Download Chapter 12 Principles of Persuasion

Chapter 12—Principles of Persuasion
Chapter Overview
The purpose of this chapter is to provide students with theoretical knowledge and
fundamental rules based on psychological theory that will aid in understanding
cognitive processing and developing persuasion skills. Particular emphasis is placed
on social judgment theory and cognitive dissonance. In persuading others we must
deal with perceptions and inferences as well as personality differences. This chapter
builds upon the knowledge gained in previous chapters. Practical rules and guidelines
are provided for use in practice sessions.
Learning Objectives for This Chapter
 To recognize the difficulties of persuasion.
 To learn the fundamental keys of persuasion.
 To learn when persuasion is unlikely.
 To learn the role of diplomacy in persuasion.
 To practice your persuasion skills.
“Many can argue; not many converse.”
—Alcott
Classroom Activities
Activity One
Interactive lecture on chapter material.
Activity Two
Diplomacy practice. (See outline.)
Activity Three
Persuasion Skill-Building Survivor Game. (See outline.)
Activity Four
Persuasion Skill-Building Billy Goats Game. (See outline.)
Activity Five
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Role-Playing Exercises and Problems/Persuasion Practice Session. (See outline.)
Activity Six
Review competency checklist, review questions, and end-of-chapter case
material.
Lecture Outline
I.
Social Judgment Theory.
A. Persuasion is difficult.
1. Prior to beginning persuasive efforts one must come to GRIP with an
overall strategy and goals as explained in previous chapters.
2. Additional psychological theories assist in finding ACES to cross the
bridge to persuasion.
3. People perceive through their individual lenses and search for validity
in assessing information. In addition to those automatic processes
described in previous chapters, we must understand additional
cognitive phenomena.
4. Attitude here includes opinions and beliefs.
B. Social judgment theory emphasizes the effects of prior attitudes and aids
in understanding when and/or how persuasion might be possible.
C. Latitudes help to explain the persuasion mystery.
1. The latitude of commitment contains firm attitudes unlikely to change.
2. The latitude of noncommitment describes areas on which little or no
prior attitude exists.
3. A latitude of acceptance is created for receiving messages similar to,
or not blatantly inconsistent with, prior attitudes. Persuasion is
possible here.
4. A latitude of rejection is created for messages inconsistent with or
dissimilar to prior attitudes. Persuasion is not possible here.
II.
Latitudes of Commitment, Noncommitment, Acceptance, and Rejection.
A. Some portion of the latitude of commitment will constitute the latitude of
rejection. Persuasion is not possible.
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B. Some portion of the latitude of commitment may be included within the
latitude of acceptance. Messages that are not clearly inconsistent with
firmly held attitudes in the latitude of commitment are subject to change.
And, certainly, messages that are new but clearly consistent with prior
attitudes are likely to be accepted.
C. The persuasive impact or possibility is greatest in the latitude of
noncommitment.
D. The disconfirmation bias makes persuasion more difficult.
1. Arguments incompatible with prior beliefs are scrutinized longer,
subjected to more refutational analyses, and judged weaker than those
arguments compatible with prior beliefs. We seek to prove these
messages to be wrong!
2. Research demonstrates that people cannot escape this phenomenon.
We cannot evaluate messages independently from prior beliefs.
E. We tend to readily accept at face value messages that are compatible with
our prior beliefs.
F. We try to discredit and undermine messages that are contrary to our prior
beliefs.
III.
Cognitive Dissonance.
A. The theory of cognitive dissonance explains additional unconscious
cognitive processing that occurs simultaneously with the processing
explained by social judgment theory and the other unconscious processing
discussed in previous chapters.
B. Cognitive dissonance is the psychological tension created when we find
inconsistency between our attitude and our behavior, or between two
attitudes, or between two behaviors, including when a message seeks
adoption of an attitude inconsistent with existing attitudes. It is an out-ofbalance condition. It is uncomfortable. We seek to get back into balance.
