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Biology Concepts and Applications | 9e Starr | Evers | Starr Chapter 21 Plant Evolution © Cengage Learning 2015 © Cengage Learning 2015 Bacteria Archaea Protists Eukarya Plants Fungi Animals © Cengage Learning 2015 Figure 16.UN01 21.1 How Did Plants Adapt To Life on Land? • Plants evolved from green algae, and underwent an adaptive radiation on land • Plants are embryophytes, which form a multicelled embryo on the parental body © Cengage Learning 2015 Reproductive structures (such as those in flowers) contain spores and gametes Plant Leaf performs photosynthesis Cuticle reduces water loss; stomata regulate gas exchange Shoot supports plant (and may perform photosynthesis) Alga Surrounding water supports the alga © Cengage Learning 2015 Whole alga performs photosynthesis; absorbs water, CO2, and Roots anchor plant; minerals from absorb water and the water minerals from the soil (aided by fungi) Figure 16.1 How Did Plants Adapt To Life on Land? • Structural adaptations – Waterproof cuticle with stomata – Stomata open and close to balance demands for water conservation and gas exchange with air outside the plant – Has internal vascular tissue © Cengage Learning 2015 How Did Plants Adapt To Life on Land? • Vascular tissues – Transport water/nutrients through a plant body – Help plants stand upright and branch – Reinforced by lignin (stiffens cell walls) – Xylem – distributes water and minerals – Phloem – distributes sugars made via photosynthesis – 90 percent of modern plant species have vascular tissues © Cengage Learning 2015 How Did Plants Adapt To Life on Land? vascular tissue (a leaf vein) layer of waxy cuticle xylem phloem cuticle stoma © Cengage Learning 2015 The fossil record chronicles four major periods of plant evolution. Origin of seeds (about 360 mya) Gymnosperms Angiosperms 600 500 400 300 200 100 Seed plants Origin of flowers (about 140 mya) Land plants Ferns and other seedless vascular plants Origin of vascular tissue (about 425 mya) Vascular plants Bryophytes Seedless vascular plants Origin of first terrestrial adaptations (about 475 mya) Ancestral green algae Nonvascular plants (bryophytes) Charophytes (a group of green algae) 0 Millions of years ago The history of the plant kingdom is a story of adaptation to diverse terrestrial habitats. © Cengage Learning 2015 Figure 16.6 Alternation of Generation Spores (n) Gametophyte (n) Gametes: sperm and eggs (n) FERTILIZATION MEIOSIS Spore capsule Sporophyte (2n) Zygote (2n) Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n) © Cengage Learning 2015 Figure 16.10-5 Gametophyte (n) Sporophyte (2n) Sporophyte (2n) Sporophyte (2n) Gametophyte (n) Gametophyte (n) (a) Sporophyte dependent on gametophyte (e.g., mosses) (b) Large sporophyte and small, Independent gametophyte (e.g., ferns) (c) Reduced gametophyte dependent on sporophyte (seed plants) Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n) © Cengage Learning 2015 Figure 16.14 How Did Plants Adapt To Life on Land? • Life cycle changes – Adapted vascular plants to life in drier habitats – Plant life cycles include two multicelled bodies • The haploid gametophyte • The diploid sporophyte • The gametophyte dominates in earlyevolving lineages, but in most plants, the sporophyte is larger and longer lived © Cengage Learning 2015 21.2 What Are Nonvascular Plants? • Bryophyte – Member of an early plant lineage – Has a gametophyte-dominant life cycle – Refers to members of three separate lineages • Mosses • Hornworts • Liverworts © Cengage Learning 2015 What Are Nonvascular Plants? • Bryophytes – Nonvascular (no xylem or phloem) – Their sperm swim through water droplets to eggs – Sporophyte remains attached to the gametophyte – Rhizoids attach a gametophyte to the soil or a surface © Cengage Learning 2015 What Are Nonvascular Plants? • Moses – Most diverse bryophytes – Includes about 15,000 species – Threadlike rhizoids hold the gametophyte in place • Unlike