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Egypt: Built Along a River
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Where is Egypt located, and what are its major cities and rivers?
Egypt is located in the northeastern portion of Africa. It borders the countries of Libya to the west, Sudan to the
south, and Israel to the northeast. The Mediterranean Sea lies to the north, and the Gulf of Aqaba is to the east.
Ancient Egypt was home to some of the earliest civilizations. These civilizations developed along the Nile River,
the longest river in the world. The Nile is the most important feature of Egypt’s geography, and it played a major
role in the creation and development of Egyptian civilization. The river’s journey—more than 4,000 miles—to
the Mediterranean Sea begins in present-day Uganda on the northern shore of Lake Victoria. This southernmost
portion of the river is known as the White Nile. As the river makes its way north, it is joined in present-day Sudan
by two more major tributaries: the Blue Nile and the Atbarah River.
The Nile and its delta make up one of four geographic regions in Egypt. The others are the Western Desert, the
Eastern Desert, and the Sinai Peninsula.
In ancient times, most of the population of Egypt lived either in Lower Egypt, in the Nile River delta, or in Upper
Egypt, along the Nile River. Farming was made possible in these areas because of the rich silt deposited by the
river. Major cities, as well as farming villages, also developed along the Nile. The largest cities in
ancient Egypt were Thebes, Memphis, and Giza.
Today, Egypt is a busy modern country. However, the majority of its population is still located along the Nile River.
In fact, the valley of the Nile is one of the most densely populated areas in the world.
The Nile River
What are the unique features of the Nile River?
The Nile River forms in Khartoum, Sudan, at the meeting place of the White Nile and Blue Nile rivers. The White
Nile provides the majority of the Nile’s water.
From Khartoum, the Nile flows northward to Egypt. At Cairo the Nile fans out into its delta, a fertile area created
by sediment from the river, deposited as the river empties into the Mediterranean Sea.
As the Nile flows north through Egypt, it creates a thin strip of fertile land along its banks. This green, fertile land is
in sharp contrast to the barren desert on either side of the river valley.
The flooding of the Nile River occurs in a cycle with three seasons, as shown on the table below.
In the spring, heavy tropical rains in Ethiopia flood the Nile at its source. These flood waters move north
toward Egypt carrying with them nutrient-rich soil, also called silt, from the Ethiopian highlands. Ancient Egyptians
called the Nile River Ar or Aur, which means “black,” for the color of the silt it carried.
Every year, the Nile floods and silt-rich water flows over the floodplain—the flat land around the river. When the
water recedes, the silt that it carried gets left behind on the land. These silt deposits enrich the soil that fills
the Nile River Valley and delta, making them very fertile.
The River’s Bounty
How did the Nile River influence the growth of agriculture in ancient Egypt?
Ancient Egyptians took advantage of the Nile's cyclical flooding and its rich sediments. They began sowing seeds
in the mud after the flood waters receded. Eventually, in order to gain the greatest benefit from the Nile’s waters,
the Egyptians developed irrigation systems that carried water from the river to plants in their fields. These
systems enabled Egyptian farmers to plant crops beyond the river valley, and keep them watered all season.
One of the earliest irrigation methods Egyptians used was called basin irrigation. The flat fields along the river
were divided by mounds of dirt into basins, depressions that could hold water. Some of the basins were as large
as 50,000 acres (20,000 hectares). The basins would flood during the Akhet stage and remain flooded for up to
six weeks, covering the field with giant puddles. The basins would drain when the river receded, leaving behind a
thin layer of silt. During the Peret stage, the Egyptians would sow crops in the basins.
Diagram of basin irrigation
Later, farmers created irrigation canals. These canals allowed the farmers to grow crops further away from the
river. Farmers used several tools to move water from the river or irrigation canals to their fields. One tool the
Egyptians developed was a lever device called a shadoof. The shadoof made it easier for farmers to gather water
and move it to their fields.
The chief crops grown along the Nile River Valley were wheat, barley, vegetables, and flax. Egyptians made
bread and beverages from the wheat and barley, which were stored in large silos. They wove flax into linen.
Another important crop in ancient Egypt was a reed called papyrus. Papyrus was a plant that could be made into
a paper-like writing material of the same name. Papyrus grew easily in marshes and was also used to make rope,
matting, and sandals. Papyrus eventually became one of Egypt’s most important crops.
Egyptians also raised animals for food and to work the fields. Cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, ducks, and geese were
common domestic animals. A particular breed of cattle was raised for meat, while another was used for milk.
Egyptians also bred hunting dogs, as well as a type of fat-tailed sheep which they used for its meat and milk.
The Growth of States
How did agriculture influence the growth of civilization in ancient Egypt?
Agriculture and the irrigation projects needed to sustain it were the foundations for early Egyptian civilization.
The irrigation projects the Egyptians undertook required a lot of workers. Often, people from several towns or
villages had to cooperate with each other in order to complete the necessary work. Leaders emerged to manage
workers and supervise construction efforts. Historians have found evidence to suggest that organized
governments began to take shape prior to the time of the pharaohs in 3000 BCE. However, since there are few
written records before this time, not much is known about the details of that era.
As the amount of farmland increased, so did the quantity of food. In most years the Egyptians were able to grow
more food than they needed. A surplus of crops enabled some Egyptians to work in other jobs besides farming.
The combination of growing governments and specialized workers led to the growth of towns. Larger towns came
to rule over small villages and gradually grew into states.
During the time of the pharaohs, managing agriculture was one of the most important jobs of the government.
Viziers, whose powers were second only to that of the pharaoh, oversaw the central government, including
running the ministry of agriculture. Other government officials were responsible for managing the fields or
livestock. Eventually, the Egyptians undertook large-scale irrigation works such as the building of dams and long
canals.
By using improved irrigation methods, the Egyptians were able to grow a surplus of crops. Other civilizations,
where farming was less successful, began to rely on Egypt for food and other goods that they needed.
Trade Brings Luxury
What was the impact of trade on Egyptian civilization?
The Nile provided ample resources. Therefore, the Egyptians did not have to rely on trade for the goods they
needed to survive. Instead, they could exchange the river’s bounty for goods desired by the rich.
The copper that traders brought back from Sinai and the gold they brought from Nubia were made into fine dishes.
Gold and silver jewelry was adorned with semiprecious gems and stones, such as lapis lazuli. Most of these
luxury items were used by the pharaohs and elite members of Egyptian society.
By the 1500s BCE, Egypt had become the wealthiest civilization in the ancient Middle East. The Egyptians had
the Nile and its valley to thank for their riches.
By learning how to harness the power of the Nile, Egyptians were able to create a flourishing civilization. Even
today, people still depend on the Nile and the resources it provides.