Download Types of Discourse J

Types of Discourse 
1- Descriptive : texts that want you to picture what they are describing .(the
use of adjectives and adverbs,comparisons, employ your five senses)
2- Narrative : texts that entertain or tell a story with texts types :
adventure,fairy tales,historical fiction,mystery,personal narrative…
3- Instructive or prescriptive : texts that instruct or tell you how to do
something. They use must/mustn’t,the imperative,diagrams or pictures.
4- Informative : texts that want to advise or tell you about something.They
contain facts, they give information in a clear way and avoid repetition.
5- Argumentative/ Persuasive : texts that want you to do something.They
use repeated words. Texts are in capital letters, exclamation
marks,humour,one sided arguments…( eg, adverts)
6- Expository :texts that inform,describe or explain.They include
autobiographies,descriptive essays,informational reports and media
articles.
7- Transactional :texts that serve to communicate ideas and information
(blog,sms,business letters, email )
Source, the internet
Sound System 
1-Pronunciation of final ‘s’
If a word ends in the letter 's' (e.g. plural noun or verb in the third person), there are
three ways to pronounce this 's' - /S/, /Z/ and /IZ/.
Type one sound /S/
Type one sounds are used if the word ends in the following sounds:
Standard
phonetic
Example word
symbols
stops, ships
/p/
hits, pets
/t/
attacks, bricks
/k/
laughs, coughs
/f/
maths, months
/θ/
Type two sound/Z/
Type two sounds come after the
following sounds:
Standard
phonetic
symbols
/b/
/d/
/g/
/v/
/ð/
/l/
/m/
/n/
/ŋ/
any
vowel
sound
Example word
grabs, robs
lids, rods
pigs, dogs
loves, leaves
breathes, lathes
hills, fails
comes, trams
earns, burns
songs, paintings
plays, employees, flees,
goes, news
Type three sound /IZ/
This sound is the same as the verb 'to be' in its third person form (is).
Standard
phonetic
symbols
/s/
/z/
/∫/
/t∫/
Example word
buses, places
chooses, sizes
washes, wishes
watches, matches
Judges, pages
/dƷ/
2-Pronunciation of final ‘ed’
Any word which ends in 'ed' (e.g. adjective or the past of a regular verb) may be
pronounced either /t/, /d/ or /id/
Type one sound /t/
Type two sound /d/
Standard
phonetic
symbols
/s/
/∫/
/t∫/
/p/
/k/
/f/
/θ/
Example word
passed, placed
washed, wished
watched, matched
stopped, trapped
locked, packed
laughed, coughed
frothed
Type three /id/
Standard
phonetic
symbols
/t/
/d/
Standard
phonetic
symbols
/z/
/b/
/g/
/v/
/ð/
/l/
/m/
/n/
/ŋ/
Example word
buzzed, amazed
grabbed, robbed
bugged, tagged
loved, craved
bathed
piled, failed
drummed, rammed
rained, pinned
pinged, wronged
judged, raged
/dƷ/
played, employed, tried,
any
flowed, skied
vowel or
semivowel
Example word
waited, retreated
handed, ended
3-What is a syllable ?
A syllable is a basic unit of written and spoken language. It is a unit consisting of uninterrupted
sound that can be used to make up words. For example, the word hotel has two syllables: ho and tel.
These will be marked here as in ho/tel.
Counting Syllables
To find the number of syllables in a word, use the following steps:
1. Count the vowels in the word.
2. Subtract any silent vowels, (like the silent e at the end of a word, or the second vowel when
two vowels are together in a syllable.
3. Subtract one vowel from every diphthong (diphthongs only count as one vowel sound.)
4 - The number of vowels sounds left is the same as the number of syllables
The number of syllables that you hear when you pronounce a word is the same as the number of
vowels sounds heard. For example:

The word came has 2 vowels, but the ‘e ‘ is silent, l The word outside has 4 vowels, but
the’ e’ is silent and the ‘ou ‘is a diphthong which counts as only one sound, so this word has
only two vowel sounds and therefore, two syllables.
4- Stressed syllables
1- Words ending with the following suffixes : ance- ed- ic – ics – ion – ian- ful – ive-er – or,
are stressed on the penultimate syllable, i-e, the second syllable counting from the end of
the word.