roots of vascular plants, rhizoids do not distribute water or nutrients; these resources must be absorbed across the gametophyte’s leafy surface © Cengage Learning 2015 What Are Seedless Vascular Plants? • Ferns – Most diverse group of seedless vascular plants, produce spores in sori • Cluster of spore-producing capsules on a fern leaf • Many ferns grow as epiphytes – Plant that grows on another plant but does not harm it © Cengage Learning 2015 What Are Seedless Vascular Plants? • Five steps in the life cycle of a fern – Sperm swim to eggs and fertilize them, forming a zygote – Sporophyte develops attached to the gametophyte, but lives independently after the gametophyte dies © Cengage Learning 2015 What Are Seedless Vascular Plants? © Cengage Learning 2015 How Have Vascular Plants Changed Over Time? • Forests of giant seedless vascular plants thrived during the Carboniferous period – Heat and pressure transformed the remains of these forests to coal © Cengage Learning 2015 How Have Vascular Plants Changed Over Time? • Rise of the seed plants • Evolved in the late Devonian (365 mya) • Cycads and ginkgos were among the earliest gymnosperm lineages • Early angiosperms such as magnolias evolved while dinosaurs walked on Earth © Cengage Learning 2015 How Have Vascular Plants Changed Over Time? • Seed plant sporophytes have pollen sacs, where microspores form and develop into male gametophytes (pollen grains) • Sporophytes also have ovules, where megaspores form and develop into female gametophytes © Cengage Learning 2015 21.5 What Are Gymnosperms? • Gymnosperms – Vascular seed plants – Produce seeds on the surface of ovules – Seeds are “naked” (not inside a fruit) – Does not make flowers – Includes: • Conifers, cycads, ginkgos, and gnetophytes © Cengage Learning 2015 What Are Gymnosperms? • Conifers – Gymnosperm with nonmotile sperm – Ovules form on the surfaces of woody cones – Typically have needlelike or scalelike leaves – Tend to be resistant to drought and cold – Examples: pines, redwoods © Cengage Learning 2015 What Are Gymnosperms? • Ponderosa pine life cycle – Pollen grains are released; pollination occurs when one lands on an ovule, and the pollen grain germinates – It takes about a year for a pollen tube to grow through ovule tissue and deliver sperm to the egg © Cengage Learning 2015 Scale Ovule-producing cones; the scales contain female gametophytes Pollen-producing cones; they produce male gametophytes Ponderosa pine © Cengage Learning 2015 Figure 16.15 What Are Gymnosperms? • Ponderosa pine life cycle – When fertilization finally occurs, it produces a zygote – The zygote develops into an embryo sporophyte that, along with tissues of the ovule, becomes a seed – The seed is released, germinates, and grows and develops into a new sporophyte © Cengage Learning 2015 21.6 What Are Angiosperms? • Angiosperms – Seed plants make flowers • Specialized reproductive shoot of a flowering plant • Flower structure can vary – Seed plants make fruits • Mature flowering plant ovary; encloses a seed or seeds – Largest seed plant lineage © Cengage Learning 2015 What Are Angiosperms? • Angiosperms – Flowering plants – Dominant plants in most land habitats – Ecologically important – Essential to human existence – Feed and shelter animals – Provide us with food, fabric, oils, medicines, drugs © Cengage Learning 2015 What Are Angiosperms? • Flowers – Consists of modified leaves arranged in concentric whorls of sepals and petals – Stamens of a flower produce pollen – Eggs form in the female part of the flower (carpel) – Ovary at the base of the carpel holds one or more ovules © Cengage Learning 2015 What Are Angiosperms? stamen filament anther carpel stigma style ovary ovule (forms within ovary) petal sepal receptacle © Cengage Learning 2015 21.7 Why Are Angiosperms So Diverse and Widespread? • Several factors contributed to angiosperm diversity – Accelerated life cycle compared to gymnosperms – Have a partnership with