
CPAs could encourage neighbor communities to preserve their biological heritage.
We found no effect of the landscape variables we measured on the mammal assemblage attributes of MC
forest patches. MC maintains 47% of its area with forest cover (Muench, unpublished data), which is above the
tipping-point (20-30%) of biodiversity collapse identified in HMLs of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest [31] and is
enough to maintain high biodiversity levels [66]. MC also maintains a high landscape connectivity level, with
large patches linked by corridors [40]. This situation may explain why protection condition seems to have a
stronger effect than landscape context on the terrestrial mammal assemblage. Nevertheless, a spatially-explicit
landscape perspective is critical for the performance of a community-based conservation strategy, especially for
large mammals (e.g. Jaguar, Puma, Tapir, White-lipped Peccary), which can have home ranges larger than most
CPAs. Large and well-connected patches can retain more species and greater abundances of large animals than
small and isolated ones [32], and the conservation efficiency of the GMR in our study case is largely due to
landscape integrity. In order to retain the ecological functions of these species, connectivity between CPAs,
GMRs and other forest patches needs to be maintained. Regional integration of conservation initiatives should
be encouraged, and remaining corridors that link CPAs should be important management units. This implies an
organizational challenge, since congruent territorial management politics require agreements among
communities.
CPA effectiveness can be enhanced by supporting these initiatives with capacity building. Training in wildlife
management is recognized as a necessity by CPA managers. Our results suggest that species preferred for
hunting, especially small herbivores, may be overexploited in CPAs, despite hunting prohibitions inside their
limits. The cultural and economic importance of hunting for local communities hinders an inflexible banning
policy, and sustainable use is feasible for some species. Sustainable harvest rates can be calculated from
abundance and current harvest estimations [67], which communities could develop with proper training.
Participative wildlife monitoring is made easy and robust with camera-trap methodology, but it usually requires
financial and technical support. Keeping record of harvest rates is feasible for respected community members if
the information is gathered for management purposes only. Killing large carnivores as retaliation for cattle
predation is an important conservation problem in MC as well as in many rural areas of tropical Mexico [68].
Public policy addresses this problem with a predation insurance fund, but this policy is scarcely known and
incorporates stipulations that are hard to meet for many peasants. This policy would be greatly enhanced by an
effective communication strategy.
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Evaluating costs and benefits of CPAs and GMRs should include social, economic, and environmental aspects,
considering both benefits received from conservation and opportunity costs of not engaging in conventional
productive activities [16]. Although such an evaluation is beyond the scope of this paper, it is useful to state
some observations about this matter in our study region.
Economic benefits obtained by CPAs derive mainly from ecotourism and payment for ecosystem services. Some
communities reinvest profits on CPA management, including monitoring, surveillance, fire control, species
recovery, and restoration programs. Incomes are also used to improve social infrastructure [69]. Furthermore,
capacity building may provide future benefits for the communities´ sustainable development, and certified CPAs
achieve a legal status as PNAs [41], providing an opportunity for territorial defense against undesired activities
such as mining or oil extraction [69].
People in communities with agrarian rights over GMRs obtain constant economic benefits from environmental
institutions, and some are employed as park rangers. However, these benefits are not evenly distributed among
communities [70], or among individuals living in benefited communities [71]. Many people with no access to
land and excluded from official programs oppose GMRs and constantly threaten to open new croplands inside
the reserves. Even for those favored by government institutions, official programs have not succeeded in
creating long-term development opportunities based on alternative productive activities [71].
Community-protected areas have proved to be efficient in preventing deforestation [20, 21], providing
ecosystem goods and services and, according to our results, conserving important components of functional
diversity. Supporting CPAs from governmental and academic institutions could greatly increase their
effectiveness in biological conservation, benefitting local communities and enhancing the viability of
neighboring official reserves.
Acknowledgements
The authors express their gratitude towards many people of Marqués de Comillas for their hospitality and
support. Although is impossible to mention everyone, this work is a result of the efforts of individuals and
communities struggling to conserve their forest: Germán, Víctor, Josefina, Irma, David and Isaías from Reforma;
Damián, Antonio and Jesús from La Corona; Gerardo from San Isidro; Jorge from Pico de Oro. Margarita Gil,
Gustavo Aguilar and Emilio Roldán provided essential help during the fieldwork. This paper constitutes a partial
fulfillment of the Posgrado en Ciencias Biológicas doctoral program of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de
México (UNAM). The first author received a scholarship from the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología
(CONACYT). The Corredor Biológico Mesoamericano-México (CBMM) project of the Comisión Nacional para el
Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad (CONABIO), and PAPIIT-UNAM IN 227210 provided financial support for
this research.
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Appendix 1. List of mammal species detected by camera trapping in Marqués de Comillas and the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve, categorized by size,
locomotion and conservation status in national and international lists of threatened species.