Examples : appearance - devoted- mechanic- ethics- civilisation- summarian- deceitful –
competitive – observer - demonstrator
2- Words ending with the following suffixes : al – y – ness – ment – able – ible – ant - ous –
ize/ise – ist are stressed on the anté-penultimate syllable,i-e,the third syllable counting
from the end of the word.
Examples : natural-economy-offensiveness-embezzlement- punishable- responsible –
tolerant –generous – civilize /civilise- economist.
3-Two syllable words : stress usually falls on the First syllable when the word is a noun,and
on the second syllable when the word is a verb.
4-Compound nouns : stress usually falls on the first noun.
5-Prefix + adjective : stress falls on the adjective.
6-Prefix +verb : stress falls on the verb.
5- Words that Rhyme
A rhyme (sometimes spelt rime) is a repetition of similar sounds in two or more words and is most
often used in poetry and songs.( wikipedia)
Examples : know and so __
life and wife __meat and meet __ honest and forest
6-Silent Letters (Letters that are written but not
pronounced)
1-b at the end of the word,after m tomb_ lamb_ bomb_ climb
2-c
Before t at the end of the word
in sc at the beginning of a word
debt
scenario– scientist – scenery– scissors – muscle
Wednesday – grandfather
3-d in the middle of some words
4-g before ‘n’at the end of a word design- sign- foreign- campaign
5- gh is silent in these words high – neighbour – bought – might – tight – sight – though –
straight – daughter – height – right – weigh – drought
6-h at the beginning of some words, after’ r ‘,’ g’ and in the combination ‘wh’
Rhetoric – rhyme – honour – honest – hour – rhythm - school - what – while – when –
where – why – which
7-k at the beginning, before ‘n’
know – knowledge – knife – knock – knot
8- L before ‘d’,’f’,’k’,’m’ half – calf – could – should – would – calm – palm - almond
9-N after ‘m’ at the end autumn , column
10- P before ‘n’ , ‘s’ at the beginning pneumatic – pneumonic - psychology
11- S before ‘ l’
island – aisle
12-T in the middle of some words
13- U after ‘ b’ , ‘g’
castle - listen
buy – build – guest – guitard – guide – guard
14-W before ‘h’ , ‘r’ who – whose – whole – write –wrong
The Direct Speech and the Reported / Indirect Speech 
Direct Speech
1-Present Simple
-‘I often militate in humanitarian
associations,’she says.
Indirect Speech
a-Present Simple
-She says(that) she often militates in
humanitarian associations.
b-Past Simple
, ‘I often militate in
humanitarian associations.’
She said(that)she often militated in huma-
2-.Present continuous
a-She says (that) she is working.
b-She said (that) she was working.
Or - she says
‘
’
b-She said , ‘Iam working.’
a-She says , I am working.
nitarian associations.
3 Past Simple
He said, ‘The citizens wrote a complaint to
The mayor of their town.
3-Past Perfect
-He said (that)/He told me that the citizens
had written a complaint to the mayor of their
town.
’
Past Perfect
- He told his father that the citizens
had sent the complaint to the mayor.
4-Present Perfect
‘
He told his father, The citizens have sent
the complaint to the mayor
5- Past Perfect
.’
‘The team had won the match,’the newsman
-The newsman announced that the team had
won the match.
announced.
6-Future Simple and Modals in the
Present
‘
They declared, We will work for a charity.
Shall/can/may/must (not)
‘
He said, I can’t remember her name.
’
’
Modals in the Past
They declared that they would work for a
charity.
would/could/might/had to,didn’t have to
-(not)
He said that he couldn’t remember her
name.
-
Demonstratives/Place and Time Adjuncts
This/ these/ here
Now/Today
Yesterday
Tomorrow
Last week/month/year
that/ those/there
then,that moment/that day
the previous day / the day before
the followind day/the day after/the next
day
the previous week/…………..
Next week/month/year
A year ago
the following week/month…
a year before
Pronouns
you/ I /me/we/us
My/our/your
I/ he-she/him-her/they/them
his-her/their/my
Mine/ours/yours
his-hers/theirs/mine-yours
7-Imperative
‘ Go to bed !’mother ordered her child.
