Download Plants - Spring-Ford Area School District

Plants
Angiosperms
Tracheophytes
• Reproductive structures of the tracheophytes:
• Ferns create sporangia.
• These hold and eventually release spores.
• Spores grow to create a new generation of fern.
• Gymnosperms create strobili (or cones).
• These create pollen (male strobili) or eggs (female strobili).
• The pollen carries half of the genetic information necessary for
the creation of a new plant to the egg, which holds the other
half, in a process called pollination.
• Fertilization occurs when the genetic information in the
pollen is merged with the other half of genetic info. in the egg.
• The fertilized egg is the seed, the embryonic plant.
• In gymnosperms, the seeds are eventually released from the
female cones into the wild to create the next generation of
that plant.
• Angiosperms create flowers.
Angiosperms
• Flowers have certain parts that are considered
“male” or “female:”
• Anthers – the male parts of the flower that
generate pollen
• Ovaries – the female parts of the flower that
hold the egg
• The male and female parts of the flower can be:
• On the same flower (a perfect flower), or
• On separate (male or female) flowers.
• Sometimes, these separate male and female flowers will
be on the same plant (called being monoecious) ;
• Sometimes these separate flowers will be on separate
(male or female) plants (called being dioecious).
Angiosperms
• Flowers depend on other creatures, usually
animals (often bees) or on the wind for
pollination to occur.
• Bees and flowers have a complex, symbiotic
relationship.
• The bees get food (nectar and/or pollen) from the
flowers.
• The flowers become pollinated by the bees while
they are gathering nectar and/or pollen from the
flowers.
• This type of symbiosis is called mutualism
(because both creatures benefit from the
relationship).
Parts of Flowers
Mature Perfect
Flower
• Flowers produce pollen
and
nectar for the
purpose of eventually creating a seed.
Nectaries
• Pollen is produced by the anthers.
Nectar Producing
• Nectar is produced
in the
nectaries, glands that
Glands
in Flower
can be found in various locations depending on the
flower type.
• Ovules (eggs) are produced in the ovaries.
•
•
•
•
There may be a single ovary in a flower, or
There may be multiple ovaries in a single flower.
A single ovary may produce a single egg within, or
A single ovary may produce multiple viable eggs within
itself.
Parts of Flowers
MicrosporangiumMature Perfect Flower
produces microspores
–
Microspores become
Pollen Grains
Anthers
Male Parts of Flower
produce pollen
Pollen Grains
will
will burst
burst out
out of
of
microsporangium
microsporangium
Pollen grains carry plant
gametes (sperm cells).
Parts of Flowers
Pistil of a Flower
• Pollen grains carry gametes, or sex cells, which are the “male”
sex cells, called sperm cells.
• The “female” sex cells are the ovules, or eggs.
• Each of the gametes carry half of the genetic information
needed to create a new plant.
• Pollen grains from different plants can look very different . . .
• When the pollen grain gets to the female flower’s pistil, it
germanates, creating a pollen tube through which the
sperms cells travel to reach the female flower’s ovules.
Pollen Grains
will
will burst
burst out
out of
of
microsporangium
microsporangium
Parts of Flowers
Ovaries
Female Parts of Flower
Produce Ovules (Eggs)
Mature Perfect Flower
Ovary
Produces
Produces Ovule(s)
Ovule(s)
Ovule
(egg)
Once eggs are fertilized by a sperm cell from a pollen grain, you have a seed.
A seed is an embryonic plant (beginning of a new plant generation).
Bees
• Bees are amazing creatures with a complex societal
structure & an extreme interdependence on flowers.
• Bees may collect several things from the flowers in
their environment:
• Nectar
• Nectar is turned into honey by bees for use as food.
• A bee honey stomach and its saliva contains enzymes
that alter the chemical structure of the nectar.
• Bees also encourage evaporation of the water in
nectar, so that the solution goes from about 80%
water to about 16% as honey.
• People also eat honey that has been created by bees.
• Pollen
• Pollen is collected and eaten and also stored for later
use as food during the months of the year when flowers
are not available.
