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Grammatical Categories and Markers Lecture 2 Units of grammar • The smallest unit of meaning is the morpheme. morpheme word the smallest grammatical unit phrase sentence the largest grammatical unit Figure 1: Grammatical units Morphology is the study of word structure. flower, enjoyment, boys, кон, коне • Free morphemes • Bound morphemes • Roots • Affixes (derivational, inflectional) Suffixes are affixes which attach to the end of words. Prefixes which stand in front of the root morpheme. • enjoyment • vocational • gramm-atic-al-iz-ation • They do not make the word change its class, but change its meaning. • dis-mount, un-lock • Suffixes may be derivational (i.e. the examples above) or inflectional. • They belong to the category of derivational affixes. Grammatical markers • All the grammatical forms of the word build up its grammatical paradigm. • Grammatical paradigms express categorial meaning through their functional oppositions (Blokh 1983). • There are binary and ternary oppositions. • 3rd p. sg. ↔ non-3rd p. sg. Grammatical forms can be synthetical and analytical. • Synthetical forms, e.g. big – bigger – biggest or change of the root morpheme (suppletivity), e.g. swim – swam – swum. • Analytical forms (+an auxiliary word), e.g. difficult – more difficult – most difficult. The word has to be grammatically shaped in order to function in the language. • Which are the grammatical categories of the noun in English and Bulgarian? • Which are the grammatical categories of the verb in English and Bulgarian? In English grammatical markers are considerably less than in Bulgarian. J.Molhova: a grammatical morpheme has several grammatical meanings The adjectival suffix -er has the following two meanings: 1. adjective; 2. comparative degree. Types of distribution • The distribution of a lingual unit depends on the different environments of that unit. • phonemic distribution of morphemes, e.g. fans, faxes • morphemic distribution of morphemes, e.g. boxes, oxen 3 types of distribution (Blokh 2000) • contrastive (e.g. plays ↔ played) • non-contrastive (e.g. burned = burnt – Past tense) • complementary (e.g. books, boxes, oxen, etc. - allomorphs) Can you find some examples of homonymy with the grammatical suffixes? • the substantival suffix -s marking the plural of some noun game-games is homonymous with • the verbal suffix -s, marking the 3rd p. sg. of the Present Simple Tense of the verb work-works Some other examples of homonymy with the grammatical suffixes? • the verbal suffix -ed marking the past participle of the verb work-worked is an homonym with • the verbal suffix -ed marking the Past Simple Tense work-worked Some more examples of homonymy with the grammatical suffixes? • the substantival suffix -en marking the plural form of some nouns child-children is an homonym with • the verbal suffix -en marking the past participle of some verbs write-written And more examples of homonymy with the grammatical suffixes? • the gerundial suffix -ing reading is an homonym with • the suffix -ing marking the present participle reading Can you find some antonyms among the grammatical markers? • the presence of the -s morpheme marking the plural form of the noun could be considered to be an antonym to • the zero morpheme pointing to the form of the singular table0º-tables In traditional grammar three criteria are used to divide the words into grammatical classes: • semantic (the general meaning of all the words in a class) • formal (the grammatical forms of the words ) • functional (the syntactic positions of words ) On the basis of these criteria, words are divided into • notional grammatical classes = an open-class subsystem (Internet, email, website, reboot, download) • functional series of words = a closedclass (grammatical) subsystem Agreement (concord) • She sings. • those cats Deictic categories: • here – there • this – that / these – those • now – then Levinson (1983) : Meet me here a week from now with a stick about this big.