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Chapter 36
A Second Global conflict and the End of the European World Order
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I.
Introduction
World War II, although officially beginning in 1939, can be seen as part of a series of clashes that
began as early as 1931. It began because of deliberate aggression by Germany, Italy, and Japan.
Suspicion of the Soviet Union by Western democracies prevented a coordinated response, as did
divisions within the democracies themselves. The League of Nations was shown to be powerless
to prevent aggression, and Hitler and Mussolini could not be checked by diplomacy
II.
Old and New Causes of a Second World War
Social and political upheavals of the 1920s and grievances resulting from World War I led to the
Second World War. In Japan, the rise of fanatical militarists led to expansionist polices in China.
The success of the Guomindang in China led Japanese officers to worry about their informal
control of the Chinese province of Manchuria, causing them to seize direct control of it in 1931.
In Germany, the Depression led to the rise of the Nazis, who promoted an aggressive foreign
policy. In power, they dismantled democracy, increased militarization, and seized territory from
their neighbors, emboldening Mussolini to invade Ethiopia. Hitler and Mussolini also intervened
in the Spanish Civil War, enabling Franco to seize power.
III.
Unchecked Aggression and the Coming of War in Europe and the Pacific
Britain, France, and the United States seemed unwilling to confront Hitler and Mussolini. In 1937,
Japan launched a campaign to conquer all of China, wreaking incredible destruction, and forcing
the Guomindang into the interior. They did this without coordination with Italy and Germany.
Hitler signed a nonaggression pact with the Soviets to buy time to prepare his assault on Eastern
Europe. His invasion of Poland in September 1939 forced Britain and France to declare war.
IV.
The Conduct of a Second Global War
A.
Introduction
World War II would take place over a much larger area than World War I. Initially, the failure of
the Soviets and the Western democracies to confront the Axis powers before 1939 made possible
stunning Axis victories. However, once initial momentum was lost, it became clear the AmericanSoviet alliance was much more powerful than the Axis.
B.
Nazi Blitzkrieg, Stalemate, and the Long Retreat
Rapid full assaults enabled Germany to quickly conquer Poland, France, and other small
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countries. France’s divided leadership left it helpless. Germany quickly took northern France,
while a Nazi puppet government, the Vichy, held the south. Of the European democracies. soon
only beleaguered Britain remained free of Nazi rule. Winston Churchill’s leadership and the
British air force prevented a Nazi invasion. By 1940, most of Europe and the Mediterranean was
in Axis hands. Frustrated by British resistance, Hitler turned east and south, pushing the Soviets
to the brink of defeat. The Russian winter of 1941-42 stalled German forces, while Soviet
resistance in 1942 and the disastrous attempt to take Stalingrad in 1942-43 turned the tide of the
war. Germany was pushed out of Soviet lands by late 1944, and time was running out for the
Nazis.
C.
From Persecution to Genocide: Hitler’s War Against the Jews
Frustration in Russia led to increased persecution of the Nazi’s perceived enemies, particularly
the Jews. At the Wannsee Conference in 1942, the Nazis drew up plans for systematic genocide,
and the concentration camps became factories of death. Vital resources were diverted to aid in
imprisoning, enslaving, and eliminating Jews and other “undesirables.” As many as 12 million
people died in the Holocaust, including at least 6 million Jews. The Holocaust was notable for
the degree to which it was premeditated, systematic, and carried out by government bureaucracy.
Denial by Europeans and the refusal of Western allies to accept fleeing Jews abetted the
Holocaust. The Holocaust intensified the campaign for a Jewish homeland in Palestine.
D.
Anglo-American Offensives, Encirclement, and the End of the 12-Year Reich
The United States provided assistance to beleaguered Britain even before Pearl Harbor. In 194243, Britain and the United States cleared the Nazis out of North Africa and the Middle East, then
tackled Italy, defeating the last Fascist resistance in 1945. The invasion of Normandy overcame
intense German resistance, and in 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union invaded Germany,
ending Hitler’s rule.
