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12/7/2016 CAMPBELL BIOLOGY Endless Forms Most Beautiful TENTH EDITION Reece • Urry • Cain • Wasserman • Minorsky • Jackson 21 How Evolution Works A new era of biology began in 1859 when Charles Darwin published The Origin of Species The Origin of Species focused biologists’ attention on the great diversity of organisms Lecture Presentation by Nicole Tunbridge and Kathleen Fitzpatrick © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 21.1 Darwin noted that current species are descendants of ancestral species Evolution can be defined by Darwin’s phrase descent with modification Evolution can be viewed as both a pattern and a process © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 12/7/2016 Figure 21.1a Concept 21.1: The Darwinian revolution challenged traditional views of a young Earth inhabited by unchanging species Darwin’s ideas had deep historical roots © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 21.2 Figure 21.2a 1809 Lamarck publishes his hypothesis of evolution. 1809 Lamarck publishes his hypothesis of evolution. 1798 Malthus publishes “Essay on the Principle of Population.” 1795 Hutton proposes his principle of gradualism. 1790 1809 Charles Darwin is born. Sketch of a flying frog by Wallace 1812 Cuvier publishes his extensive studies of vertebrate fossils. 1830 Lyell publishes Principles of Geology. 1831–1836 Darwin travels around the world on HMS Beagle. 1858 While studying species in the Malay Archipelago, Wallace (shown above in 1848) sends Darwin his hypothesis of natural selection. 1870 1859 On the Origin of Species is published. 1844 Darwin writes his essay on descent with modification. 1798 Malthus publishes “Essay on the Principle of Population.” 1795 Hutton proposes his principle of gradualism. Marine iguana in the Galápagos Islands © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 1790 1809 Charles Darwin is born. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 1812 Cuvier publishes his extensive studies of vertebrate fossils. 12/7/2016 Figure 21.2b Figure 21.2c 1830 Lyell publishes Principles of Geology. 1831–1836 Darwin travels around the world on HMS Beagle. 1858 While studying species in the Malay Archipelago, Wallace sends Darwin his hypothesis of natural selection. 1870 1859 On the Origin of Species is published. 1812 Cuvier publishes his extensive studies of vertebrate fossils. 1844 Darwin writes his essay on descent with modification. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 21.2d Figure 21.2e Marine iguana in the Galápagos Islands Sketch of a flying frog by Wallace 1831–1836 Darwin travels around the world on HMS Beagle. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 12/7/2016 Figure 21.2f Figure 21.2g 1858 While studying species in the Malay Archipelago, Wallace (shown above in 1848) sends Darwin his hypothesis of natural selection. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 1859 On the Origin of Species is published. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Scala Naturae and Classification of Species The Greek philosopher Aristotle viewed species as fixed and arranged them on a scala naturae The Old Testament holds that species were individually designed by God and therefore perfect Carolus Linnaeus interpreted organismal adaptations as evidence that the Creator had designed each species for a specific purpose Linnaeus was the founder of taxonomy, the branch of biology concerned with classifying organisms He developed the binomial format for naming species (for example, Homo sapiens) © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 12/7/2016 Figure 21.3 Ideas About Change over Time The study of fossils helped to lay the groundwork for Darwin’s ideas Sedimentary rock layers (strata) Fossils are remains or traces of organisms from the past, usually found in sedimentary rock, which appears in layers called strata Younger stratum with more recent fossils Older stratum with older fossils © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Video: Grand Canyon Paleontology, the study of fossils, was largely developed by French scientist Georges Cuvier Cuvier speculated that the boundaries between strata represent catastrophic events © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 12/7/2016 Lamarck’s Hypothesis of Evolution Geologists James Hutton and Charles Lyell perceived that changes in Earth’s surface can result from slow continuous actions still operating today, and at the same rate This view strongly influenced Darwin’s thinking © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Lamarck hypothesized that species evolve through use and disuse of body parts and the inheritance of acquired characteristics The mechanisms he proposed are unsupported by evidence © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 21.4 Concept 21.2: Descent with modification by natural selection explains the adaptations of organisms and the unity and diversity of life Some doubt about the permanence of species preceded Darwin’s ideas © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 12/7/2016 Darwin’s Research The Voyage of the Beagle As a boy and into adulthood, Charles Darwin had a consuming interest in nature During his travels on the Beagle, Darwin collected specimens of South American plants and animals Darwin first studied medicine (unsuccessfully), and then theology at Cambridge University He observed that fossils resembled living species from the same region, and living species resembled other species from nearby regions After graduating, he took an unpaid position as naturalist and companion to Captain Robert FitzRoy for a 5-year around the world voyage on the Beagle © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. He experienced an earthquake in Chile and observed the uplift of rocks © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 21.5 Darwin was influenced by Lyell’s Principles of Geology and thought that the earth was more than 6,000 years old His interest in geographic