Bees
• Bees are designed with organs and physical
structures specifically for their interactions with
flowers.
• Bees have a proboscis (a hollow tongue) which they
extend from their mouths into a flower to get the nectar.
• Bees have a honey stomach (also called a crop) into
which they funnel nectar for storage until they return to
the hive.
• Bees have special structures on one section of their legs
called pollen baskets (or corbicula—Latin for “basket”)
which help them collect pollen.
• Bees have structures on other parts of their legs (mostly
comb-like hairs) to help them pull pollen off of other
parts of their bodies and move it into their pollen baskets.
• Bees can digest pollen for protein and honey for energy.
• Bees know how to turn nectar into honey . . .
Bees – Covered in Pollen
Bees – Proboscis
Proboscis
retracted
Proboscis
extended
Bees – Honey Stomach
Bees – Pollen Basket
• Honey bees have pollen baskets, or corbicula,
on their hind legs.
• They will use their tongue to wet the hairs on
their forelegs and any pollen there with nectar
and then use them to wipe the pollen that they
got all over them back toward their hind legs and
into the corbicula.
• The pollen becomes hard-packed, smooth, and
shiny as it is packed into the corbicula of a honey
bee.
Bees – Pollen Basket
Full Pollen Baskets
Rear Leg –
Pollen Basket
(Corbicula)
Bees – Scopa
Bumblebee
carried
in a scopa
• Note
that the with
onlypollen
species
of honey
bee in
North America has pollen baskets
(corbicula), however . . .
• Bumblebees and other bee species may
instead have a scopa, which is a collection
of hairs in a similar location but which holds
pollen differently.
• Pollen carried in a scopa is not wet or
compressed.
• It is left fluffy and dry, jammed in between
the hairs on the leg or pinned through by
them, rather than packed into a “basket.”
Bees – Nectar & Pollen Storage
• Bees store nectar—transformed into honey—and
Beehive
in tree trunk
pollen back in their
hives.
• Hives are usually made in cavities in trees in nature.
• However, they will also build between walls, eaves, or
rooves of people’s homes.
• They create hexagonal cells from wax and put the
honey and pollen—and even baby bee eggs—in these
wax cells.
• A honeycomb is a structure created from many of
these cells.
• The bees themselves create the wax.
• It is generated under their abdomens when they are a
certain age.
• Bees will collect this wax from their fellow bees, build the
honeycomb, and then fill the cells with what they need.
Bees
– ofNectar
Pollen
Different & Pollen Storage
Kinds Stored in Cells
Bee Larvae
Honey
Cells Sealed
with Wax
Bees
• Bees also may collect propolis (prop-a-liss) from plants.
Propolis sealing edges of
• Propolis is collected from either:
a bee hive.
• Flower buds
• Sap flows from coniferous gymnosperms (!)
• Other botanical sources
• Uses bees have for propolis:
• Reinforce the structural stability of the hive
• Reduce vibration
• Make the hive more defensible by sealing alternative entrances
• Prevent diseases and parasites from entering the hive
• To inhibit fungal and bacterial growth
• Preventhoney
putrefaction
hive.
Africanized
bee within theBrazilian
bees sealing
• Should a small lizard or mouse finds its way into the hive and
carrying green
large
opening in hive
die, beespropolis
may be unable to carry
it out.
native
with
greeninstead,
propolis.
• If to
so, Brazil.
they would seal the carcass
in propolis
mummifying it and making it odorless and harmless.
Bees
• Propolis is actually a mixture bees create when they need it.
• They mix tree sap with pollen and wax to create propolis.
• It is a thick, resin-like substance.
• Many people have counted on propolis for medicinal purposes
for millennia, including:
Oral health
Preventing or fighting off various types of infections
Healing wounds and burns
As an anti-fungal agent
As an anti-parasitic
To fight cancer and associated illness
As an anti-inflammatory agent
For wart removal
To reduce cold sores & other similar, related and unrelated viral
infection symptoms
• As a preservative (was used in mummification by the Egyptians)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Bees – Random Facts
• Honey bees pollinate 30% of all food that Americans consume.
