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Computer Ethics Chapter Three Professional Ethics and Responsibility Hassan Ismail Why a Separate Category of Professional Ethics? The same ethical rules involving honesty, fairness, and so forth should apply to professionals as well as to ordinary individuals. So, if it is wrong for ordinary people to steal, cheat, lie, and so forth, then it is wrong for professionals to do so as well. Thus, one might conclude that a separate field of study called "professional ethics" is not really needed. 6.2 Separate Category of Professional Ethics (continued) Ethicists argue that some moral issues affecting professionals are sufficiently distinct and specialized to warrant a separate field of study. Some also argue that professionals can have special moral obligations that exceed those of ordinary individuals. To grasp the arguments for this view, it is useful first to understand what is meant by the terms profession and professional. 6.3 Professional Ethics and Responsibility What is a profession? The notion of a regulated profession arises when the practices of some recognized group have the potential for significantly affecting the public good In particular, when the malpractice of the group has potential for causing significant harm So, when considering whether an activity should become a regulated profession one must ask these questions: – Does the activity have the potential for significant adverse impact on public welfare? – Is there a well-defined notion of practice & malpractice? – Is there a recognizable group of individuals performing the activity? Can you relate the activity of running programs on computers to the above questions? 6.4 Cases of Professional Ethics Conflicting Loyalties: If an engineer feels that a project they are working on is unsafe, do they have a moral responsibility to speak out against it, even if it may jeopardize their employment? System Security: If an engineer is contracted to build a low-security system, should they do so even if they feel the security level is not adequate? Conflict Of Interest: Should consultants make it clear to clients if they have ties to any software companies they recommend? 6.5 Why Professional Ethics..? Acting in a professional role is special in several ways: Professional roles carry with them special rights and special responsibilities (doctors, engineers, lawyers,…) Lay persons are neither allowed to do what doctors do nor expected to help others in the way doctors are There are several professional roles that, like doctor, called strongly differentiated, that gives the role-holder powers and responsibilities that are exceptions to normal morality. 6.6 Professional Ethics context Professionals function in a specific, often highly complex context Professionals have the power to affect the world because their skill and knowledge give them the ability, and their jobs give them the opportunity On the other hand, most occupational roles are not strongly differentiated. they do not allow or require that the role-holder act outside ordinary morality They are expected to adhere to the demands of ordinary morality (e.g., refraining from using force, never performing surgery or distributing drugs) 6.7 Computer Professional Role The role of computer professional is not strongly differentiated. That is, when you become a computer professional, you do not acquire any special power or privilege by virtue of being a computer professional. Nevertheless, when you are hired by a company, you may acquire the power to make certain decisions within that company However, you acquire these powers & responsibilities by virtue of being an employee of a company, not by virtue of being a computer professional. When it comes to strongly differentiated professions, special ethical analysis is required - to take into account the distinct ethical rights and responsibilities that a member of such a profession has. 6.8 Professional’s Employment Context Here what is special is the employment context. Employees enter into special relationships and take on special responsibilities when they become employed. To fully understand moral situation of computer professionals we must take the complexity of their professional/occupational roles into account. Another way in which occupational roles have to be taken into account in ethical analysis has to do with the efficacy of individuals acting in employment roles (the power to affect the world) Employed professionals often have some skills or knowledge and they use this skill and knowledge to produce a product or provide a service 6.9 Efficacy of Professionals They affect the world (they are efficacious) when they exercise their skills and knowledge in a context in which their actions have an effect. A computer professional, for example, may use his or her knowledge and skill to create software used for medical imaging or networking. The computer professional has efficacy because he or she works in an institution organized in a certain way and supported by a broader set of social institutions. This complex arrangement is what makes it possible for the skill and knowledge of the computer professional to be transformed into an effect on the world (good or bad). 6.10 Domain of Professional Ethics When it comes to analyzing the ethical dilemmas of computer professionals, it is not sufficient to think of them merely as individuals acting in complex situations. To fully account for the ethical dilemmas of computer professionals, the domain of professional ethics must be recognized. This means recognizing that the moral dilemmas of computer professionals (as well as other professionals) are different from those of lay persons. 6.11 Domain of Professional Ethics….Cont It means recognizing the moral complexity of the environments in which computer professionals work as well as the special efficacy that computer professionals have in those environments. While some professionals have special rights and responsibilities (powers and privileges) by virtue of being members of a profession, computer professionals do not. Computer professionals have special powers and privileges by virtue of their skill and knowledge and the positions they hold in organizations. 6.12 Characteristics of Professions Although, the term profession is sometimes restricted to occupations that are strongly differentiated. More often, however, profession is used rather loosely to refer to occupational groups that for one reason or another have acquired higher social status and higher salaries. But this term is more often used to refer to a subset of occupations that, even if not strongly differentiated, have a somewhat distinct set of characteristics. 