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Escalation of the War of Turkish Independence (1920): In 1920, the Ottoman
government signs treaty with Allies drastically reducing its territory to where it covered only
part of modern Turkey, but also giving most of the control of the Ottoman nation over to
the Allies. As a condition, the Sultan and his government were allowed to stay in power, but
subservient to the Allies. This provokes the Turkish revolutionaries to begin their armed
campaign against the Allies and the Ottoman forces still loyal to the sultan. The Greeks also
landed in Western Anatolia (Turkey) to assert territorial claims that had been promised by
the Allies.
(Timeline Continued Below)
Ireland Gains Independence from the United
Kingdom(1922): The Irish War of Independence began in earnest
in 1919, just after the end of World War I. The Irish were promised
autonomous rule within the United Kingdom before the war began,
but this was delayed due to WWI. In 1916, a limited Irish revolt
broke out over disappointment in enacting Irish autonomous rule.
Most Irish were not sympethetic to the cause, but when the British
violently suppressed the revolt, the tide of public opinion swayed
the other way. By 1919, independence was favored by the general
Irish public, and war broke out. As the movement spread, British
rule in Ireland collapsed, and both sides agreed to end fighting and
meet at the negotiating table in 1922. The British granted
independence, but retained possession of the six northernmost
counties of Ireland, since these counties voted in favor of
remaining part of the UK. This region of Ireland had always leaned
more toward the British culturally and through religion, as the
majority were Protestant, as opposed to Catholic, the dominant
religion throughout the rest of Ireland.
United Kingdom Grants Independence to Egypt (1922).
Mussolini Rises to Power in Italy (1922): The National Fascist Party, led by Mussolini,
takes control of Italy. Socialist sects, inspired by communism in Russia, were causing chaos.
As a result, the king, and other influential right-wingers saw fascism as a better alternative.
Before rising to power, the National Fascist Party had taken the strongest, most effectual
stance against socialist uprisings. Mussolini becomes Prime Minister in what is still a
constitutional monarchy, where he shared power with the king.
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Note: Italian Expansionist Designs. Mussolini envisioned an Italian-based empire
reminiscent of the Roman Empire. These thinly-veiled plans made neighbors around the
Mediterranean Sea nervous and distrustful of Italy, including Yugoslavia and Greece.
End of Russian Civil War - Communists Assume Full Control (1923): The Red Army
(Communists) completely secured power in 1923. More than 15,000,000 died, and industry
had virtually come to a grinding halt. Starvation and disease were rampant, and the country
was essentially in ruins. The new Soviet government implemented communist policies
through military force as a significant portion of the population was leery of socialism.
End of the War of Turkish
Independence(1923): The Turkish revolutionaries
drive the Greeks out of Turkey by 1922. Fighting
proves to be difficult for the Allies as well, compelling
them to enter into peace negotiations. The Allies
recognize the independence of Turkey in the finalized
1923 treaty, and the consequent end of
Sultan/Ottoman rule. Also, expanded Turkish borders
(representing modern Turkey) are acknowledged
compared to the limited territories granted in the
1920 treaty. France retains possession of Syria, and
the UK retains possession of Mesopotamia, including Baghdad. This marks the beginning of
the modern nation of Turkey.
United Kingdom gains Mesopotamia and Cyprus from Turkey in War of Turkish
Independence (1923).
France gains Syria from Turkey in War of Turkish Independence (1923).
Death of Lenin, Rise of Stalin in Soviet Union (1924): Joseph Stalin becomes the new
Head of State, rising from position as leader of the Communist Party under Lenin. Stalin
would enact policies that would lead to millions of deaths, including confiscation of grain in
Ukraine and Turkish portions of USSR. This would result in mass starvation, deportations,
political imprisonments and executions (to clean the communist party and society in general
of unsupportive elements). The Gulag system (forced labor penal camps) began under Lenin
and continued in earnest under Stalin. Millions were sent to these camps, the majority being
Soviet citizens before the start of WWII. These were primarily political prisoners, people that
were seen as an obstacle to the new communist regime, including Russians, Central Asians
(now under Russian control), Belarusians, Ukrainians. Treatment was brutal, as millions
were tortured, starved and/or worked to death. On the other hand, Stalin did lead Russia
toward becoming an industrial power.