Infinitive
–Mother ordered her child to go to bed.
‘
She shouted at him, Come here !
’
-She shouted at him to go there.
‘Don’t throw rubbish here !’
-He ordered her not to throw rubbish
there.
WH Questions
‘Where do you live ?’
‘When did the meeting finish ?’
Dalila asked me where I lived.
Mohamed wanted to know when the
meeting
had finished .
–Malek asked his friend why she was
crying .
‘Why are you crying ?’he asked his friend
Yes/No Questions
‘Do you have a computer ?’he asked.
The reporter wanted to know if I had a
computer.
‘Does your mother speak German ?’ he
asked.
– He asked Nabila if her mother spoke
German.
She asked Mohamed,’Have you sent Lamia
a message.
‘Did the children enjoy the play ?’
- She asked Mohamed whether he had
sent Lamia a message.
-He asked his wife if the children had
enjoyed the play.
The Conditional 
Type zero
The condition can be true at any time
« if » can be replaced by « when »or « whenever »
,
If you heat water at 100°C it boils.
( Present simple)
Type One
We talk about things that are possible in the future(likely result)
If it snows, I will go to Chréa.
(condition :present simple/result :future simple :will+stem)
Type Two
We talk about the present and we imagine something totally different from the real
situation, now or in the future .
If I were you,I would tell him the truth.
(past simple, modal in the past+stem)
Type Three
When we imagine a different past(an unreal past)
If he had awaken early ,he would have caught the school bus.
Other uses of the Conditional
1234-
If you
If you
If you
If she
feel sick,see a doctor.
If it rains,don’t forget your raincoat.
peel vegetables with a sharp knife, you may cut your hand.
caught the 8o’clock train,you could arrive on time.
had invited me,I could have come.
Now, see the meaning of the following conditional sentence :
Had you invited me to your wedding , I would have come. This means that : You didn’t
invite me,so I didn’t come. Or I didn’t come because you didn’t invite me.
The Active and the Passive Forms 
Active
1-Present Simple
Passive
1- Present Simple
The green dam stops desertification.
S+Stem(s)+DO+……
- He writes a message
Desertification is stopped by/with the green
dam.
DO+am/is/are+Past Participle+(with/by
+S)…..
-A message is written.by him
2-Present Simple Progressive
2-Present Simple Progressive
The green dam is stopping desertification
S+am/is/are+Stem ing+ DO…..
- Desrtification is being stopped with/by the
green dam.
DO+am/is/are+Being+PP+(with/by
S)….
3-Present Perfect
3-Present Perfect
The green dam has stopped desrtification.
-Desertification has been stopped by/with
S+Has/have+PP+DO…….
the green dam.
DO+Has/have+Been+PP+(with/by S)….
4-Past Simple
The green dam stopped desrtification .
S+Stem ed+DO+……
4-Past Simple
-Desertification was stopped by/with the
green dam.
DO+Was/were+PP+(with/by S)………
5-Past Simple Progressive
She was making cakes .
S+Was/were+Stem ing+DO….
6-Past Perfect
The green dam had stopped desertification.
S+Had PP+DO+……
5-Past Simple Progressive
-Cakes were being made.by her.
DO+Was/were+Being+PP+(with/by S)…
6-Past Perfect
-Desertification had been stopped by/with
the green dam.
DO+Had been+PP+(with/by)+S…..
7-Future Simple
Desretification will be stopped with/by the
green dam.
DO+will be PP +(with/by)+ S…
7-Future Simple
-The green dam will stop desrtification.
S +will stem+ DO…
Modals
Present /Past
Present/Past
Can / could +stem
can / could be +PP …….
May / might + stem
may / might + be + PP……….
Must / had to + stem
must / had to + be + PP ……..
Shall / should + stem
shall / should + be + PP..............
IMPERATIVE
1-Positive
–If the imperative refers to an order,we use « must ».
Leave the keys at the reception.
-The keys must be left at the reception.
-If the imperative refers to advice,we use «should/
Ought to ».
-The keys should be/ought to be left at the reception.