C. People try to confirm their own attitudes, and people try to avoid
dissonance by avoiding decisions! People try to reduce or eliminate
dissonance by changing the relative importance of attitudes and beliefs, by
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distorting their own perceptions, by forgetting the out-of-balance factors,
and/or by rejecting what is necessary to create balance.
1. We unconsciously tend to perceive similar statements as more similar
than they actually are. This confirms the validity of our pre-existing
beliefs.
2. Just as we tend to think everyone is like us (as noted in previous
chapters), we tend to think the attitudes and beliefs of others are the
same as ours. This is referred to as the false consensus bias.
3. The greater the dissonance, the greater the unconscious reduction
efforts.
IV.
Negativity Bias. Negative information weighs more heavily than does positive
information. Truly it is advisable to start off with the good news!
V.
Preparing Your Arguments to Persuade. You must do more than argue. You
must target and hit the latitude of noncommitment or latitude of acceptance.
VI.
Going for “ACES.”
A. Appropriateness is the argument that what you seek is the right thing to
do.
B. Consistency is the argument for fairness and justice.
C. Effectiveness is the argument that provides the answer or solution.
D. Special additional factors should be used as possible.
VII.
Crossing the “CREEK.” In addition to focusing arguments with as many
ACES as possible, one must use additional tools to actually persuade.
A. Common Ground has been discussed in previous chapters. Mutuality is
necessary, because self-benefit provides a reason for the person to
consider the argument.
B. Reinforce with Supporting Facts and Data to bolster your argument and
increase the weight of the argued item in the person’s cognitive balance
equation.
C. Emotional Connection taps into the power of identification and the
positive effects thereof such as trust discussed in a prior chapter. It also
provides an opportunity for cognitive connection to something positive in
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the person’s mind, thus increasing the weight of the argued item in the
person’s cognitive balance equation.
D. Empathy bolsters the other person’s self-esteem. However, it also tends to
diminish the perception of attitudinal differences, and the extent of
cognitive dissonance. If I say I agree with you and also want my way, it
appears as though we are in agreement!
E. Key in every persuasive effort is to maintain your credibility. If you lose
that, you lose the argument.
1. Trust is related to credibility, of course.
a. Deterrence-based trust is the least effective for persuasive
argument in negotiation.
b. Knowledge-based trust and identification-based trust enhance
credibility and facilitate successful negotiation.
2. Assertion is appropriate. Aggression and pushing are not appropriate
and will damage credibility.
3. To avoid being manipulated, periodically ask if anyone but the person
arguing will benefit from the proposal.
VIII.
When Persuasion Is Unlikely.
A. Persuasion is unlikely when the argument falls within the person’s latitude
of rejection.
B. Reframing is possible. Look for different ACES and try again.
C. Re-tool to cross the CREEK. Look for more common ground, more
reinforcement, more emotional connection, more empathy, and check your
credibility!
D. Ask why you are not convincing the person.
E. Know when to stop. (This knowledge is addressed in later chapters.)
IX.
Diplomacy is the art of restraining power and the ability to say the nastiest
things in the nicest way! (Teaching Note: The best way for students to
understand diplomacy is to practice on the three scenarios included in the text
that are included below.)
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(Activity Two.) The exercise may be done by role playing or with open
discussion.
Scenario One—Assume that someone who reports to you has done something
wrong that you, in fact, consider rather stupid. How might you restrain your
power and, therefore, be diplomatic?
Scenario Two—How might you diplomatically tell someone that there is
spinach between the person’s front teeth?
Scenario Three—When your hair stylist asks how you like your hair and you
feel that you would like to place a bag over your head, how might you respond
diplomatically?
X.
Persuasion Skill-Building Games (Activities Three and Four). The Survivor
Game and the Billy Goats Game are included in the text. The instructor should
serve as the captain in the first game and as the troll in the second game. The
instructor is the judge of the persuasive effectiveness of the arguments.
Survivor Game. Divide the class into small teams of three to six members.
Each team is to consider the facts and develop arguments to persuade the
captain to save their team. The captain (instructor) will decide which team
wins and goes along.