Industrialization and Starvation of Ukraine in USSR (1929): As Russia begins to push
forward with industrialization, it targets Ukraine. Russia nationalizes many of the lands,
meeting resistance from land owners and peasants. Russia withheld food from large parts of
the Ukraine as a response, leading to the starvation of millions of Ukrainians.
Yugoslavia Dictatorship (1929): Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes changed from
constitutional monarchy to a dictatorship, due to sectarian struggles, changing its name to
Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Yugoslavia successfully consolidated all the South Slav nations into
a single nation. This included Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Bosnians, Montenegrins and
Macedonians. However, these different nations within a nation could not come to agreement
on several key issues, causing the Kingdom to devolve into political chaos and instability,
paving the way for the Serb-dominated dictatorship government, which managed to
establish order.
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Vatican City Sovereignty (1929): Treaty ratified guaranteeing sovereignty of Vatican
City, a walled, Catholic Church-ruled section within Rome.
Further Understanding: Global Depression Causes
1. Adherence to the Gold Standard: Leading up to WWI, many nations abandoned the
gold standard in order to manipulate their currencies, allowing them to quickly build up their
military. By the end of WWI, many currencies were devalued to almost nothing. To rectify
the matter, most nations reverted back to the gold standard to stabilize the value of their
currency. However, economies were in ruin, and therefore, consumer demand around the
globe fell. Being pegged to the gold standard did not spur spending. It had the opposite
effect, causing people to hoard gold and the currencies pegged to it, resulting in a lack of
liquidity in the system (credit crunch).
2. World War I: The high loss of life, along with the devastating economic and
infrastructural damage inhibited consumer spending (after a temporary post-war boost that
proved to be unsustainable). Plus, production capabilities throughout Europe were only a
fraction of pre-war levels. Consequently, international commerce slowed to a trickle,
causing a ripple effect throughout the world.
3. 1929 Stock Market Crash: Marked a serious downturn in the U.S. economy. Until
1929, Europe was surviving economically in large part due to accessible loans from the U.S.
As a result of the crash, the availability of funds from the U.S. dried up, drastically reducing
international trade, and therefore grinding local economies to a halt. The 1929 crash was a
result of overspeculation, as post-WWI euphoria led investors to overestimate stock and
commodity values, and the crash occurred when the bubble finally burst.
4. Deflation: Due to the factors above, consumer spending was weak. When production
capacities finally recovered, an excess of goods were manufactured, but with limited
demand, prices fell excessively, creating a poor business and wage environment.
5. Capitalism/Liquidity: Due to reasons above, the conditions for investment were poor,
resulting in money/gold hoarding. Western nations continued to maintain faith that a pure,
free-market economy would eventually result in self-correction. But as the mid 1930s
approached, there was no sign of the end. Without government intervention, there was
insufficient liquidity in the system. Wthout liquidity, there was a lack of personal and
business spending needed to drive a capitalistic economy. Socialistic economies, such as
Communist Russia and Nazi Germany were unaffected by the Global Depression, but they
depended on slave labor and heavy government subsidies, which proved to be
unsustainable over the long term.
6. Interest Rates: The newly-created U.S. Federal Reserve failed to drop interest rates in
order to spur lending and investing in a deflationary environment.
Comments
Spanish Civil War (1931-39): As its economy continues to suffer, civil strife and armed
conflict arise in Spain as various factions fight over which government to install.
Portugal Dictatorship (1932): Salazar becomes dictator over Portugal, remaining as
dictator until 1968.