E.
The Rise and Fall of he Japanese Empire in the Pacific War
With the United States temporarily neutralized by Pearl Harbor, Japan extended its rule over
much of the Pacific, China, and Southeast Asia, believing that European powers were too bogged
down in Europe to stop them. This empire proved vulnerable to Allied attack. Japanese brutal
efforts to extract resources from this empire produced growing resistance, which cooperated with
Allied powers. Allied submarines wreaked havoc on Japanese shipping. The United States
quickly recovered from Pearl Harbor and began a campaign of island hopping to reach the home
islands of Japan. By 1944, the United States began intensive bombing of Japan. In August of
1945, Japanese resistance was finally broken by the atomic destruction of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki.
V.
War’s End and the Emergence of the Superpower Standoff
A.
Introduction
The end of World War II led to confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union. In
the peace settlement that followed World War II, the United Nations was created. All of the great
powers were included (the United States, Britain, France, China, and the Soviet Union). The
United Nation came to include the Axis powers and former colonies and in time took on a wide
variety of roles in the international arena.
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B.
From Hot War to Cold War
In postwar Europe, tensions emerged between the Soviet Union on the one hand and the United
States and Britain on the other. In a series of conferences during the end of the war, spheres of
influence within postwar Europe were established. Western leaders conceded Soviet control of
much of occupied Eastern Europe but insisted on a Germany divided among the victorious Allies.
The United States occupied Japan, which lost its imperial possessions. Korea, a former Japanese
colony, was divided between the Soviet Union and the United States. Former European colonies
in Asia were briefly reestablished prior to successful independence movements. European
colonialism in Africa, the Middle East, and India was also shaken. The Soviet Union rapidly
established communist regimes in those Eastern European nations created after World War I.
Western Europe was free to reestablish democracy, but under the watchful eye of the United
States. Increasingly, a bipolar world dominated by the United States and the Soviet Union
emerged.
VI.
Nationalism and Decolonization
A.
Introduction
World War II proved fatal to the European colonial empires. The rapid collapse of the Allies in
Europe and Asia destroyed illusions of colonial strength. Even though the Allies recovered
sufficiently to defeat the Axis powers, they were unable to restore the validity of their colonial
governments. The war drained European resources. Because the United States. viewed World
War II as a war of liberation, they supported nationalist movements in the colonies. The Soviet
Union also condemned colonialism.
B.
The Winning of Independence in South and Southeast Asia
During World War II, Indian resistance to the British government produced a campaign of civil
disobedience called the Quit India movement. Only the Muslim League under Muhammad Ali
Jinnah supported the war effort. Economic disruption during the war increased support for the
nationalist party. When a Labour government replaced Winston Churchill's wartime ministry in
1945, the new British ministers began negotiations for independence. The Muslim League
insisted on the creation of separate Muslim and Hindu states. Fearing a possible sectarian
bloodbath, Congress party leaders agreed to the partition of India in 1947. Congress emerged as
the political leaders of independent India, while Jinnah took over in Muslim Pakistan. Until the
borders of the new nations could be secured, sectarian violence marred the independence
movement. In 1948, a radical Hindu assassinated Gandhi. With India gone, the British rapidly
arranged for independence in the other Asian colonies, including Burma and Ceylon. With the
British withdrawal from colonialism, the French, Dutch, and the United States also began the
process of decolonization in Asia. The United States granted independence to the Philippines.
Although they resisted nationalist movements, the Dutch withdrew from Indonesia in 1949. The
French continued to hold Indochina until they were forced to withdraw.
C.