Facts: You have been shipwrecked on a deserted island. There is enough food
to last for a couple of weeks. The water source is sanitary. There seems to be a
volcano on the island. It is not currently erupting. There is one raft available.
The captain can take only one team.
Billy Goat Game. This is a modification of the children’s story about Billy
Goats Gruff to practice persuasion. There is a mean troll who lives at the base
of the bridge over the creek (the instructor). She enjoys eating billy goats. You
may recall from the story that the troll was tricked into not eating two little
billy goats only to be later beaten by the big brother billy goat. The troll has
decided that she will never go hungry again! When played in teams, the teams
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should develop their persuasive argument together and send a representative
to talk with the troll. The troll is expected to argue back.
XI.
Role-Playing Exercises and Problems/Persuasion Practice Session (Activity
Five). Three scenarios are provided in the text and below.
Rearrange the Furniture—You moved into your house two years ago. Time
was very short when you arrived. The furniture has been exactly where the
movers placed it ever since moving day. You are not particularly happy with
the layout. You cannot move the large pieces by yourself. It is a sunny day
approximately 70 degrees outside, and you and your spouse both have the day
off work. Persuade your spouse to help you rearrange the family room.
Buy the House—You have been renting a lovely house for ten months. You
love it. You love the neighborhood and the schools, restaurants, and shopping.
When you signed the lease you inquired about the possibility of buying. The
landlord was firm in wanting to keep this house in the long term. You recently
noticed that one of his other houses in the neighborhood just went up for sale.
Persuade the landlord to allow you to purchase the house you are renting.
Out Spot, Out—You find a sweater while shopping. It is exactly the sweater
you have been wanting for years—just like one you previously had that was
lost in your last move. It is the perfect color and size for you. It has a small
spot and a very slight snag. You are pretty sure that the spot will come out,
although you wouldn’t guarantee it to anyone. You also think that your sister
can hide the snag. It also has a very expensive price tag on it. Persuade the
store personnel to reduce the sweater by 15% or the best you can do.
Your Turn—Ask students to think of something which they recently tried to
persuade someone to do but failed. Ask them to prepare new persuasive
arguments that will work.
Performance Competency Checklist
 Argument alone is unlikely to persuade. In persuading others it is necessary to
lead them with information demonstrating that the result is beneficial for all
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parties. At times, persuasion is not possible. People like to make their own
decisions. People search for validity when perceiving information and are unable
to evaluate persuasive arguments independent of their prior beliefs. Furthermore,
all of the complexities of perception are involved in assessing persuasive
arguments.
 The keys to persuasion are to focus appeals on ACES (appropriateness,
consistency, effectiveness, and special things) to cross the CREEK to persuasion
with common ground, reinforcement using external data, emotional connection,
empathy, and credibility. The most valuable key is credibility, which is related to
trust.
 Each individual has a latitude of acceptance and a latitude of rejection. If the
argument is too inconsistent with prior beliefs, the argument will be rejected. If
the argument is not incompatible with prior beliefs, it may be accepted. The
greatest likelihood of acceptance will attach to arguments regarding matters on
which the person holds no prior opinion. Consideration of arguments
incompatible with prior beliefs causes cognitive dissonance and may trigger
selective processing along with efforts to refute the argument. Selective
processing includes the false consensus bias, disconfirmation bias, and negativity
bias.
 Diplomacy facilitates effective negotiation.
 Becoming more persuasive in negotiation requires practice.
Key Terms, Phrases, and Concepts
Attitude
Social Judgment Theory
Latitudes of Commitment, Noncommitment, Acceptance, and Rejection
Disconfirmation Bias
Cognitive Dissonance
Negativity Bias
ACES
CREEK
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Review Questions and Answers
T F
1. Social judgment theory holds that people search for valid, or correct,
attitudes. (Answer: True.)
T F
2. Sometimes attempts to persuade are futile, or doomed to failure. (Answer:
True.)
T F
3. Appropriateness, consistency, and effectiveness are the best ways to
ground one’s arguments. (Answer: True.)