Order
Family
Species
Common name
Size
Locomotion
IUCN
NOM-059
Marsupialia
Didelphidae
Didelphis marsupialis
Black-eared Opossum
L
T-Sc
LC
Marsupialia
Didelphidae
Didelphis virginiana
Virginia Opossum
L
T-Sc
LC
Marsupialia
Didelphidae
Marmosa mexicana*
Mexican Mouse Opossum
S
Ar-Sc
LC
Marsupialia
Didelphidae
Philander opossum
Gray Four-eyed Opossum
M
T-Sc
LC
Primates
Atelidae
Alouatta pigra*
Black Howler Monkey
L
Ar
EN
P
Primates
Atelidae
Ateles geoffroyi*
Spider Monkey
L
Ar
EN
P
Pilosa
Myrmecophagidae
Tamandua mexicana
Northern Tamandua
L
Sc
LC
P
Cingulata
Dasypodidae
Dasypus novemcinctus
Nine-banded Armadillo
L
T
LC
Carnivora
Canidae
Urocyon cinereoargenteus
Grey Fox
L
T
LC
Carnivora
Felidae
Panthera onca
Jaguar
VL
T
NT
P
Carnivora
Felidae
Puma concolor
Puma
VL
T
LC
Carnivora
Felidae
Puma yagouaroundi
Jaguarundi
L
T
LC
A
Carnivora
Felidae
Leopardus pardalis
Ocelot
VL
T
LC
P
Carnivora
Felidae
Leopardus wiedii
Margay
L
T-Sc
NT
P
Carnivora
Mephitidae
Conepatus semistriatus
Striped Hog-nosed Skunk
L
T
LC
Pr
Carnivora
Mustelidae
Eira barbara
Tayra
L
T-Sc
LC
P
Carnivora
Mustelidae
Galictis vittata
Greater Grison
L
T
LC
A
Carnivora
Mustelidae
Lontra longicaudis*
Neotropical Otter
L
Aq
DD-VU
A
Carnivora
Procyonidae
Procyon lotor
Northern Raccoon
L
T
LC
Carnivora
Procyonidae
Nasua narica
White-nosed Coati
L
T-Sc
LC
Perissodactyla Tapiridae
Tapirus bairdii
Baird´s Tapir
VL
T
EN
P
Artiodactyla
Tayassuidae
Pecari tajacu
Collared Peccary
VL
T
LC
Artiodactyla
Tayassuidae
Tayassu pecari
White-lipped Peccary
VL
T
VU
P
Artiodactyla
Cervidae
Mazama temama
Central American Red Brocket
VL
T
DD
Rodentia
Sciuridae
Sciurus deppei**
Deppe´s Squirrel
M
Sc-Ar
LC
Rodentia
Sciuridae
Sciurus yucatanensis**
Yucatan Squirrel
M
Sc-Ar
LC
Rodentia
Dasyproctidae
Dasyprocta punctata
Central American Agouti
L
T
LC
Rodentia
Cuniculidae
Cuniculus paca
Spotted Paca
L
T
LC
Lagomorpha
Leporidae
Sylvilagus brasiliensisMA
Tapeti
M
T
LC
Code
Dimar
Divir
Mamex
Phopo
Alpig
Atgeo
Tamex
Danov
Urcin
Paonc
Pucon
Puyag
Lepar
Lewie
Cosem
Eibar
Gavit
Lolon
Prlot
Nanar
Tabai
Petaj
Tapec
Matem
Scsp
Scsp
Dapun
Cupac
Sybra
*Not considered in community analyses, due to their arboreal or aquatic habits. **Grouped as Sciurus spp in community analyses. MA Detected exclusively inside MABR. Size categories: S= Small (< 0.1 kg),
M= Medium (0.1-1 kg), L= Large (1-10 kg), VL= Very large (>10 kg). Locomotion mode: T= Terrestrial, Sc= Scansorial, Ar= Arboreal, Fo= Forsorial, Aq= Aquatic. IUCN categories: LC= Least concern, DD= Data
deficient, NT= Near threatened, VU= Vulnerable, EN= Endangered. NOM-059 categories: Pr= Subject to special protection, A= Threatened, P= Endangered.
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Appendix 2. Sampling effort, sample coverage, observed number of species and captures, capture rate and
estimated total richness for each study site under a given protection condition in the Selva Lacandona, southern
Mexico.