Hitler Rises to Head of State in Germany (1933): As head of the popular Nazi Party,
Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany, sharing powers with President Hindenburg. When
the Parliament building was set ablaze, Hitler convinced the public that it was the doing of
the communists, allowing him have them arrested (including cabinet members). This
permitted Hitler to pass the Enabling Act (since primary opposition in parliament had been
removed), giving Hitler absolute powers. Hindenburg signed off, due to his old age and bad
health. Hitler then dissolved all other parties.
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State-Sponsored Persecutions of Jews in Nazi Germany (1933): State-sponsored
persecutions (as Nazi Party takes control). Included boycotts of Jewish-owned businesses,
and increasing numbers of acts of violence against Jews, in which police rarely intervened or
investigated.
Hitler Gains Tighter Control of Power (1934): With the death of Hindenburg, the army
finally accepted Hitler’s leadership. Decentralized institutions were disbanded, and
everything was controlled centrally. The economy began to improve, so people tolerated the
curbing of civil liberties. The SS and Gestapo took thousands of political prisoners, including
those not conforming to accepted profile of Nazi government, such as Jews, homosexuals
and the handicapped.
British-German Naval Agreement (1935): As it becomes clear that Germany is on the
rise again, the UK agrees to increase the allowed limit regulating the size of the German
navy, as dictated by the peace agreement ending WWI. Essentially, the UK appeased
Germany, knowing it was in no position to enforce any limitations.
Nuremberg Race Laws in Nazi Germany (1935): Jews lose German citizenship status
and all civil rights.
Italian-Abyssinian War (1935-36): Italy captures lands in East Africa, causing a rift with
the League of Nations (Allies). As a result, economic sanctions were levied against Italy,
causing it to seek an alliance with Germany instead.
Nazi-Italian Treaty (1936): Treaty of friendship between Germany and Italy, laying the
groundwork for the formation of the Axis Powers (which would also include Japan) a few
years later, preceding WWII.
German Annexation of Austria (1938): Hitler annexes Austria, which voted 99% in favor
of being absorbed into Germany. This consolidation blatantly violates the peace treaty
ending WWI, but the Allies lack the will to prevent it.
Jewish Concentration Camps in Germany (1938): Jews begin to be sent to
concentration camps in large numbers.
(Timeline Continued Below)
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End of Global Depression (1939): Capitalistic societies reformed to add socialistic
elements, such as welfare and government stimulus programs. Nations began to peg their
currency to the dollar to provide more flexibility. The build up to WWII caused a significant
increase in government spending, injecting capital/liquidity into the system needed to kickstart economies. Several nations observed the superior performance of socialistic, stateplanned economies during the 1930s, and scrapped democratic governments and capitalistic
economies in favor of authoritarian governments (including dictatorships) and socialistic
economies. Examples include Yugoslavia, Italy, Portugal, Spain and Poland.
Further Understanding:
Communism Outperforms Capitalism During Global Depression
Capitalism failed since it could not spur consumer demand and spread liquidity into the
system, as those that held funds were not inclined to spend or invest due to the panicdriven environment. Communist Russia avoided the depression largely due to price controls
and guaranteed employment (all basically subsidized by government). Russia's planned
economy held no connection to the stock market (no speculations to affect prices of
commodities), nor was Russia reliant on exports. Russia nationalized industry, taking over
private lands, factories, etc., essentially robbing landowners of wealth for the common
good. The system was very bad for landowners, but good for a stable economy – although it
mostly sustained a only a meager existence. Communist Russia also exploited millions in
forced labor camps (Gulags), providing free labor for the benefit of the public, but at a steep
cost in human life and tragedy. Communism would prove to be unsustainable over the long
term, but worked during a time when it was widely supported by the public, since it
represented an improvement from the instability and warfare experienced during the last
few decades of imperial rule, and was better than the Global Depression effects suffered by
capitalistic economies world-wide.
Comments
Spain Dictatorship (1939): General Franco becomes dictator over Spain, remaining as
dictator until 1975.
Hitler Renounces British-German Naval Agreement (1939): Hitler would renounce the
agreement, no longer willing to adhere to any limitations at all per the WWI treaty, as
Germany was poised for a renewed conflict.