The Liberation of Nonsettler Africa
World War II shattered the image of the colonizers in Africa while producing some
industrialization. There were two primary paths to decolonization in Africa. Kwame Nkrumah
led a more radicalized independence movement based on confrontation with the colonial
government of the Gold Coast through boycotts, mass rallies, and strikes. Nkrumah's ability to
construct mass support for his Convention Peoples party eventually led the British to recognize
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him as prime minister of independent Ghana in 1957. Other nonsettler colonies within the British
Empire also received independence during the 1960s. France followed a more gradual path to
independence marked by political concessions to African leaders who wished to retain ties to the
mother country. Between 1956 and 1960, most French colonies in Africa achieved independence.
The Belgians simply abandoned their colony in the Congo in 1960 in the absence of any
nationalist movement. Only Portugal attempted to retain control of its African possessions.
D.
Repression and Guerrilla War: The Struggle for the Settler Colonies
Settler colonies with substantial white populations resisted the process of decolonization. When
it became apparent that nonviolent political movements could not succeed, African groups turned
to violent revolution. Radicals in Kenya, discouraged with the Kenya African Union under Jomo
Kenyatta, formed the Land Freedom Army in the 1950s and began a guerrilla war against white
settlers and the British colonial government. Although the British were able to defeat the military
threat, the British agreed to negotiations for decolonization with Kenyatta. Kenya achieved
independence in 1963. In Algeria, the struggle for independence was longer and bloodier. The
National Liberation Front began a guerrilla war against the French in the 1950s, but independence
negotiations did not begin until 1958. Even after negotiations began, the violence in Algeria was
sustained by white settlers organized in the Secret Army Organization against Arabs and Berbers.
The OAS attempted to assassinate Charles de Gaulle and overthrow the French government to
undo the independence agreements. Independence was finally granted in 1962.
E.
The Persistence of White Supremacy in South Africa
Only in South Africa was a white minority able to hold onto power into the 1990s. With a larger
white population than elsewhere, the Afrikaner population of South Africa had no European
homeland for retreat. They regarded themselves as white Africans. To maintain their political
superiority, the Afrikaners depended on blatantly racist systems of social and political
organization. In the 1930s and 1940s, the Afrikaner National party dominated the political scene.
Under its direction, South Africa achieved independence in 1961. Imposing apartheid, a rigid
system of racial discrimination, the Afrikaner minority imposed economic and political
discrimination on blacks, mixed-race peoples, and Indians living in South Africa. A police state
enforced the dictates of apartheid.
F.
Conflicting Nationalisms: Arabs, Israelis, and the Palestinian Question
The fate of Palestine, more than liberation of other Arab states, continued to be a source of
difficulty in the Middle East. In the aftermath of the Holocaust, many supported Zionist demands
for the creation of a Jewish state. Increasing Arab resistance to additional Jewish settlement in
Palestine forced the British to limit Jewish immigration. The Zionist military force, the Haganah,
then began a violent resistance to British government. In 1937, a British commission proposed
the partition of Palestine, which was endorsed by the United Nations in 1948. The Arab states
surrounding the newly formed Israel immediately attacked. Despite being outnumbered, the
Israelis were able to defend their new nation and expand at the expense of their Arab neighbors.
VII.
Global Connections: Persisting Trends in a World Transformed by War
In many parts of the world, decolonization was not a revolutionary procedure. Power passed
from one class of elites to another. Little social and economic reform was involved.
Decolonization also did little to disrupt Western economic dominance of the system of global
trade.
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TIMELINE
Insert the following events into the timeline. This should help you to compare important historical events
chronologically.
Israel-Palestine partition
independence of India, Pakistan
Germany invades the Soviet Union
┌───
│
├───
│
├───
│
├───
│
├───
│
└───
Algeria gain independence
Japan invades Manchuria
Ghana gains independence
1931
1941
1947
1948
1957
1962
TERMS, PEOPLE, EVENTS
The following terms, people, and events are important to your understanding of the chapter. Define each
one.