2-Negative
Don’t leave valuable objects
In the hotel’s room.
-Valuable objects mustn’t be left in the hotel’s room.
–Valuable objects shouldn’t be/ought not to be left in
the hotel’s room.
Negative sentences
a-Money doesn’t bring happiness.
a-Happiness is not brought with/by money.
b-Money didn’t bring happiness.
b-Happiness was not brought with/by money.
c-Money will not buy happiness.
c-Happiness will not be bought with/by money.
WH Questions
a-How do workers extract petroleum ?
How is petroleum extracted(by workers) ?
b-Who has the police arrested ?
Who has been arrested by the police ?
c-When did they assassinate Diana ?
d-What had the government done to
When was Diana assassinated ?
What had been done by the government to
encourage creativity ?
encourage creativity ?
e-Where will this factory spill its
Where will this factory liquid wastes be
liquid wastes ?
spilled ?
Yes / No Questions
a-Does money bring happiness ?
-Is happiness brought with money ?
b-Have fertilisers increased food
-Has food production been increased by/with
production ?
fertilisers ?
c-Did they send a message to Karim ?
-Was Karim sent a message ?
d-Will she invite all her friends
-Will all her friends be invited for the party ?
for the party ?
AFFIXES
1-Prefixes
The prefix
de- dis - il- im- in- ir- un
meaning
the opposite of…
Macro- mini- micro
Size(big- small- very small)
Super- ultra- extra- over
Above/beyond
Under - sub
Counter- anti
Lower /under
against
co
mono
bi
tri
mis
pre
post
re
ex
To share
one
two
three
The negative
before
after
again
previous
examples
Demobilize- dishonest- illegibleimpure- incorrect- irrelevantunclear
Macrophisicsminibusmicroscope
Supermanultravioletextraordinary-overheating
Underground- submarine
Counterattackcounterargument- antibiotic
Co-education-cooperation
Monologue- monolingual
Bicycle-bilingual
triangle
Misunderstand- misuse
Premature-preterm
Post war
Reorder- rewrite- recount
Ex-school – ex-husband
multi
semi
pro
many
half
In favour
Multinationa- multimedia
Semi-circle – semi-colon
Pro-president
2-Suffixes
They can change the word class and the meaning
A/Formation of Nouns
verb
To assist /to inform
To arrive
To depart
To deliver
To agree
To annoy
To refer
To declare
To rotate / to divide
To propose
To direct
To teach
To produce
suffix
ant
al
ure
y
ment
ance
ence
ation
ion
tion
or
er
ity
noun
Assistant / informant
arrival
departure
delivery
agreement
annoyance
reference
declaration
Rotation / division
proposition
director
teacher
productivity
Adjective
stupid
Ideal - favourite
electric
Kind- happy – weak – sad…
suffix
ity
ism
ian
ness
Noun
stupidity
Idealism- favouritism
electrician
Kindness-happinessweakness- sadness
B /Formation of Adjectives
verb
To create
To help
To help
To confide
To please
To pay
suffix
ive
ful
less
ent
ant
able
ible
Adjective
creative
helpful
helpless
confident
pleasant
payable
sensible
To sense
noun
magic
fool
friend
history
child
suffix
al
ish
ly
cal
Ish / like
Adjective
magical
foolish
friendly
historical
Childish/childlik
dirt
danger
honor
use
use
y
ous
ary
ful
less
development
ed - ing
fashion
able
C / Formation of Verbs
The suffix ‘ ise/ize’ makes verbs from nouns and adjectives
Adjective
real
familiar
civil
commerce
modern
industrial
verb
To realize
To familiarize
To civilize
To commercialize
To modernize
To industrialize
Noun
computer
critic
Verb
To computerize
To criticize
D/ Adverbs
Adjective
noisy
social
doubtful
Adverb
noisily
socially
doubtfully
e
dirty
dangerous
honorary
useful
useless
Developed
developing
fashionable
-
Vocabulary /Morphology
Civilizations
noun
verb
appearance
Announcement/announcer
Achieve
To appear
To announce
to achieve
Advancement/advance
Beginner/beginning
Bloom/bloomer
Belief/beliefs
Boaster/boast
bartering
civilization
contribution
collapse
conqest
development
Disappearance/disappearing
decline
dependence
Devotion/devotee
dedication
declaration
emergence
expansion
evolution
enrichment
flourish
fall
growth
Invention/inventor/
inventiveness
improvement
knowledge
maturity
origin
prosperity
practice
rise
start
science
spreader
Use/usage
prestige
science
History/historian
Throbbing/throb
pride
prestige
adjective