6.13 Characteristics of a profession Esoteric Knowledge Social Function Autonomy Code of Ethics Formal Org 6.14 Characteristics of a profession Mind Mapping Esoteric Knowledge Social Function Autonomy Code of Ethics Formal Org 6.15 Characteristics often associated with Professions Mastery of an Esoteric Body of knowledge: usually acquired through higher education A member of the profession needs this body of knowledge in order to practice A related characteristic of professions is that they often embrace a division between researchers and practitioners Autonomy: Professionals generally have a great deal of autonomy, justified by having an esoteric knowledge Professions typically have autonomy both at the collective level as well as in individual practice 6.16 Characteristics often associated with Professions Formal Organization: Generally there exists a professional organization that: Controls admission to the profession and sets standards Involved in licensing & expelling its individual members Code of ethics There is a code of ethics & members of professions must adhere to the code no matter what their employment context (take an oath) Social function: Professions generally fulfill an important social function Medicine (promoting health), lawyers (justice) 6.17 Professional Ethics as a Paradigm These five characteristics are associated with a subset of occupational groups that have typically been labeled as professions (doctors, lawyers, engineers, architects, accountants, and clergy) However, the concept of profession is not hard and fixed. Moreover, it would be a mistake to think of this as a simple dichotomy These five characteristics are better seen as describing model or paradigm against which various occupational groups can be measured 6.18 Is Computing A Profession Where does computing fit in the process of professionalization? What does the field of computing look like when described in terms of the mentioned characteristics? The field of computing is so diverse and complex The range of those who are called computer professionals is extremely broad Nothing in common except that, in one way or another, they involve the use of computer At first glance, it seem that computing possesses all of these characteristics, though in complex ways 6.19 Is Computing A Profession Are Computer Professionals “Professionals”? Computer professionals have mastered an esoteric body of knowledge Computer professionals have varying degrees of autonomy depending on where they work There is no single organization governing the profession of computing (ACM, IEEE) Computing is an activity which supports social institutions which in turn are aimed at fulfilling a variety of social functions Computing does not appear to be a 'profession' in the strictest sense, the way law and medicine are professions, but it is more of a 'profession' than many other occupations. 6.20 SOFTWARE ENGINEERING Software engineering appears to be one area of computing that is emerging as a distinct profession within the field of computing. This trend seems to have been created by the initiative of individuals in the field concerned about the quality and safety of the software being produced and sold. Developing software engineering as a distinct field involves several of the activities. For example, it means identifying a unique body of knowledge that a person must possess to be competent software engineer. It means developing educational requirements (curriculum) such that the person who meets the requirements is more likely to produce a quality, safe software than someone without training. 6.21 SOFTWARE ENGINEERING It means developing mechanisms for licensing of members. This will include identifying or creating the proper organization for issuing licenses and identifying requirements for obtaining a license, such as passing an exam or acquiring a certain number of years of experience. Another requirement for professionalization is a code of ethics. The state of Texas has boldly taken the first steps in this process and has established software engineering licensing in its state. The Texas initiative is a serious attempt at setting standards in the field. 6.22 PROFESSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS When computer professionals take on jobs, they may enter into relationships with any one or several of the following: An employer, a client, co-professionals, and the public. Each of these relationships have ethical parameters. Employer-Employee When a person accepts a job in an organization, he or she enters into a relationship with an employer The moral foundation of the employer-employee relationship is contractual. Each party agrees to do certain things in exchange for certain things Each individual should be treated with respect and never used merely as a means. 6.23 PROFESSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS Thus, it is wrong for either the employer or the employee to take advantage of the other i.e. that each party must be honest For professional ethics, one of the most difficult areas of the employer-employee relationship has to do with what you rightfully owe an employer in the name of loyalty loyalty has both good and bad aspects: (1) it invites unfairness, (2) it prevents reliance on good reasons, and (3) it invites irresponsibility. Nevertheless, we should not jump to the conclusion that employees owe their employers whatever they demand in the name of loyalty There are limits. The hard part, of course, is to figure out where to draw the line 6.24 PROFESSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS Clearly, employers cannot demand every form of behavior that will serve the interests of the company (e.g. voting) Trade secrecy is one area where the line is particularly difficult to draw (not taking a job at another company) The employer-employee relationship is more complicated and less well defined than you might expect 6.25 PROFESSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS Client-Professional As with the employer-employee relationship, the clientprofessional relationship can be thought of as essentially a contractual relationship Each party provides something the other wants, and both parties agree to the terms of the relationship The important thing to keep in mind about client-professional relationships is the disparity in knowledge or expertise of the parties The client needs the professional to make decisions that may be crucial to the client's business He must trust that the professional will use his or her knowledge competently, effectively, and efficiently 6.26 PROFESSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS Different models have been proposed for understanding how this disparity in knowledge in professional-client relationships should be handled. Perhaps the most important models are: (1) agency (professional acts as the agent & implements what the client requests) (2) paternalism (client transfers all decision-making authority to the professional ) (3) fiduciary-trust (both parties have a role and are working together) – e.g. Leikessa & Juan 6.27 PROFESSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS Society-Professional When professionals exercise their skills and act in their professional roles, their activities may affect others who are neither employers nor clients They have a relationship with those who may be affected. For example, you may design a computer system that will be used in a dangerous manufacturing process (put workers at risk) This relationship is, to a certain extent, shaped by law in order to protect the public interest (social contract) The only problem with this account is that it seems to simply assert a correlation between knowledge and responsibility without showing the connection 6.28 PROFESSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS Professional-Professional Many professionals believe that they have obligations to other members of their profession For example, professionals are often reluctant to criticize each other publicly We can take the cynical view that professionals only unite with one another to serve their shared self-interest The earlier discussion of loyalty is relevant here 6.29