Manchukuo
Wannsee Conference
Vichy
Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Yalta Conference
Atlantic Charter of 1941
Kwame Nkrumah
National Liberation Front
Stalingrad
Pearl Harbor
Winston Churchill
United Nations
Potsdam Conference
Quit India Movement
Land Freedom Army
Secret Army Organization
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Battle of Britain
Blitzkrieg
Holocaust
Teheran Conference
Cold War
Muhammad Ali Jinnah
Jomo Kenyatta
Afrikaner National party
MAP EXERCISE
The following exercise is intended to clarify the geophysical environment and the spatial relationships
among the important objects and places mentioned in the chapter. Locate the following places on the
map.
India
Ghana Palestine
South Africa
Kenya Algeria Philippines
Pakistan
How did the geographical position of Japan and Germany contribute to their defeat in World War
II?
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MAKING CONNECTIONS
The following questions are intended to emphasize important ideas within the chapter.
1.
What caused the outbreak of World War II?
2.
How was the outcome of World War II determined?
3.
How were the diplomatic problems of World War II settled?
4.
What was the Cold War and how did it come about?
5.
What were the two paths to independence in nonsettler Africa?
6.
What was the tradition of decolonization in the settler colonies? How did South Africa’s experience
differ?
PUTTING LARGER CONCEPTS TOGETHER
The following questions test your ability to summarize the major conclusions of the chapter.
1.
In what sense were both the causes and the outcome of World War II simply resolutions of problems
created in the Treaty of Versailles?
2.
What were the common elements in independence in South Asia, the Middle East, and Africa?
What were the primary differences?
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SELF-TEST OF FACTUAL INFORMATION
1.
Which of the following regions was first swallowed as part of the Japanese program of military
aggression?
a.
b.
c.
d.
2.
Manchuria
Malaya
Singapore
Taiwan
Which of the following statements concerning World War II is NOT accurate?
a. By 1940, the German Blitzkrieg had swept over Poland, Denmark, Norway, Holland, Belgium,
and France.
b. Japan was able to crush Chinese resistance immediately in 1939 and sweep on to other Asian
conquests.
c. The United States entered World War II only in 1941 after the bombing of Pearl Harbor.
d. The United States and Britain were active in both the European and Pacific theaters of the war.
3.
The genocidal campaign against the Jews by the Nazis was planned at:
a.
b.
c.
d.
4.
The United Nations:
a.
b.
c.
d.
5.
the Tehran Conference.
the Yalta Conference.
the Wannsee Conference.
the Potsdam Conference.
left China off the Security Council initially because of its civil war.
enabled the Western powers to maintain their monopoly on international relations.
was little changed from the League of Nations.
gave much greater voice to small countries than the League of Nations.
The Atlantic Charter of 1941:
a. enshrined the U.S. commitment to decolonization.
b. created an alliance between the United States and the Soviet Union.
c. committed the United States to restoring colonial rule to Southeast Asia.
d. formed the United Nations.
6.
Colonial societies with white settler populations
a.
b.
c.
d.
did not achieve independence in the 20th century.
were among the first to grant majority rule.
introduced the tactics of peaceful mass demonstrations and boycotts.
were the regions where overt violence and revolution were most likely to occur.
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7.
In India during World War II,
a.
b.
c.
d.
8.
What radical African leader helped to achieve independence in Ghana?
a.
b.
c.
d.
9.
both the Muslim League and the Indian National strongly supported the British war effort.
the Muslim League and the Communists strongly supported the British war effort.
the Muslim League refused to support the British war without a promise of independence.
the British promised postwar independence, thus gaining widespread support for the war effort.
Julius Nyerere
Jomo Kenyatta
Kwame Nkrumah
Nelson Mandela
From 1948, South African politics were dominated by
a. the Nationalist party.
b. the black leadership of the Zulu nation.
c. Nelson Mandela.
d. a U.N. mandate government dominated by the United States.
10. The original United Nations partition of Palestine in 1948
a. gave Jerusalem to the new Jewish state.
b. set borders that held until 1967.
c. gave Jerusalem to the new Arab state.
d. immediately resulted in war.
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