distribution of species was kindled by a stop at the Galápagos Islands west of South America He hypothesized that species from South America had colonized the Galápagos and speciated on the islands © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Darwin in 1840, after his return from the voyage HMS Beagle in port Great Britain NORTH AMERICA The Galápagos Islands ATLANTIC OCEAN Pinta Santiago Isabela 0 20 40 AFRICA PACIFIC OCEAN SOUTH AMERICA Genovesa Marchena Fernandina EUROPE Equator Daphne Islands Pinzón Santa Santa Cruz Fe Florenza Kilometers © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. San Cristobal Española Chile PACIFIC OCEAN Equator Brazil Cape of Good Hope Argentina Cape Horn Malay Archipelago PACIFIC OCEAN AUSTRALIA Tasmania New Zealand 12/7/2016 Figure 21.5a Figure 21.5b Great Britain NORTH AMERICA EUROPE ATLANTIC OCEAN AFRICA SOUTH AMERICA Equator Malay Archipelago Brazil Chile PACIFIC OCEAN PACIFIC OCEAN AUSTRALIA Cape of Good Hope Argentina Tasmania Cape Horn © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Darwin in 1840, after his return from the voyage New Zealand © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 21.5c Figure 21.5d The Galápagos Islands Pinta PACIFIC OCEAN Genovesa Marchena Santiago Fernandina Pinzón Isabela 0 20 40 Kilometers © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Equator Daphne Islands Santa Santa Cruz Fe Florenza San Cristobal HMS Beagle in port Española © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 12/7/2016 Video: Albatross Courtship Ritual Video: Blue-footed Boobies Courtship Ritual © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Video: Galápagos Islands Overview Video: Galápagos Marine Iguana © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 12/7/2016 Video: Galápagos Sea Lion Video: Galápagos Tortoise © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Video: Soaring Hawk Video: Snake Ritual Wrestling © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 12/7/2016 Figure 21.6 Darwin’s Focus on Adaptation In reassessing his observations, Darwin perceived adaptation to the environment and the origin of new species as closely related processes From studies made years after Darwin’s voyage, biologists have concluded that this is what happened to the Galápagos finches (a) Cactus-eater (b) Insect-eater (c) Seed-eater © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 21.6a Figure 21.6b (a) Cactus-eater © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. (b) Insect-eater © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 12/7/2016 Figure 21.6c In 1844, Darwin wrote an essay on natural selection as the mechanism of descent with modification, but did not introduce his theory publicly Natural selection is a process in which individuals with favorable inherited traits are more likely to survive and reproduce (c) Seed-eater In June 1858, Darwin received a manuscript from Alfred Russel Wallace, who had developed a theory of natural selection similar to Darwin’s Darwin quickly finished The Origin of Species and published it the next year © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. The Origin of Species Descent with Modification Darwin explained three broad observations The unity of life The diversity of life The match between organisms and their environment © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Darwin never used the word evolution in the first edition of The Origin of Species The phrase descent with modification summarized Darwin’s perception of the unity of life The phrase refers to the view that all organisms are related through descent from an ancestor that lived in the remote past © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 12/7/2016 Figure 21.7 In the Darwinian view, the history of life is like a tree with branches representing life’s diversity Darwin reasoned that large morphological gaps between related groups could be explained by this branching process and past extinction events © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 21.8 Figure 21.8a Hyracoidea (Hyraxes) Hyracoidea (Hyraxes) Sirenia (Manatees and relatives) Sirenia (Manatees and relatives) †Moeritherium †Barytherium †Moeritherium †Deinotherium †Barytherium †Mammut †Platybelodon †Deinotherium †Stegodon †Mammuthus †Mammut Elephas maximus (Asia) Loxodonta africana (Africa) Loxodonta cyclotis (Africa) 60 34 24 Millions of years ago © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 5.5 2104 0 Years ago 60 34 24 Millions of years ago © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 5.5 2104 0 Years ago 12/7/2016 Figure 21.8b Artificial Selection, Natural Selection, and Adaptation †Platybelodon Darwin noted that humans have modified other species by selecting and breeding individuals with desired traits, a process called artificial selection †Stegodon †Mammuthus Darwin drew two inferences from two observations Elephas maximus (Asia) Loxodonta africana (Africa) Loxodonta cyclotis (Africa) 60 34 24 5.5 2104 0 Millions of years ago Years ago © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 21.9 Figure 21.9a Cabbage Selection for apical (tip) bud Brussels sprouts Broccoli Selection for axillary (side) buds Selection for flowers and stems Selection for stems Selection for leaves Kale © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Wild mustard Wild mustard Kohlrabi © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 12/7/2016 Figure 21.9b Figure 21.9c Brussels sprouts Kale © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 21.9d Figure 21.9e Cabbage © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Broccoli © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 12/7/2016 Figure 21.9f Observation #1: Members of a population often vary in their inherited traits Kohlrabi © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 21.10 Observation #2: All species can produce more offspring than the environment can support, and many of these offspring fail to survive and reproduce © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 