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Parts of Speech Here’s a good order for remembering the parts of speech: Nouns Pronouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs Prepositions Conjunctions Nouns and pronouns are “naming” words. They are words that stand for “somethings” and “somebodies.” A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea and always creates a kind of “picture” in the mind. If a person says the word “table,” the picture that I’m talking about isn’t of a round or a square table but of a flat surface supported, usually, on legs. One can pull a chair or chairs up to it and eat from it or place one’s books on it. A pronoun, on the other hand, doesn’t create a picture in the mind. Words such as “it,” “he,” “that,” “someone” and so forth indicate a person or thing, but they don’t create a “picture” in the mind. Verbs express action or state of being. “Raul kicks the ball.” “Raul is a man.” Both of these are independent clauses as well as complete sentences. The verbs (which are also called predicates when they are the action or state of being that the subject does or is) are indicated in blue. Verbs are not hard to identify in a clause, especially the action-verbs. Noun/Pronoun and Verb can create a Clause, and a clause can be a sentence. Adjectives=these are words and groups of words that make nouns clearer: good girl; man on the roof; beautiful flower; a man who loves baloney. They answer the general question, “What Kind Of?” Adverbs=these are words and groups of words that make verbs or other adverbs or adjectives clearer: spoke loudly; listens with interest; hit the ball hard; went to the store whenever he could; walked extremely slowly. They answer the questions, “How?” “When?” “Where?” “Why?” “To What Degree?” “Under What Conditions?” Adjectives and Adverbs “fill in” the meaning that the subject and the predicate express. They make clearer exactly what kind of “who” or “what” did it and how, when, where, or why he, she, it, or they did it. Prepositions Prepositions are “pointer words” that join nouns or pronouns to the rest of the clause as adjectives or adverbs. They indicate direction, usually, such as the prepositions in, into, through, over, down, beyond, above, and so forth. They also “point” a few other things, less easy to pin down, such as during, for, except, and so forth. But this one fact is for sure: they are followed by a noun or pronoun that they link to the rest of the clause as either an adjective or an adverb. All prepositional phrases work as either adjectives or adverbs. And by that I mean that the whole phrase, such as “in that room,” is either an adjective or adverb depending on how it is used in the clause. It is an adjective in the sentence, “The man in that room is talking.” But it is an adverb in the sentence, “The man is talking in that room.” In the first case “in that room” is describing the man, his position in space, but in the second case, “in that room” is modifying the verb “is talking,” telling where he is talking. Here’s a list of prepositions copied from The Bedford Handbook: about above across after against along among around as at before behind below beside besides in between beyond into but by concerning considering despite down during except for from over inside plus like near next of off on onto opposite out outside past regarding respecting round since than through throughout till to toward under underneath unlike until unto up upon with within without Conjunctions Conjunctions are actual “joining” words because they truly “join” either individual words, phrases, or clauses. When they join exactly equal things, like a teeter-totter, they are either coordinating conjunctions or correlative conjunctions. When they join unequal units, they are called subordinating conjunctions. As I keep telling you, there are only seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so. They join either two words, two phrases, or two clauses. Those words, phrases, and clauses have to be of the same kind: “John and Mary”; “to sing and to dance”; “He likes to dance, and she likes to sing.” The correlative conjunctions are “either . . . or”; “neither . . . nor”; “both . . . and”; “whether . . . or”; “not only . . . but also”—and they work just like coordinating conjunctions: “Either Mary or Paul will go”; Either to sing well or to dance well is required”; “Either Mary will bake the cake, or John will bake the cake.” The subordinating conjunctions introduce adverb clauses. You know the most common one which I am always bringing up in class: because. Here’s a list of them from The Bedford Handbook: after although as as if because before even though how if in order that rather than since so that than that though unless until when where whether while why Here are a few sentences to show them in action: (1) After he had bought the baloney, he was satisfied. (2) Although he had bought the baloney, he still wasn’t satisfied. (3) As he was buying the baloney, his satisfaction increased. (4) As if buying baloney was all-important, he went to the store. (5) Because he buys baloney, he doesn’t have money for ham. Now each of these sentences can be re-cast to put the adverb clause last: (1b) He was satisfied after he had bought the baloney. (2b) He still wasn’t satisfied although he had bought the baloney. (3b) His satisfaction increased as he was buying the baloney. (4b) He went to the store as if buying baloney was all-important. (5b) He doesn’t have money for ham because he buys baloney. Please notice that when the adverb clause introduces the sentence, it is followed by a comma. But when it concludes the sentence, it is not separated from the independent clause by a comma.