Sample
Number
Capture
Locality Protection Sampling
coverage
of
Number of
rate
Estimated
condition effort (td)
(C.hat)
species
captures (n/td)*100 richness (Chao2)
0.99
MAS
GMR
412
15
159
38.6
15.00
0.98
MAN
GMR
365
12
126
34.5
12.16
0.97
RA
CPA
402
9
67
16.7
9.33
0.96
CO1
CPA
427
12
66
15.5
17.93*(ICE=14.9)
0.96
CO2
CPA
393
10
50
12.7
10.99
0.97
SIS
CPA
489
15
158
32.3
17.64*(ICE=18.7)
0.99
LM
OAF
252
13
118
46.8
13.00
1
PO
OAF
318
8
88
27.7
8.00
0.91
SLA
OAF
180
8
45
25.0
15.78*(ICE=20)
0.95
LV
OAF
241
15
79
32.8
16.96
Acronyms for sampling locality: MAS= Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve South; MAN= Montes Azules
Biosphere Reserve North; RA=Reforma Agraria; CO1=La Corona 1; CO2= La Corona 2; SIS=San Isidro; LM=Adolfo
López Mateos; PO=Zamora Pico de Oro; SLA=San Lázaro; LV=La Victoria. CPA= Community-protected areas;
OAF= Open-access forests; GMR= Government-managed reserve. *for these sites the Chao2 richness estimator
shows a variation greater than 2 SD; ICE richness estimator is shown in parenthesis.
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SLA
PO
LV
LM
CO2
CO1
SIS
RA
MAS
MAN
Appendix 3. Incidence matrix of species listed on the Mexican official norm for endangered species (NOM-059)
in each sampling site and protection condition studied in the Selva Lacandona, southern Mexico.
Species
NOM-059
GMR CPA OAF
Tamandua mexicana
P
1 1
1 1
1
1
1
Panthera onca
P (Priority)
1 1
1
1
Puma yagouaroundi
A
1 1 1 1
1
1
1
1
Leopardus pardalis
P
1 1 1 1 1 1
1
1
1
1
1
Leopardus wiedii
P
1
1
1 1
1
1
1
Conepatus semistriatus
Pr
1
1 1 1 1
1
1
Eira barbara
P
1 1
1 1 1
1
1
1
Galictis vittata
A
1
1
Tapirus bairdii
P (Priority) 1 1 1 1
1
1
1
1
Tayassu pecari
P (Priority)
1
1
Total/Average per site
3 6 4 7 3 2 4 6 1 5 6/4.5 9/4 8/4
NOM-059 categories: Pr= Subject to special protection, A= Threatened, P= Endangered. Species identified as
priority by the endangered species conservation program (PROCER) are indicated in parenthesis. CPA=
Community-protected areas (RA, SIS, CO1, CO2); OAF= Open-access forests (LM, LV, PO, SLA); GMR=
Government-managed reserve (MAN and MAS).
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Appendix 4. Pairwise comparisons of species capture rates between protection conditions. Left panels
represent all species, and scale increases towards right panels for species with low capture rates. Top panel:
CPA vs. GMR; Central panel: CPA vs. OAF; Bottom panel: GMR vs. OAF. Asterisks next to species codes indicate
significant differences (Students t test p<0.05).
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Appendix 5. Cluster dendrogram of species based on body mass and trophic guild, used to define functional
groups of terrestrial mammals in the Selva Lacandona, southern Mexico. LC= Large carnivores; SC= Small
carnivores; LH= Large herbivores; MH= Medium size herbivores; SH= Small herbivores; O= Omnivores; I=
Insectivores.
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Appendix 6. Values of functional diversity variables obtained for each study site in the Selva Lacandona,
southern Mexico.
Locality Protection condition
FGR
FEve
MAS
GMR
7
0.70
MAN
GMR
7
0.52
RA
CPA
6
0.44
CO1
CPA
5
0.74
CO2
CPA
5
0.70
SIS
CPA
6
0.75
LM
OAF
5
0.68
PO
OAF
4
0.69
SLA
OAF
5
0.69
LV
OAF
6
0.64
FGR=Functional group richness, FEve=Functional evenness index. Acronyms for sampling locality as in Appendix
2. CPA= Community-protected areas; OAF= Open-access forests; GMR= Government-managed reserve.
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Appendix 7. Landscape context variables for the study sites in the human-modified landscape. Note that no
significant difference was found between CPA and OAF conditions for any of the analyzed variables.
Locality Protection condition Forest cover (%) Distance to roads (m) Distance to towns (m) Patch area (ha)
RA
CPA
85.2
2110
4010
2385
SIS
CPA
68.6
1180
1470
2094
CO1
CPA
53.1
680
880
1727
CO2
CPA
73.7
1110
3480
1727
Mean
70.15
1270
2460
1983.25
SD
13.3
602.05
1518.71
318.85
SLA
OAF
88.2
5490
6440
7564
PO
OAF
57.4
1460
3620
1784
LV
OAF
58
840
2840
1020
LM
OAF
69.2
1360
1700
7577
Mean
68.2
2287.5
3650
4486.25
SD
14.4
2152.23
2020.20
3575.02
t-test
P value CPA vs OAF
0.87*
0.43
0.35
0.41
* Percentages were normalized using the angular transformation before conducting the test. Acronyms for
sampling locality: RA=Reforma Agraria; SIS=San Isidro; CO1=La Corona 1; CO2= La Corona 2; SLA=San Lázaro;
PO=Zamora Pico de Oro; LV=La Victoria; LM=Adolfo López Mateos. CPA= Community-protected areas; OAF=
Open-access forests.
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