12/7/2016 Figure 21.11 Spore cloud © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Inference #2: This unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce will lead to the accumulation of favorable traits in the population over generations Inference #1: Individuals whose inherited traits give them a higher probability of surviving and reproducing in a given environment tend to leave more offspring than other individuals © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Darwin was influenced by Thomas Malthus, who noted the potential for human population to increase faster than food supplies and other resources If some heritable traits are advantageous, these will accumulate in a population over time, and this will increase the frequency of individuals with these traits This process explains the match between organisms and their environment © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 12/7/2016 Figure 21.12 Natural Selection: A Summary Individuals with certain heritable traits survive and reproduce at a higher rate than other individuals Natural selection increases the match between organisms and their environment over time A flower mantid in Malaysia A flower-eyed mantid in South Africa If an environment changes over time, natural selection may result in adaptation to these new conditions and may give rise to new species A leaf mantid in Borneo © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 21.12a © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 21.12b A flower-eyed mantid in South Africa A flower mantid in Malaysia © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 12/7/2016 Figure 21.12c Video: Sea Horses A leaf mantid in Borneo © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Concept 21.3: Evolution is supported by an overwhelming amount of scientific evidence Note that individuals do not evolve; populations evolve over time New discoveries continue to fill the gaps identified by Darwin in The Origin of Species Natural selection can only increase or decrease heritable traits that vary in a population There are four types of data that document the pattern of evolution Adaptations vary with different environments Direct observations Homology The fossil record Biogeography © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 12/7/2016 Direct Observations of Evolutionary Change Two examples provide evidence for natural selection: natural selection in response to introduced plant species, and the evolution of drug-resistant bacteria © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Natural Selection in Response to Introduced Species Soapberry bugs use their “beak” to feed on seeds within fruits Feeding is most effective when beak length is closely matched to seed depth within the fruit © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. In southern Florida soapberry bugs feed on the native balloon vine with larger fruit; they have longer beaks In all cases, beak size has evolved in populations that feed on introduced plants with fruits that are smaller or larger than the native fruits In central Florida they feed on the introduced goldenrain tree with smaller fruit; they have shorter beaks These cases are examples of evolution by natural selection Correlation between fruit size and beak size has also been observed in Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Australia © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. In Florida this evolution in beak size occurred in less than 35 years © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 12/7/2016 Figure 21.13 Figure 21.13a Field Study Results 10 Number of individuals Field Study Soapberry bug with beak inserted in balloon vine fruit 8 6 4 On native species, balloon vine (southern Florida) Beak 2 0 Average for museum specimens 10 On introduced species, goldenrain tree (central Florida) 8 6 4 2 0 6 7 8 9 Beak length (mm) 10 Soapberry bug with beak inserted in balloon vine fruit 11 © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. The Evolution of Drug-Resistant Bacteria The bacterium Staphylococcus aureus is commonly found on people Methicillin works by inhibiting a protein used by bacteria to produce cell walls One strain, methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) is a dangerous pathogen MRSA bacteria use a different protein in cell wall production Resistance to penicillin evolved in S. aureus by 1945, two years after it was first widely used When exposed to methicillin, MRSA strains are more likely to survive and reproduce than nonresistant S. aureus strains Resistance to methicillin evolved in S. aureus by 1961, two years after it was first widely used © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MRSA strains are now resistant to many antibiotics © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 12/7/2016 Figure 21.14 Figure 21.14a 2,750,000 1 250,000 base pairs 2,500,000 2,750,000 Chromosome map of S. aureus clone USA300 1 2,500,000 Chromosome map of S. aureus clone USA300 500,000 Key to adaptations 2,250,000 Methicillin resistance Ability to colonize hosts Increased disease severity Increased gene exchange (within species) and toxin production 2,000,000 1,750,000 1,500,000 750,000 1,000,000 Annual hospital admissions with MRSA (thousands) 250,000 base pairs 400 350 300 Key to adaptations 2,250,000 250 Methicillin resistance Ability to colonize hosts Increased disease severity 200 150 100 50 0 ’93 ’94 ’95 ’96 ’97 ’98 ’99 ’00 ’01 ’02 ’03 ’04 ’05 Year 500,000 2,000,000 1,250,000 Increased gene exchange (within species) and toxin production 750,000 1,000,000 1,750,000 1,500,000 © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 1,250,000 © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 21.14b Annual hospital admissions with MRSA (thousands) 400 Natural selection does not create new traits, but edits or selects for traits already present in the population 350 300 250 The current, local environment determines which traits will be selected for or selected against