pollinators, animals that moves pollen • Birds, bats, butterflies and other insects – Animal-dispersed fruits • Hooks or spines stick to animal fur, bright colored fruits © Cengage Learning 2015 © Cengage Learning 2015 Why Are Angiosperms So Diverse and Widespread? A © Cengage Learning 2015 B 21.8 Saving Seeds • Plant diversity is declining – Many valuable sources of food, medicine and other products could disappear – Need to sustain wild plants – Seeds can be stored in a seed vault © Cengage Learning 2015 © Cengage Learning 2015 Table 16.1 Biology Concepts and Applications | 9e Starr | Evers | Starr Chapter 22 Fungi © Cengage Learning 2015 © Cengage Learning 2015 22.1 What Is a Fungus? • Fungus: eukaryote that secretes digestive enzymes onto its food, then absorbs the resulting breakdown products – Most are decomposers that feed on organic wastes and remains – Some live on or in other living organisms • Example: parasitic fungi © Cengage Learning 2015 Absorptive Feeders • Fungal digestive enzymes can break down many sturdy structural proteins that animal digestive enzymes cannot – Cellulose – Lignin – Keratin © Cengage Learning 2015 Filamentous Structure • Yeast: fungus that lives as a single cell • Multicelled fungi live as a mesh of threadlike filaments collectively called a mycelium • Each filament in the mycelium is a hypha – Hypha: consists of haploid, walled cells attached end to end © Cengage Learning 2015 Spore Producers • Fungi produce spores both asexually and sexually – During asexual reproduction, multicelled fungi form spores by mitosis at the tips of specialized hyphae © Cengage Learning 2015 Spore Producers 2 dikaryotic stage (n+n) Fusion of cytoplasm sporeproducing structure (n) mycelium (n) Asexual Cycle spores (n) 1 Fusion of nuclei Sexual Cycle 3 zygote (2n) Meiosis 4 © Cengage Learning 2015 spore-producing structure (n) 22.3 What Ecological Roles Do Fungi Play? • Fungi provide an important ecological service – They break down complex compounds in organic wastes and remains – When digestive enzymes are secreted onto these materials, some soluble nutrients escape into nearby soil or water – Plants and other producers can then take up these substances to meet their own needs © Cengage Learning 2015 Parasites and Pathogens • Most human fungal infections involve body surfaces – Infected areas become raised, red, and itchy – Examples: • “Athlete’s foot” • Fungal vaginitis • “Ringworms” (skin rash) © Cengage Learning 2015 22.4 How Do We Use Fungi? • Many fungal fruiting bodies serve as human food – Button mushrooms, shiitake mushrooms, and oyster mushrooms are easily cultivated – Edible mycorrhizal fungi: chanterelles, porcini mushrooms, morels, and truffles are typically gathered from the wild • Each year thousands of people become ill after eating poisonous mushrooms © Cengage Learning 2015 How Do We Use Fungi? • Truffles form underground near their host trees – When mature, they produce an odor similar to that of an amorous male wild pig – Female wild pigs detect the scent and root through the soil and, following consumption, disperse truffle spores in their feces © Cengage Learning 2015 Truffles (the fungal kind, not the chocolates) Blue cheese Chanterelle mushrooms © Cengage Learning 2015 Figure 16.26 How Do We Use Fungi? • Fermentation by fungi helps us make a variety of products – Aspergillus: helps make soy sauce – Penicillium: produces the tangy blue veins in cheeses – Saccharomyces cerevisiae: baker’s yeast © Cengage Learning 2015 How Do We Use Fungi? • Some naturally occurring fungal–derived compounds have medicinal or psychoactive properties – Penicillin: antibiotic – Cyclosporin: immune supressant – Ergotamine: migraine reliever or hallucinogen – Psilocybin (magic mushrooms): hallucinogen – Cordycepin: increases testosterone or anticancer drug © Cengage Learning 2015 Penicillium Zone of inhibited growth Staphylococcus © Cengage Learning 2015 Figure 16.27 22.5 Application: Spread of Fungal