T F
4. Credibility is the single most important ingredient of persuasion. (Answer:
True.)
5. Explain the latitude of indifference. (Answer: It is also known as the latitude of
noncommitment and is the area of no prior strong attitudes.)
6. Explain how cognitive dissonance affects persuasive message processing.
(Possible Responses: The pressure to reduce or eliminate dissonance causes
forgetting, distorted perceptions, and re-weighting of cognitive elements.)
7. Explain the difference between a belief and an attitude. (Possible Responses: A
belief is something one knows to be true. An attitude is a positive or negative
(good or bad) value assessment. For persuasive argument they may be considered
the same.)
8. Why is it true that sometimes the most skilled negotiator will not succeed in
persuasion? (Answer: Even the most skilled negotiators make mistakes. However,
sometimes persuasion is not possible in the latitude of rejection.)
9. Why do soft words make a hard argument more susceptible to acceptance?
(Answer: This is the essence of diplomacy. People like to make their own
decisions. Leading works; pushing does not work.)
10. Identify the steps in crossing the CREEK to persuasion. (Answer: Common
ground, reinforcement with support, emotional connection, empathy, credibility.)
Case 12.1
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Your investment firm stands to gain a substantial amount of business if the
country’s tax laws are amended to promote self-directed retirement savings in the
private sector. You must make three persuasive presentations. One presentation will
be made to a group of individuals who are all between the ages of 40 and 55. Another
will be to a group of individuals who are all under 30 years of age. The final one is to
lawmakers. In each case you seek to convince the group to agree to endorse your
proposed change.
Case Discussion Questions and Possible Responses:
1. How will you assess the prior attitudes of each group? What effects will prior
attitudes have on their perceptions of your argument? What might you learn about
each group’s attitude here by applying the theory of attribution?
(Possible Responses: Pre-existing attitudes may be researched by reference to
available opinion polls and analysis of generational information. The
Congressional record is another source for lawmakers’ attitudes. Prior attitudes
will affect persuasive message processing. The effect will vary depending on the
latitude in which the argument falls. Applying the theory of attribution (addressed
in an earlier chapter) to the analysis is consistent with the general caution for the
argument receiver to always ask who benefits from the proposal. Since such
benefit is a fact, it should not be hidden. Benefit to others must be stressed.
Attribution is likely to be made to internal causes as people assume that most
investment companies would seek proposals for financial gain. The fundamental
attributional error would also result in nonbelief of the proposal.)
2. How different are the ACE arguments that you would use for each group? How
many ACES can you find for each group?
(Possible Responses: The ACES will be as different as the differences in beliefs
among the groups. Appropriateness may work for the older group and for the
lawmakers. Effectiveness is relevant for the younger group and for the
lawmakers. It will be important to develop an effectiveness argument for the older
group as well. When we combine learning from prior chapters with the material in
this chapter we discover that one tool for persuasion is to seek to discover the
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foundation of existing beliefs. The challenge is to whittle away at the foundations
underlying resistance. If proof of error in prior attitudes is given in persistent and
increasing doses, it may be possible to make room for your argument in the
receiver’s latitude of acceptance.)
3. Can you use knowledge-based trust to enhance your credibility here? What
information do you need, and how will you use this trust?
(Possible Responses: Knowledge-based trust should be applicable here. The firm
should use its expertise to support its proposal with comparative information on
the existing and proposed system for both groups, including pre-tax and after-tax
wealth growth.)
Optional Suggested Assignments
Ask students to note advertisements, both print and televised, that have persuaded
them and analyze why they were persuaded. Their analyses should use the chapter
material.
Ask students to attempt to persuade someone of something during the next week
and analyze why they were successful or unsuccessful using the chapter material.
Ask students to analyze a recent occasion or one that occurs during the coming
week in which someone tried to persuade them of something. Their analyses should
explain why they were persuaded or not persuaded, using the chapter material.
Ask students to write a short paper discussing why it is that a liar cannot believe
anyone else.
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