in any specific population 200 150 100 50 0 © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. ’93 ’94 ’95 ’96 ’97 ’98 ’99 ’00 ’01 ’02 ’03 ’04 ’05 Year © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 12/7/2016 Homology Anatomical and Molecular Homologies Homology is similarity resulting from common ancestry © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Homologous structures are anatomical resemblances that represent variations on a structural theme present in a common ancestor © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 21.15 Comparative embryology reveals anatomical homologies not visible in adult organisms Humerus For example, all vertebrate embryos have a postanal tail and pharyngeal arches Radius Ulna Carpals Metacarpals Phalanges Human © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Cat Whale Bat © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 12/7/2016 Figure 21.16 Figure 21.16a Pharyngeal arches Pharyngeal arches Post-anal tail Post-anal tail Chick embryo (LM) Chick embryo (LM) Human embryo © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 21.16b Vestigial structures are remnants of features that served important functions in the organism’s ancestors Pharyngeal arches Examples of homologies at the molecular level are genes shared among organisms inherited from a common ancestor Post-anal tail Human embryo © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 12/7/2016 Figure 21.17 Homologies and “Tree Thinking” Branch point Lungfishes Mammals 2 Digit-bearing limbs Amnion Evolutionary trees can be made using different types of data, for example, anatomical and DNA sequence data Lizards and snakes 3 4 Homologous characteristic Crocodiles Ostriches 6 Hawks and other birds © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 21.18 A Different Cause of Resemblance: Convergent Evolution Convergent evolution is the evolution of similar, or analogous, features in distantly related groups Analogous traits arise when groups independently adapt to similar environments in similar ways Sugar glider Convergent evolution does not provide information about ancestry NORTH AMERICA AUSTRALIA Flying squirrel © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Birds 5 Feathers © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Amniotes Homologies form nested patterns in evolutionary trees Amphibians 1 Tetrapods Evolutionary trees are hypotheses about the relationships among different groups 12/7/2016 Figure 21.18a Figure 21.18b Sugar glider © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Flying squirrel © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 21.19 The Fossil Record The fossil record provides evidence of the extinction of species, the origin of new groups, and changes within groups over time © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Most mammals Cetaceans and even-toed ungulates (a) Canis (dog) (b) Pakicetus © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. (c) Sus (pig) (d) Odocoileus (deer) 12/7/2016 Figure 21.19a Figure 21.19b (a) Canis (dog) © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. (b) Pakicetus © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 21.19c Figure 21.19d (c) Sus (pig) © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. (d) Odocoileus (deer) © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 12/7/2016 Figure 21.UN01 Fossils can document important transitions For example, the transition from land to sea in the ancestors of cetaceans 20 cm Diacodexis, an early even-toed ungulate © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 21.20 Biogeography Other even-toed ungulates Biogeography, the scientific study of the geographic distribution of species, provides evidence of evolution Hippopotamuses †Pakicetus Earth’s continents were formerly united in a single large continent called Pangaea, but have since separated by continental drift †Rodhocetus †Dorudon Common ancestor of cetaceans 0 50 40 30 60 Millions of years ago © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. An understanding of continent movement and modern distribution of species allows us to predict when and where different groups evolved Living cetaceans Key Pelvis Femur Tibia Foot © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 12/7/2016 What Is Theoretical About Darwin’s View of Life? Endemic species are species that are not found anywhere else in the world Islands have many endemic species that are often closely related to species on the nearest mainland or island Darwin explained that species from the mainland colonized islands and gave rise to new species as they adapted to new environments © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. In science, a theory accounts for many observations and data and attempts to explain and integrate a great variety of phenomena Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection integrates diverse areas of biological study and stimulates many new research questions Ongoing research adds to our understanding of evolution © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 21.UN02a Figure 21.UN02b Guppies transplanted Pools with pike-cichlids and guppies © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Pools with killifish, but no guppies prior to transplant 12 Area of colored spots (mm2) Number of colored spots 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Source Transplanted population population © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 10 8 6 4 2 0 Source Transplanted population population 12/7/2016 Figure 21.UN03 Figure 21.UN04 Observations Individuals in a population vary in their heritable characteristics. Organisms produce more offspring than the environment can support. Inferences Individuals that are well suited to their environment tend to leave more offspring than other individuals. and Over time, favorable traits accumulate in the population. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 21.UN05 © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.