• They perform 90% of all pollen transfers on our orchard crops
• They pollinate 85% of all flowering plants
• One honey bee visits 50-100 flowers during each collection trip
and can harvest several thousand flowers in a day, making 12 or
more trips, gathering pollen or nectar from a single floral species
each.
• It takes about 556 worker bees to gather 1 pound of honey from
about 2 million flowers.
• It takes about 55,000 flight miles per gallon of honey made.
1
• The average honey bee will make only
of a teaspoon of
12
honey in its lifetime (6 weeks).
• These foragers are the oldest bees in the hive.
• It is during the last two weeks of their lives that they gather nectar,
pollen, water, and propolis.
Bees – Random Facts
• A hive can gather pollen and nectar from up to 500 million
flowers in a year.
• During peak nectar flows, a healthy hive can produce 2 to 5
pounds of honey per day.
• The bees use about 8 gallons of water to make 1 gallon of honey.
• 9 pounds of honey is synthesized to make 1 pound of beeswax.
• Honey bees can fly up to 6 miles from the hive at 15 mph with
their wings beating 11,400 times per minute.
• Honey bees use the sun as a directional marker when leaving
and returning to the hive.
• The returning bees do a waggle dance on the vertical comb
surfaces in a circle or figure eight pattern which shows the other
bees:
• Which direction to fly, and
• How far to fly.
Bees – Random Facts
• Roughly fifty thousand worker bees (females) live in a colony
along with one queen and several hundred drones (males).
• During the warmer months the worker bees live about six weeks, the
queen can live up to three years.
• Worker bees born in the fall will live throughout the winter with the hive
population being about half of what it is in the summer.
• Average interior temperature of the hive's brood area is 93-95
degrees (F) regardless of the outside temperature.
• In colder weather they do not hibernate, but cluster generating heat
much like musk-ox and penguins.
• There are approximately 2.7 million managed Honey Bee Hives
in the USA.
• There are actually no honey bees native to the United States.
• European honey bees (German Black Bees) were first introduced into
this country (in Virginia) about 1621-22.
Modified from http://www.apexbeecompany.com/honey-bee-facts/
Seeds
• Recall that the pollen grains:
• Move from the anthers of one flower to the pistol
of another flower (of the same species).
• They then create a pollen tube and send the
gamete cells down the pistol in search of the
egg(s).
• Once they reach the egg, the egg is said to be
fertilized.
• At this point, you will finally get a seed.
• It is the male and female gametes fused into one
new embryo.
Seeds - Cotyledons
• A cotyledon is part of the embryo within the seed of a plant.
• The cotyledons are formed during the process of
embryogenesis along with the roots and shoots of the plant
prior to germination.
• Often when the seed germinates (begins to grow), the
cotyledon may become the first leaves of the seedling.
• Botanists use the number of cotyledons present in the seed
of a plant as a means of classification.
• Monocots are seeds that have only one cotyledon.
• Dicots are plants with two cotyledons.
Seeds – Monocot vs Dicot
• Flowers
• Monocots tend to have flower parts in multiples of 3.
• Dicots tend to have flower parts in multiples of 4 or 5.
• Leaves
• Monocots tend to have parallel veination.
• Dicots tend to have net veination.
• Roots
• Monocots usually have adventitious roots.
• Adventitious roots arise from an organ other than the actual root.
• Usually, from a stem, but sometimes a leaf.
• They are especially numerous on underground stems.
• The formation of adventitious roots makes it possible to vegetatively
propagate many plants from stem or leaf cuttings.
• Dicots usually have tap roots.
• Stems
• Monocots’ vascular bundles are usually spread throughout the cross-section
of the stem.
• Dicots usually have vascular bundles spread to the outside.
Apple Trees
Malus domestica
Orchard Apple or
Table Apple
Integrated Taxonomic Information
System (ITIS) Classification:
Domain:
Kingdom:
Division:
Class:
Order:
Family:
Genus:
Species:
Eukaryota
Plantae
Tracheophyta
Magnoliopsida
Rosales
Rosaceae
Malus
domestica
Apple Tree in Bloom
!