Achievable
to advance
Advanced
To begin
To bloom
To believe
To boast (of /about)
To barter
To civilize
To contribute
To collapse
To conquer
To develop
To disappear
To decline
To depend
To devote
To dedicate
To declare
To emerge
To expand
To evolve
To enrich
To flourish
To fall(to decay/into ruins)
To grow
To invent
To improve
To know
To mature
To originate
To prosper
To practise/to practice
To rise
To start
blooming
believable
boastful
Civilized/civilizational
contributory
Collapsible/collapsable
conqerable
Developed/developing
dependent
devoted
dedicated
declarable
Emergent/emerging
expansive
evolutionary
enriching
flourishing
growing
inventive
improved
Knowing/knowledgeable
mature
original
prosperous
practical
scientific
To spread
To thrive
To use
To throb
To vanish
To be proud (of)
thriving
Useful/useless
prestigious
scientific
historical
throbbing
proud
prestigious
Vocabulary and Morphology
Ethics
Noun
abuse
agreement
Bribe/ bribery
corruption
Counterfeit /
counterfeiting/counterfeiter
creativity
cheater
Copy / copies
Deceiver / deceit
Embezzler/embezzlement/embezzling
Economy/economist/economics
fake
forgery
Fraud/fraudster
Imitation/imitating
infrigement
harassment
legality
Morality
Offence/offense/offender/offensiveness
Penalty/ penalization
Plagiarism/plagiarist
piracy
punishment
responsibility
Speculator /speculation
Robbery/ robber
Smuggler /smuggling
swindler
trespassing
trick
Thief/thieves/theft
Trust / trustee
loot
Verb
To abuse
To agree
To bribe
To corrupt
To counterfeit
Adjective
abusive
agreed
bribable
Corrupt / corruptible
counterfeit
To create
To cheat
To copy
To deceive
To embezzle
To economize
To fake
To forge
To defraud
To imitate
To infringe
To harass
To legalize
To moralize
To offend
To penalize
To plagiarize
To pirate
To punish
To responsibilize
To speculate
To rob
To smuggle
To swindle
To trespass
To trick
To thieve
To trust
To loot
creative
deceitful
Economic/economical
fake
forged
fraudulent
imitative
legal
moral
offensive
penal
piratical
Punishable/punitive
responsible
speculative
tricky
trustful
Words equivalent in meaning
-bribe – undertable payment – kickback – backhander – sweetener
-counterfeit – imitate – copy – forge – fake
-defraud – deceive – trick – cheat – swindle
- harass – disturb – annoy – trouble – worry
-violate – transgress – infringe – exploit
-genuine – brand – original – true – trademark – authentic
- steal – rob – dispossess – loot
-buy – purchase – customise
-sell – retail - market
Vocabulary and Morphology
Education
noun
verb
adjective
Act/action
To act
active
Advice/adviser
To advise
Advised/advisable
asking
To ask
assessement
To assess
assessable
care
To care
Careful/careless
chance
To chance
chancy
conviction
To convince
convincing
choice
To choose
choosy
comprehension
To comprehend
comprehensive
consideration
To consider
Considerate/considerable
distinction
To distinguish
Distinguished/distinguishable
Education/educator
To educate
Educated/educational
Educationist/educationalist
Examiner/examinee
educative
To examine
Exam/examination
failure
To fail
Failing/failed
graduate
To graduate
graduate
instruction
To instruct
instructive
knowledge
To know
Known/knowing/knowledgeable
learning
To learn
learned
obligation
To oblige
obligatory
Organization/organizer
To organize
organized
preparation
To prepare
preparatory
passage
To pass
passable
qualification
To qualify
qualified
reader
To read
readable
regret
To regret
regretful
reach
To reach
reachable
success
To succeed
successful
skill
Skilled/skillful
Study/studies
To study
studious
score
To score
scored
sensitivity
To sensitize
sensitive
sympathy
To sympathize
sympathetic
teller
To tell
telling
Test/tester
To test
tested
Training/trainee/trainer
To train
Trained/trainable
understanding
To understand
understandable
Write/writer
To write
written
Teaching/teacher
To teach
teachable
School/schooling
To school(educate/train)
exploration
To explore
exploratory
Cheat/cheater
To cheat
cheating
evaluation
To evaluate
evaluative
assist
To assist
assisted
Vocabulary related to ‘ Education ‘
-To attend school : go to school/take a course/attend classes
-knowing :cunning,showing that one has intelligence.