Pathogens • The dispersal of fungal pathogens by global trade and travel can have devastating effects on ecosystems – Plant-infecting sac fungus native to China eliminated all mature American chestnut trees © Cengage Learning 2015 Application: Spread of Fungal Pathogens • Today, human-facilitated spread of a fungal pathogen is among the foremost causes of an amphibian extinction crisis – Some amphibians infected with the chytrid fungus referred to as Bd eventually die of dehydration – Bd was first introduced from African clawed frogs that were traded internationally © Cengage Learning 2015 4/4 Evolution 16 4/6 Survival of Fittest 17 4/11 Early Life&Bacteria 18&19 4/13 Protists/Plants/Fungi 20-22 &25 4/18 Invertebrate Evolution 23 4/20 Vertebrate Evolution 24 4/25 EXAM 3 4/27 Populations 39&40 5/2 Ecology Succession 41 5/4 Trophic Levels 42 5/9 Biomes & Human Effect 43&44 5/11 Lecture Review 5/16 Final Exam © Cengage Learning 2015 Which of the following lack vascular tissue? A) flowering plants B) cone-bearing plants C) grasses D) ferns E) mosses © Cengage Learning 2015 Which of the following lack vascular tissue? A) flowering plants B) cone-bearing plants C) grasses D) ferns E) mosses © Cengage Learning 2015 The edible portion of a(n) ______ is a ripened ovary. A) cucumber B) potato C) radish D) carrot E) onion © Cengage Learning 2015 The edible portion of a(n) ______ is a ripened ovary. A) cucumber B) potato C) radish D) carrot E) onion © Cengage Learning 2015 Why does it make sense that many fruits are green when their seeds are immature? A) Insects, which see the color green better than mammals do, can only carry seeds when they are small (immature). B) Animals know that green fruits are tasty, and are more likely to eat them. C) Green signifies less nutritive value. D) They are green because fruits with immature seeds are still capable of photosynthesis. E) They are harder to see and thus less likely to be eaten than other fruits. © Cengage Learning 2015 Why does it make sense that many fruits are green when their seeds are immature? A) Insects, which see the color green better than mammals do, can only carry seeds when they are small (immature). B) Animals know that green fruits are tasty, and are more likely to eat them. C) Green signifies less nutritive value. D) They are green because fruits with immature seeds are still capable of photosynthesis. E) They are harder to see and thus less likely to be eaten than other fruits. © Cengage Learning 2015 Nearly all food plants are classified as ______. A) bryophytes B) mycorrhizae C) gymnosperms D) ferns E) angiosperms © Cengage Learning 2015 Nearly all food plants are classified as ______. A) bryophytes B) mycorrhizae C) gymnosperms D) ferns E) angiosperms © Cengage Learning 2015 At current rates of destruction, all of Earth's tropical forests will be gone within ______ years. A) 10 B) 25 C) 50 D) 100 E) 1,000 © Cengage Learning 2015 At current rates of destruction, all of Earth's tropical forests will be gone within ______ years. A) 10 B) 25 C) 50 D) 100 E) 1,000 © Cengage Learning 2015 What important role do fungi play in many ecosystems? A) They decompose organic material. B) They pollinate plants. C) They disperse the fruits of angiosperms. D) They perform photosynthesis. E) They produce fossil fuels. © Cengage Learning 2015 What important role do fungi play in many ecosystems? A) They decompose organic material. B) They pollinate plants. C) They disperse the fruits of angiosperms. D) They perform photosynthesis. E) They produce fossil fuels. © Cengage Learning 2015 This diagram shows what process? A) origin of plants from green algae B) alternation of generations C) angiosperm life cycle D) evolutionary adaptation E) gymnosperm life cycle © Cengage Learning 2015 This diagram shows what process? A) origin of plants from green algae B) alternation of generations C) angiosperm life cycle D) evolutionary adaptation E) gymnosperm life cycle © Cengage Learning 2015