German Invasion of
Czechoslovakia (1939):Germany annexed
lands along the northern and western borders
from Czechoslovakia (Sudetenland), since there
were considerable German populations in these
regions. The inability and unwillingness of
Czechoslovakia or its supporting European powers
to prevent the German annexation of
Sudetenland was glaring, giving Nazi Germany
the encouragement to invade the remainder of
the country in 1939. The southern strip of
Czechoslovakia was awarded to Hungary in order
to gain their support in potentially renewed
warfare.
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Italian Conquest of Albania (1939): After Hitler invades Czechoslovakia, Italy invades
and conquers Albania. Italy had become a little distrustful
of Germany at this point, perceiving that Germany is
operating without regard to its own interests. It had
designs on Albania since it was promised by the Allies
during WWI. When Italy witnessed Nazi Germany
aggressively taking control of territory it felt entitled to,
Italy was instigated to do the same. Relations are patched
up between Germany and Italy with the subsequent Pact of
Steel, reaffirming their alliance.
Secret Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939): Hitler planned to
invade Poland soon, understanding it may very well
provoke a hostile response from the Allies. In which case,
it negotiated a non-aggression pact with the Soviets in
secret, to remove the primary threat to the east. The Soviet Union agreed to enable
Germany to invade without intervention. In exchange, Germany recognized Soviet claims
over Eastern Poland, and many of the other Eastern European nations lost during WWI,
including Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.
Further Understanding the Inter-War Period
How Germany Rises Again:
1. Not Thoroughly Defeated, Still a Powerful Nation. Germany conceded in WWI
even though the front lines of combat were all outside of Germany. It still had most of its
war machine intact. Germany still possessed a resource-rich land in a strategically-located
section of Europe, including vast industrialization capabilities, large coal deposits to feed
industrialization, technological capability, a large & skilled population, and strong military
tradition/know-how.
2. National Pride. The peace treaty ending WWI placed Germany in a humiliating
position, crippling it economically. Germans had historically viewed itself as a superior
people, as the most direct and purest descendants of the forefathers of the "superior"
white European race (Aryan Theory). After hitting rock-bottom economically and
psychologically, they realized no one was in a position to enforce treaty terms which
weighed Germany down, such as limiting industrialization and military build up. By the
early 1930s, Germany simply ignored sanctions against it, daring any nation to intervene.
3. Violation of WWI Peace Treaty. After WWI, Germany reached a desperate state,
especially economically as the treaty limited its production levels and military capability.
Plus, the war reparations (financial compensation) it agreed to were crippling. Germany's
strong sense of national pride demanded that it overcome its humiliated state. It realized
it was still powerful, and that no other nation was in a position to enforce the terms of the
treaty. By the 1930s, it blatantly began violating all the dehabilitating sanctions of the
treaty, cranking up its production, building up its military, reneging on war reparations,
and even expanding its borders, annexing Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938.
4. Controlled Economy. While the rest of the capitalistic "western" world was suffering
from the effects of the Global Depression, Nazi Germany instituted anti-capitalistic policies
to avoid the pain, including price controls and guaranteed employment (subsidized by the
government). The government was able to financially support such measures by
withholding war debts, forcing slave labor of non-Germans within its borders,
manipulating its currency and using up its reserves. This was not sustainable, which was
why it proceeded to invade Poland to start WWII, and motivated its advance into several
other Eastern European nations during WWII, recognizing its need for increased resources
and slave labor to sustain its way of life.
5. Passive Neighbors. As previously mentioned, none of the other European or world
powers were in a position to force Germany to adhere to the WWI peace treaty terms.
Even the victors of WWI such as the UK and France were weakened by the war, and
lacked the will to risk another war by taking a strong stance against Germany.
Spain/Portugal Dictatorships:
Neither Portugal nor Spain are able to recover from the Napoleonic Wars, which
devastated both economically, especially with the loss of their respective overseas
empires. As a result, both are much more turbulent than other democracies of western
and central Europe. This enables dictators to take power in the face of such disarray.