-intelligent :witty
-free =/=payable.
Free :without payng fees.
-tuition :payable learning.
-teacher,students,pupils,the headmaster, the supervisor,the director,the principal.
-a graduate :a person holding a university degree.
-scholarship : money for studies.
-to graduate :to take an academic degree.
-chance it :take a chance of success although failure is possible.
-Single schools : schools for boys or girls.
-Co-educational schools :schools for both sexes.
-Public schools :
- in England and Wales :fee paying independent secondary schools.
- in the US : a state funded elementary or secondary school.
-Grammar schools :academic secondary school in the UK and other commonwealth countries.Only
students of high academic abilities can study there because these schools are selective.
-Comprehensive schools :schools for all abilities.
-Compulsory education :required by law.Obligatory.
-uniform,its aim :equality between students(gender/level of society/colour of the skin/religion.
-Boarding schools :schools where pupils live as well as study.
- school report : a written account of students’gardes (marks).
Vocabulary related to advertising and food safety
Noun
Advertisement/advertising/advertiser
Appeal
Attraction/attractant
buy
Consumption/consumer/consumerism
consuming
competition
commerce
Contamination/contaminator
can
expiry
danger
Farm/farmer/farming
introduction
influence
label
Manufacture/manufacturer
Manager/management/managing
mind
Pay/payee/payer
poison
Package/packaging
Promoter/promotion
publicity
Produce/production
productivity
Verb
To advertise
To appeal
To attract
To buy
To consume
Adjective
advertised
appealing
Attracted/attractive
buyable
Consumptive/consuming
To compete
To commercialise
To contaminate
To can
To expire
To endanger
to farm
To introduce
To influence
To label
To manufacture
To manage
To mind
To pay
To poison
To package
To promote
To publicize
to produce
competitive
commercial
contaminated
canned
expired
dangerous
farming
Introduced/introductory
influencial
Labeled/labelled
manufactured
managing
mindful
Paying/payable
poisonous
packaged
promotional
publicized
reaction
rejection
safety
security
treatment
error
To react
To reject
To save
To secure
To treat
To err
reactive
rejected
safe
secure
Treated/treatable
erring
productive
Vocabulary related to the unit
ASTRONOMY
Adjective
Noun
Verb
long
length
To lengthen
wide
width
To widen
deep
depth
To deepen
high
height
To heighten
tall
tallness
weighty
weight
small
smallness
verb
noun
adjective
To revolve
revolution
revolvable
To orbit
orbit
orbital
To circle
circle
circular
To speed
speed
speedy
To transmit
transmission
transmittable
To rotate
rotation
rotating
To shine
shine
/
To brighten
brightness
bright
To distance
distance
distant
To glow
glow
glowing
Vocabulary / Morphology
To weigh
/ / / /
WE ARE A FAMILY
Entertainment : amusement : enjoyment : fun .
To entertain : to amuse .
Funny : amusing /causing laughter /humorous .
Verb
To entertain
To amuse
To enjoy
To humour
To laugh/laught
To smile
To sympathise - ize
To optimize
Noun
entertainer/entertainment/
amusement
enjoyment
humour
laugh/laughter
smile / smiley
fun
comedy/comedian
sympathy
Optimist - optimism
Adjective
entertaining
amused/amusing
enjoyable
humourous/humourless
laughable( stupid)
smiley
funny
comic/comedic/comedy/comical
sympathetic
optimistic