Apple Trees
Malus domestica
Orchard Apple or
Table Apple
National Center for Biotechnology
Information (NCBI) Classification:
Domain:
Kingdom:
Phylum:
Class:
Order:
Family:
Genus:
Species:
Eukaryota
Viridiplantae
Streptophyta
Rosales
Rosaceae
Malus
domestica
!
Apple Trees
• The various types of modern apples are descended most likely
from the Malus sieversii, a wild apple found in various regions
of Central Asia.
• The species name domestica denotes that the apple in question is a
modern apple with only a likely descendence from the Malus sieversii.
• Actual varieties of modern apples are called cultivars, and are
hybridized plants that humans have created by breeding different
types of apple-bearing plants.
• Just the American cultivars (or those popular in the U.S.) include:
Bailey
Baldwin
Beacon
Ben Davis
Beverly Hills
Bottle Greening
Cameo
Carolina Red Juice
Carter’s Blue
Courtland
Crimson Delight
Crimson Gold
Criterion
Dudley Winter
Empire
Enterprise
Esopus Spitzenburg
Fireside
Ginger Gold
Golden Delicious
Golden Russet
Golden Supreme
Granny Smith (AU)
Green Cheese
Grimes Golden
Harrison
Harrison Cider
Honeycrisp
Honeygold
Idared
Jonagold
Jonathon
Junaluska
Jupiter
King
Lady Alice
Liberty
Lodi
Macoun
Maiden’s Blush
Melinda
Golden Delicious
McIntosh (CA)
Melon
Melrose
Mollie’s Delicious
Mother
Newell-Kimzey
Newtown Pippin
Nickajack
Northern Spy
Ozark Gold
Paula Red
Pink Pearl
Granny Smith (AU)
Pristine
Prima
Porter’s
Pound Sweet
Red Delicious
Rhode Island
Greening
Rome Beauty
Roxbury Russet
Smokehouse
(from PA!)
Stark Earliest
Stayman
Sweet Sixteen
Swee Tango
Teser
Tolman Sweet
Twenty Ounce
Westfield SeekNo-Further
Wealthy
Winesap
Wolf River
York Imperial
McIntosh (CA)
Red Delicious
Apples
• As the apple matures, the fertilized seeds in the
ovary are enclosed in:
• A fleshy fruit which the ovary grows into, and
• A further layer of fleshy material which grows from other
parts of the flower, not the ovary.
• People generally eat the outer part of apples, not the
part that grew from the ovary.
• The apple core is what the ovary eventually becomes, but
we generally throw this part away.
• It is the sepals, petals, and stamens that were the
hypanthium, or flower cup, around the base of the flower,
become the part people actually like to eat.
Daisies
Bellis perennis
Lawn Daisy or European Daisy
Integrated Taxonomic Information
System (ITIS) Classification:
Domain:
Kingdom:
Division:
Class:
Order:
Family:
Genus:
Species:
Eukaryota
Plantae
Tracheophyta
Magnoliopsida
Asterales
Asteraceae
Bellis
perennis
!
Daisies
Bellis perennis
Lawn Daisy or European Daisy
National Center for Biotechnology
Information (NCBI) Classification:
Domain:
Kingdom:
Phylum:
Class:
Order:
Family:
Genus:
Species:
Eukaryota
Viridiplantae
Streptophyta
Asterales
Asteraceae
Bellis
perennis
!
Daisies
• Daisies are another example of an angiosperm plant.
• They are called Lawn Daisies, European Daisies, or even
Bruisewort at one time.
• Many people consider daisies to be a lawn weed.
• The name is understood to be a mangling of the actual given
name from long ago, Day’s Eye.
• The flower appears like a little yellow sun with rays spraying out all
around it.
• The binomial designation Bellis perennis comes from Latin terms.
• Perennis means everlasting.
• Bellis either comes from:
• The Latin word bella, which means beautiful—meaning the plant is
beautiful all year long or every year . . . or,
• The Latin word bellum, which means war—meaning there is an
association with war and this plant, and it was used as healing agent
for wounds after battles in Roman times and thereafter.
Daisies
• Daisy “flowers” are actually an inflorescence of many small flowers.
• There are really 2 types of flowers involved in a daisy flowerhead,
which is a capitulum type of inflorescence:
• Disc florets
• Each of these disc florets have both male (stamens with anthers)
and female (stigmas on a style) parts (perfect flowers) and are all
situated above individual ovaries.
• Ray florets
• Each of these ray florets have both male (stamens with anthers) and
female (stigmas on a style) parts, however the male parts are often
sterile, making the rays female. Each is situated over an ovary.
• These florets all sprout from a receptacle at the top of a leafless
stalk and are surrounded by involucre (inve-loo-ker) bracts (leaf-like
structures that surround the flower from underneath).
• The fruit produced is of the achene type.
• These fruits are one-seeded, lance shaped, flat, & yellowish brown.
• Daisies can also reproduce from creeping, underground horizontal
stems (rhizomes).
Daisies
Disc Floret
Make up Interior Part
of Inflorescence
Daisies
Ray Floret
Make up “Petals” Surrounding
Interior Flowers
Daisies
Capitulum Type Inflorescence
—
Made Up of Many, Many Disc Florets in the Middle
and
Multiple Ray Florets Around Outer Edge
Daisies
Wheat
Wheat
Triticum aestivum
Common Wheat
Integrated Taxonomic Information
System (ITIS) Classification:
Domain:
Kingdom:
Division:
Class:
Order:
Family:
Genus:
Species:
Eukaryota
Plantae
Tracheophyta
Magnoliopsida
Lilianae
Poaceae
Triticum
aestivum
!
Wheat
Triticum aestivum
Common Wheat
National Center for Biotechnology
Information (NCBI) Classification:
Domain:
Kingdom:
Phylum:
Class:
Order:
Family:
Genus:
Species:
Eukaryota
Viridiplantae
Streptophyta
Liliopsida
Poales
Poaceae
Triticum
aestivum
!
Wheat
• Wheat is another example of an angiosperm plant.
• The fruit of a wheat plant is technically called a
caryopsis (plural caryopses).
• It is a type of simple, dry fruit that is:
•
•
•
•
Monocarpellate (formed from a single carpel)
Indehiscent (not opening at maturity)
Like an achene in appearance
Different from an actual achene because the pericarp is
fused with the thin seed coat
• The caryopsis is popularly called a grain.
• Because the fruit and the seed are essentially one unit,
no one really speaks of the fruit and seed as anything
other than justCaryopsis
one thing: a grain.
Wheat
• An “ear” of wheat consists of:
• A number of individual spikelets (flower heads) set one above another
• These are all along a length of stem known as the rachis.
• Each spikelet has a single set of glumes (sheaths) enclosing up to 8
grains (each developing from a flower);
• Each grain is enclosed in its own glumes (the lemma and palea).
• The glumes may have long dorsal to terminal bristles known as awns but
this is now rare in modern wheat.
• There are certain characteristics that aid in identifying the
specific type (species) of wheat you are dealing with:
• The number of flowers/spikelets
• Whether or not the grains are easily released from the glumes is another:
• ‘Hulled' wheats have strong glumes which hold the grains in the spikelets
• ‘Naked' wheats are easily released even from the lemma and palea
• The ease of release has implications for timing of harvest, ease of threshing,
and resistance to disease and/or predation.
http://www.farm-direct.co.uk/farming/stockcrop/wheat/wheatanat.html
Wheat
• Wheat is grown on more than 540,000,000 acres of farmland
around the world—larger than for any other crop.
• World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops
combined.
• With rice, wheat is the world's most favored staple food.
• It is a major diet component because of the wheat plant's:
•
•
•
•
Ability to grow from near arctic regions or at the equator
Ability to grow at sea level to high plains well above sea level
Ease of grain storage
Ease of converting grain into flour for making edible, palatable,
interesting and satisfying foods
• Wheat is the most important source of carbohydrate in a
majority of countries.
• Wheat protein is easily digested by nearly 99% of the human population.
• With a small amount of animal or legume protein added, a wheat-based
meal is highly nutritious.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheat