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The Meadows School
Ancient Indian to 300 BCE
Study Guide
Ancient History
Mr. Knutsen
Major Themes in Early Indian History
1. Geography/Environment of India and Effect on Development of Civilization
2. Common/Different Elements in Indian Theology
a. Hinduism
b. Jainism
c. Buddhism
3. Indian Education and Intellectual Life
4. Relations/Interactions with the Far East and the Near East
5. Indian Culture & Family Life
Major Locations/Geographical Features
6. Taxila:
Taxila (Urdu: ,‫ٹ ی ک س ال‬Sanskrit: तक्षशिला Takṣaśilā, Pali:Takkasilā) is an important
archaeological site in Pakistan containing the ruins of
the Gandhāran city of Takshashila (also Takkasila or
Taxila) an important Vedic/Hindu[1] and Buddhist[2]
centre of learning from the 6th century BCE[3] to the 5th
century CE.[4] [5] In 1980, Taxila was declared a
UNESCO World Heritage Site with multiple
locations.[6]
Historically, Taxila lay at the crossroads of three major
trade routes: the royal highway from Pāṭaliputra; the
north-western route through Bactria, Kāpiśa, and
Puṣkalāvatī (Peshawar); and the route from Kashmir
and Central Asia, via Śrinigar, Mānsehrā, and the
Haripur valley[7] across the Khunjerab pass to the Silk Road.
Today, Taxila is situated at the western region of the Islamabad Capital Territory—to
the northwest of Rawalpindi and on the border of the Punjab and North West Frontier
Provinces—about 30 kilometres west-northwest of Islamabad, just off the Grand
Trunk Road.
Taxila is in western Punjab, and was an important city during Alexander's campaign in India.
7. Pattala:
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8. Surparaka: The country of Surparaka was founded by Bhargava Rama (also known
as Parashurama) near the Western sea, close to the mouth of river Narmada. This
kingdom is mentioned in the epic Mahabharata. Parashurama gave this kingdom to
the Brahmin rulers of Kashyapa clan. This gave rise to the myth of Parashurama,
reclaiming the land from the sea. The people of Surparaka brought this myth to
Kerala where this myth still exists.
9. Ujjain: Ujjain pronunciation (help·info) (also known as Ujain, Ujjayini, Avanti,
Avantikapuri) is an ancient city of central India, in the Malwa region of the Indian
state of Madhya Pradesh, on the eastern bank of the Kshipra River. It is the
administrative centre of Ujjain District and Ujjain Division. In ancient times the city
was called Ujjayini. As per epic Mahabharata Ujjayani was the capital of Avanti
Kingdom. It has been the first meridian of longitude for Hindu geographers since the
4th century BCE. It is one of the seven sacred cities of the Hindus, and the Kumbh
Mela religious festival is held there every twelve years. It is also home to
Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga, one of the twelve Jyotirlinga shrines to the god Shiva.
10. Sravasti: Srāvastī or Sāvatthī (Chinese: 舍衛), a city of ancient India, was one of the
six largest cities in India during Gautama Buddha’s lifetime. The city was located in
the fertile Gangetic plains in the present day’s Gonda district of Uttar Pradesh.
Jetavana monastery was a famous monastery close to Savatthi.
11. Kausambi: Kosambi (Pali) or Kausambi (Sanskrit) was one of the greatest cities in
India in the Buddha's time (500 BC). It was the capital of the Vatsas (also:
Vamsas[1]), one of the Mahajanapadas (Great Kingdoms) of ancient India. Kausambi
was a very prosperous city, where a large number of millionaire merchants resided. It
was an important entreport of goods and passengers from north-west and south.
Kosambī is identified with the two villages of Kosam on the Jamuna river, about 35
miles south-west of Allahabad[2]. The location of Kosambi is at the following
coordinates: 25.338984° N 81.392899° ECoordinates: 25.338984° N 81.392899° E.
The Buddhist Commentarial scriptures give two reasons for the name Kosambī. The
more favoured [3] is that the city was so called because it was founded in or near the
site of the hermitage once occupied by the sage Kusumba (v.l. Kusumbha). Another
explanation is[4] that large and stately margosa-trees (Kosammarukkhā) grew in great
numbers in and around the city.
12. Kasi: Vārāṇasī (pronunciation (help·info), Hindi: वाराणसी, Urdu: ‫یسناراو‬, IPA:
[βɑrɑɳɐsiː]), also known as Benares, Banaras, or Benaras (pronunciation (info),
Hindi: बनारस, Urdu: ‫ سرانب‬Banāras, IPA: [bɐnɑrɐs]), or Kashi or Kasi
(pronunciation (info), Hindi: कािी, Urdu: ‫ یشاک‬Kāśī), is a famous Hindu holy city
situated on the banks of the river Ganges (Ganga) in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh.
It is one of the oldest continually inhabited cities in the world, dating back thousands
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Ancient History
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of years and contemporaneous with the Sumer civilisation.[3] The city is called Kashi,
"the luminous" in the Rigveda.[4] It is often also referred to as "city of temples and
learning."[5]
The culture of Varanasi is deeply associated with the river Ganges and the river's
religious importance. The city has been a cultural and religious center in northern
India for thousands of years. Varanasi has its own style of classical Hindustani music,
and has produced prominent philosophers, poets, writers and musicians in Indian
history, including Kabir, Ravi Das, Munshi Premchand, Jaishankar Prasad, Acharya
Ram Chandra Shukla, Pandit Ravi Shankar, Hariprasad Chaurasia and Ustad
Bismillah Khan. Varanasi is the home of Banaras Hindu University. Tulsidas wrote
his Ramcharitmanas here, and Gautam Buddha gave his first sermon at Sarnath near
Kashi. The language spoken in Varanasi is Kashika Bhojpuri related to Hindi.
13. Tamralipta is the name of an ancient city on the Bay of Bengal corresponding with
Tamluk in modern-day India. Tamralipti may have been one of the most important
urban centres of trade and commerce of early historic India, trading along the Silk
Road with China, by Uttarapatha, the northern high road, the main trade route into the
Middle East and Europe; and by seafaring routes to Bali, Java and other areas of the
Far East.
14. Tosali:
15. Kanchi: Kanchipuram, Kanchi, or Kancheepuram (also sometimes
Conjeevaram) is a city and a municipality in Kancheepuram district in the Indian
state of Tamil Nadu. It is a temple town and the headquarters of Kanchipuram district.
In ancient times it was called Kachi and Kachiampathi.
Kanchipuram is located on the Palar River, and known for its temples and silk sarees.
There are several big temples, notably Ekambaranatha Temple which is one of the
five form of abodes of Lord Siva, (it is the earth abode here, other abodes include
Chidambaram (Sky), Sri Kalahasti (air), Thiruvanaikoil (water) and Tiruvannamalai
(fire)), Kamakshi Amman Temple, Varadharaja Perumal Temple, Kumara Kottam,
Kachapeshwarar Temple, Kailasanathar Temple and many more. Kanchipuram is also
famous for its silk sarees, which are woven manually. These saris are considered to be
of the highest quality; almost every relatively well-off South Indian woman has a
Kanjivaram sari in her collection. The Kanjivaram saris woven at Kanchipuram are
also prized in North India.
16. Anuradhapura: Anuradhapura, (අඅඅඅඅඅඅඅඅ in Sinhala), is one of the ancient
capitals of Sri Lanka, world famous for its well preserved ruins of the Great Sri
Lankan Civilization. The Civilization which was built upon this city was one of the
greatest civilizations of Asia and in the world. The city now a UNESCO heritage site,
lies 205 km north of the current capital Colombo in the North Central Province of Sri
Lanka, on the banks of the historic Malvathu Oya[1]. Founded in the 4th century BC it
was the capital of the Anuradhapura Kingdom till the beginning of the 11th century
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AC. During this period it remained one of the most stable and durable centers of
political power and urban life in South Asia. It was also a wealthy city which created
a unique culture and a great civilization. Today this ancient city of Sri Lanka,
considered sacred to the Buddhist world is surrounded by monasteries covering an
area of over sixteen square miles (40 km²). It is widely considered one of the world's
major archaeological sites. This city is significant in Hinduism too. Legend has it that
it was the fabled capital of the Asura King Ravana in the Ramayana.
17. Indus River: The major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, such as Harappa and
Mohenjo Daro, date back to around 3300 BC, and represent some of the largest
human habitations of the ancient world. The Indus Valley Civilization was extended
from Balochistan to Gujarat, with an upward reach to the darcon from east of River
Jhelum to Rupar on the upper Sutlej. The coastal settlements extended from Sutkagan
Dor at Iranian border to Lothal in Gujarat. There is an Indus site on the Oxus river at
Shortughai in northern Afghanistan (Kenoyer 1998:96), and the Indus site
Alamgirpur at the Hindon River is located only 28 km from Delhi (S.P. Gupta
1995:183). To date, over 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the
general region of the Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries. Among the settlements
were the major urban centers of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, as well as Lothal,
Dholavira, Ganeriwala, and Rakhigarhi. Only 90 to 96 of the over 800 known Indus
Valley sites have been discovered on the Indus and its tributaries. The Sutlej, now a
tributary of the Indus, in Harappan times flowed into the Ghaggar-Hakra River, in the
watershed of which were more Harappan sites than along the Indus (S.P. Gupta 1995:
183).
Ganges River Valley: The Ganges (IPA: [ˈgænʤiz], also Ganga
pronunciation (help·info), Devanāgarī: गंगा, IAST: Gaṅgā in most Indian languages,
IPA: [ˈgəŋgaː]) is a major river in the Indian subcontinent flowing east through the
eponymous plains of northern India into Bangladesh. The 2,510 km (1,557 mi) long
river begins at the Gangotri Glacier in the Indian state of Uttarakhand in the central
Himalayas and drains into the Bay of Bengal through its vast delta in the Sunderbans.
It is held sacred by Hindus and is worshipped in its personified form as the goddess
Ganga.
|The Ganga and its tributaries drain a large and fertile basin with an area of about one
million square kilometres that supports one of the world's highest density human
populations.
In his book Discovery of India, Jawaharlal Nehru says:
"...The Ganges, above all is the river of India, which has held India's heart captive
and drawn uncounted millions to her banks since the dawn of history. The story of
the Ganges, from her source to the sea, from old times to new, is the story of India's
civilization and culture, of the rise and fall of empires, of great and proud cities, of
adventures of man..."
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18. Thar Desert: The Thar Desert (Hindi: थार मरुस्थल), also known as the Great
Indian Desert, is a desert located in western India and southeastern Pakistan. It lies
mostly in the Indian state of Rajasthan, and extends into the southern portion of
Haryana and Punjab states and into northern Gujarat state. In Pakistan, the desert
covers eastern Sind province and the southeastern portion of Pakistan's Punjab
province. In Pakistan's Punjab province it is known as the Cholistan Desert.
Tharparker District of province Sindh Pakistan is also a part of Thar desert. The Thar
Desert is bounded on the northwest by the Sutlej River, on the east by the Aravalli
Range, on the south by the salt marsh known as the Rann of Kutch (parts of which are
sometimes included in the Thar), and on the west by the Indus River. Its boundary to
the large thorny steppe to the north is ill-defined. Depending on what areas are
included or excluded, the nominal size of the Thar can vary significantly.
19. Himalayas Mountains: The Himalayas (also Himalaya, Hindi, Nepali: हिमालय, IPA
pronunciation: [hɪ'mɑlijə], [ˌhɪmə'leɪjə]) are a mountain range in Asia, separating the
Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. By extension, it is also the name of the
massive mountain system which includes the Himalaya proper, the Karakoram, the
Hindu Kush, and a host of minor ranges extending from the Pamir Knot. The name is
from Sanskrit himālaya, a tatpurusa compound meaning "the abode of snow" (from
hima "snow", and ālaya "abode"; see also Himavat).[1]
Together, the Himalaya mountain system is the planet's highest and home to the
world's highest peaks: the Eight-thousanders, including Mount Everest. To
comprehend the enormous scale of Himalayan peaks, consider that Aconcagua, in the
Andes, at 6,962 m, is the highest peak outside the Himalaya, while the Himalayan
system has over 100 separate mountains exceeding 7,200 meters.[2]
The Himalayas stretch across six nations: Bhutan, China, India, Nepal, Pakistan and
Afghanistan. They are the source of three of the world's major river systems, the
Indus basin, the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin and the Yangtze basin. Approximately 2.4
billion people live in the drainage basin of the Himalayan rivers, among them the
people of Bangladesh. The Himalayas run, west to east, from the Indus river valley to
the Brahmaputra river valley, thereby forming an arc 2,400 km long, which varies in
width from 400 km in the western Kashmir-Xinjiang region to 150 km in the eastern
Tibet-Arunachal Pradesh region. The Himalaya chain consists of three parallel
ranges, with the northern-most range known as the Great or Inner Himalayas.
Cast of Characters
1. samsara-yoga
2. Vardhamana Mahavira: Mahavira (lit. Great Hero) (540 – 468 BC, though possibly
549 – 477 BC) is the name most commonly used to refer to the Indian sage
Vardhamana (Sanskrit, "increasing") who established what are today considered to
be the central tenets of Jainism. According to Jain tradition, he was the 24th and the
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last Tirthankara. He is also known in texts as Vira or Viraprabhu, Sanmati, Ativira,
and Gnatputra. In the Theravada Buddhist scriptures he is referred to as the
Nirgrantha Nathaputta - 'the naked ascetic of the Jñātr clan.'
3. Harrapan: The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3000–1500 BC, flourished –1900 BC),
abbreviated IVC, was an ancient civilization that flourished in western South Asia,
primarily in the Indus valley, extending westward up to Balochistan, both of which
are in modern Pakistan, but also extending eastward up to Ghaggar-Hakra river (in
the western region of present Republic of India). The mature phase of this civilization
is known as the Harappan Civilization, after the first of its cities to be excavated,
Harappa. Excavation of IVC sites has been ongoing since the 1920s. By 2600 BC,
the Early Harappan communities had been turned into large urban centers. Such
urban centers include Harappa and Mohenjo Daro in Pakistan and Lothal in India. In
total, over 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region
of the Ghaggar and Indus Rivers and their tributaries. By 2500 BC, irrigation had
transformed the region.
4. Chandragupta: Chandragupta Maurya (Sanskrit: ), sometimes known simply as
Chandragupta (born c. 340 BCE, ruled c. 320[1] – 298 BCE[2]), was the founder of
the Maurya Empire. Chandragupta succeeded in bringing together most of the Indian
subcontinent. As a result, Chandragupta is considered the first unifier of India and the
first genuine emperor of India.[3]In foreign Greek and Latin accounts, Chandragupta
is known as Sandrokuptos (Σανδρόκυπτος), Sandrokottos (Σανδρόκοττος) or
Androcottus.[4]
Prior to Chandragupta's consolidation of power, small regional kingdoms dominated
Northwestern sub-continent, while the Nanda Empire dominated the Gangetic plain.[5]
After Chandragupta's conquests, the Maurya Empire extended from Bengal and
Assam[6] in the East, to Afghanistan and Balochistan in the West, to Kashmir and
Nepal[7] in the North, and to the Deccan Plateau in the South.[8]
His achievements, which ranged from defeating Alexander's Macedonian satrapies
and conquering the Nanda Empire by the time he was only about 20 years old, to
defeating Seleucus Nicator and establishing centralized rule throughout Southern
Asia, remain some of the most celebrated in Indian history. Over two thousand years
later, the accomplishments of Chandragupta and his successors, including Ashoka the
Great, are objects of great study in the annals of South Asian and world history.
5. Siddhartha Gautama: Siddhārtha Gautama (Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was
a spiritual teacher from Ancient India and the founder of Buddhism.[1] He is generally
recognized by Buddhists as the Supreme Buddha (Sammāsambuddha) of our age. The
time of his birth and death are uncertain: a majority of 20th-century historians date his
lifetime from circa 563 BCE to 483 BCE, but some more recent scholars have
suggested dates around 410 or 400 BCE for his death. Some suggest even later
dates.[2] These alternative chronologies, however, have not yet been accepted by all
other historians.[3][4]
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Gautama, also known as Sakyamuni or Shakyamuni (“sage of the Shakyas”), is the
key figure in Buddhism, and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules were
summarized after his death and memorized by the sangha. Passed down by oral
tradition, the Tripitaka, the collection of discourses attributed to Gautama, was
committed to writing about 400 years later.
6. Arjuna: Arjuna (Sanskrit: अर्न
जु , arjuna) is one of the heroes of the Hindu epic
Mahabharata. Arjuna is a central figure in Hindu mythology whose name means
'bright', 'shining', or 'silver'. Arjuna is Peerless Archer. The third of the five Pandava
brothers, Arjuna was one of the children borne by Kunti, first wife of Pandu.
7. Ashoka: Ashoka (Devanāgarī: , IAST: Aśokaḥ, IPA: [aɕoːkə(hə)], Prakrit Imperial
title: Devanampriya Priyadarsi (Devanāgarī: ), "He who is the beloved of the Gods
and who regards everyone amiably") and Dhamma (Devanāgarī: ), "Lawful,
Religious, Righteous") (304 BC – 232 BC) was an Indian emperor, of the Maurya
Dynasty who ruled from 273 BC to 232 BC. Often cited as one of India's greatest
emperors, Ashoka reigned over most of present-day India after a number of military
conquests. His empire stretched from present-day Afghanistan and parts of Persia in
the west, to the present-day Bengal and Assam states of India in the east, and as far
south as Mysore state. His reign was headquartered in Magadha (present-day Bihar
state of India). He embraced Buddhism from the prevalent Vedic tradition after
witnessing the mass deaths of the war of Kalinga, which he himself had waged. He
was later dedicated in the propagation of Buddhism across Asia and established
monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Gautama Buddha.
His name "aśoka" means "without sorrow" in Sanskrit. In his edicts, he is referred to
as Devānāmpriya (Devanāgarī: )/Devānaṃpiya or "The Beloved Of The Gods", and
Priyadarśin (Devanāgarī:)/Piyadassī or "He who regards everyone amiably".
Science fiction novelist H. G. Wells wrote of Ashoka:
In the history of the world there have been thousands of kings and emperors who called
themselves 'their highnesses,' 'their majesties,' and 'their exalted majesties' and so on. They
shone for a brief moment, and as quickly disappeared. But Ashoka shines and shines brightly
like a bright star, even unto this day.
Along with the Edicts of Ashoka, his legend is related in the later 2nd century
Aśokāvadāna ("Narrative of Ashoka") and Divyāvadāna ("Divine narrative"), and in
the Sinhalese text Mahavamsa.
An emblem excavated from his empire is today the national emblem of India.
8. Rigveda: The Rigveda (Sanskrit ऋग्वेद ṛgveda, a compound of ṛc "praise, verse"[1]
and veda "knowledge") is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns
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dedicated to the gods (devas). It is counted among the four Hindu canonical sacred
texts (śruti) known as the Vedas. Based on philological and linguistic evidences, the
Rigveda was composed roughly between 1700–1100 BCE (the early Vedic period) in
the Sapta Sindhu region (a land of seven great rivers) which is now believed to be the
region around Punjab, putting it among the world's oldest religious texts in continued
use, as well as among the oldest texts of any Indo-European language.
There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities between the Rigveda and the early
Iranian Avesta, deriving from the Proto-Indo-Iranian times, often associated with the
early Andronovo culture of ca. 2000 BC.[2]
Today, this text is revered by Hindus around the world. Its verses are recited at
prayers, religious functions and other auspicious occasions.
9. Dravidians: Dravidian people refers to populations who speak languages belonging to
the Dravidian language family. Populations of speakers are found mostly in Southern
India and some minor populations are found in Brahui[1]-speaking parts of Pakistan,
Kurukh[2]-speaking parts of Bangladesh, and Tamil-speaking parts of Sri Lanka. The
term Dravidian is taken from the Sanskrit term "Dravida". It was adopted following
the publication of Robert Caldwell's Comparative grammar of the Dravidian or
South-Indian family of languages (1856); a publication which established the
language grouping as one of the major language groups of the world. Robert Caldwell
was a Catholic missionary and used the term Dravidian to refer to the people of South
India.[3]
However over seventy three languages are presently listed as Dravidian in the study.
Further the languages are spread out and cover parts of India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka
as is indicated in the study.
The Vedic legends speak of battle between Asuras and Devas. It is generally assumed
that this was a reflection of actual battle for supremacy that took place when Aryans
started entering the Indian sub-continent. However the Asuras are actually the
Iranians and the Devas are the Indo-Aryans. The Dasarajna war has been completely
misunderstood as some racial violence from Aryans to non-Aryans. It was the IndoAryans who declared that they are the true Aryans while the Iranians were not. This
battles eventually ended with Aryans, led by King Sudas (a Sudra king) establishing
supremacy all over India and the Iranians moving onto what today is the Iranian
Subcontinent.
10. Aryans: Aryan is an English language word derived from Sanskrit and Avestan term
ārya- meaning "noble" or "spiritual".[1] It is widely held to have been used as an
ethnic self-designation of the Proto-Indo-Iranians. Since, in the 19th century, the
Indo-Iranians were the most ancient known speakers of Indo-European languages, the
word Aryan was adopted to refer not only to the Indo-Iranian people, but also to IndoEuropean speakers as a whole.
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In Europe, the concept of an Aryan race became influential in the late 19th and early
20th centuries as linguists and ethnologists argued that speakers of these IndoEuropean languages constitute a distinctive race, descended from an ancient people,
who were referred to as the "primitive Aryans", but are now known as Proto-IndoEuropeans.
In today's linguistics, Aryan, is merely synonymous to Indo-Iranian, the eastern
extant branch of the Indo-European family of languages.
11. Brahmans: Brahman (nominative brahma ब्रह्म) is the concept of the supreme spirit
found in Hinduism. Brahman is the unchanging, infinite, immanent, and transcendent
reality which is the Divine Ground of all matter, energy, time, space, being, and
everything beyond in this universe. The nature of Brahman is described as
transpersonal, personal and impersonal by different philosophical schools. In the Rig
Veda, Brahman gives rise to the primordial being Hiranyagarbha that is equated with
the creator God Brahmā. The trimurti can thus be considered a personification of
hiranyagarbha as the active principle behind the phenomena of the universe. The
seers who inspired the composition of the Upanisads asserted that the liberated soul
(jivanmukta) has realized his identity with Brahman as his true self (see Atman
(Hinduism)).
The word "Brahman" is derived from the verb brh (Sanskrit:to grow), and connotes
greatness. The Mundaka Upanishad says:
Om- That supreme Brahman is infinite, and this conditioned Brahman is infinite. The infinite
proceeds from infinite. Then through knowledge, realizing the infinitude of the infinite, it
remains as infinite alone.
Vocabulary Keys
1. tirthankaras: In Jainism, a Tirthankara ("Fordmaker") (also Tirthankara or Jina)
is a human who achieves enlightenment (perfect knowledge), through asceticism. A
Tirthankar becomes a Jina (after totally conquering anger, pride, deceit, desire, etc.).
A Tirthankar is the founder of a "Tirth", a Jain community which acts as a "ford"
across the "river of human misery".
After achieving enlightenment, a Tirthankar shows others the path to enlightenment.
The Tirthankar's religious teachings form the Jain canons. The inner knowledge of all
Tirthankars is perfect and identical in every respect, for the teachings of one
Tirthankar do not contradict those of another. However, the degree of elaboration
varies according to the spiritual advancement and purity of humans during that
period. The higher the spiritual advancement and purity of mind, the lower the
elaboration required.
At the end of his human life-span, a Tirthankar achieves liberation ('moksh' or
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'nirvan'), ending the cycle of infinite births and deaths.
Jainism states time has no beginning or end. It moves like the wheel of a cart. There
have been an infinite number of time cycles before our present era and there will be
an infinite number of time cycles after this age. At the beginning of the twenty first
century, we are approximately 2,530 years into the fifth era of the present half cycle.
Twenty four Tirthankars are born in each half cycle of time (that is forty eight in each
full cycle), in this part of the universe. In our current (descending) half cycle of time,
the first Tirthankar Rishabh Dev[citation needed], lived billions of years ago and attained
liberation ('moksh' or 'nirvan') towards the end of the third era. The 24th and last
Tirthankar was Mahavir Swami (599-527 BC), whose existence is a historically
accepted fact. Digambaras believe that all twenty four Tirthankars were men but
Svetambaras believe that the 19th Tirthankar, Malli Nath, was a woman.
The next Tirthankar in our part of the universe will be born at the beginning of the
third era of the next (ascending) half cycle of time, in approximately 81,500 years.
As Tirthankars direct us to enlightenment, their statues are worshipped in Jain
temples by Jains aspiring to achieve enlightenment. Tirthankars are not God or gods.
Jainism does not believe in the existence of God in the sense of a creator, and gods
are beings superior to humans but, nevertheless, not fully enlightened
2. caste system
3. Indo-European languages: The Indo-European languages comprise a family of
several hundred related languages and dialects,[1] including most of the major
languages of Europe, the northern Indian subcontinent (South Asia), the Iranian
plateau (Southwest Asia), and much of Central Asia. Indo-European (Indo refers to
the Indian subcontinent) has the largest numbers of speakers of the recognised
families of languages in the world today, with its languages spoken by approximately
three billion native speakers.[2]
Of the top 20 contemporary languages in terms of native speakers according to SIL
Ethnologue, 12 are Indo-European: Spanish, English, Hindi, Portuguese, Bengali,
Russian, German, Marathi, French, Italian, Punjabi and Urdu, accounting for over 1.6
billion native speakers. The Indo-Iranian languages form the largest sub-branch of
Indo-European in terms of the number of native speakers as well as in terms of the
number of individual languages.[3]
4. Vedas: The Vedas (Sanskrit véda वेद "knowledge") are a large corpus of texts
originating in Ancient India. They form the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature[1] and
the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism.[2]
According to Hindu tradition, the Vedas are apauruṣeya "not human compositions"[3],
being supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are called śruti ("what is
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heard").[4][5] Vedic mantras are recited at Hindu prayers, religious functions and other
auspicious occasions.
Philosophies and sects that developed in the Indian subcontinent have taken differing
positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their
scriptural authority are classified as "orthodox" (āstika). Two other Indian
philosophies, Buddhism and Jainism, did not accept the authority of the Vedas and
evolved into separate religions. In Indian philosophy these groups are referred to as
"heterodox" or "non-Vedic" (nāstika) schools.[6]
5. Upanishads: The Upanishads (Devanagari: उपननषद्, IAST: upaniṣad) are regarded as
part of the Vedas and as such form part of the Hindu scriptures. They primarily
discuss philosophy, meditation, and the nature of God; they form the core spiritual
thought of Vedantic Hinduism. Considered as mystic or spiritual contemplations of
the Vedas, their putative end and essence, the Upanishads are known as Vedānta ("the
end/culmination of the Vedas").
The Upanishads do not belong to a particular period of Sanskrit literature. The oldest,
such as the Brhadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads, may date to the Brahmana
period (roughly before the 7th century BCE; before Gita was constructed), while the
youngest, depending on the canon used, may date to the medieval or early modern
period.
6. Rigveda
7. "Middle Way"
8. Outcastes: People whose status was so low that that they existed below the Indian caste
system.
9. varna: The specific classes within the Indian caste system.
10. dharma: The Sanskrit term Dharma (help·info) (Devanāgarī: धमु) (Pali: Dhamma)
signifies the underlying order in nature and life (human or other) considered to be in
accord with that order. The word Dharma literally means 'that which upholds or
supports' (from the root 'Dhr' - to hold), here referring to the order which makes the
cosmos and the harmonious complexity of the natural world possible. Dharma is a
central concept in Indian civilization and Dharmic Traditions where it governs ideas
about the proper conduct of living. So central is it, indeed, that the symbol of the
dharma - the wheel - takes central place in the national flag of India.
In its most frequent usage (in the sphere of morality and ethics) dharma means 'right
way of living', 'proper conduct', 'duty' or 'righteousness'. With respect to spirituality,
dharma might be considered the Way of the Higher Truths. What is in the West
called religion in India comes within the general purview of dharma. Thus the various
Indian religions and Dharmic Traditions are so many versions of Dharma (versions of
what is considered to be 'right' or in truest accord with the deepest realities of nature).
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A fraction of scholars called these various paths dharmic religions. Hinduism,
Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, are referred to in India as sanatana-dharma,
Buddha-dharma, Jain-dharma and Sikh-dharma respectively. Each of these paths
emphasize Dharma as the correct understanding of Nature (or God, as the origin of
nature) in their teachings.[1][2][3] In these traditions, beings that live in accordance with
Dharma proceed more quickly toward Dharma Yukam, Moksha or Nirvana (personal
liberation). Dharma also refers to the teachings and doctrines of the founders of these
traditions, such as those of Gautama Buddha and Mahavira. In traditional Hindu
society with its caste structure, Dharma constituted the religious and moral doctrine
of the rights and duties of each individual. (see dharmasastra). Dharma in its
universal meaning shares much in common with the way of Tao or Taoism.
11. karma
12. Mohenjo-daro: Mohenjo-daro (Urdu: ‫وڑدوج نئوم‬, Sindhi: ‫و د ج ئوم‬, English:
Mound of the dead) was a city of the Indus Valley Civilization built around 2600 BC
and is located in the Sindh Province of Pakistan. This ancient five thousand year old
city is the largest of Indus Valley and is widely recognized as one of the most
important early cities of South Asia and the Indus Valley Civilization. Mohenjo Daro
was one of the world’s first cities and contemporaneous with ancient Egyptian and
Mesopotamian civilizations. It is sometimes referred to as "An Ancient Indus Valley
Metropolis".
13. Bhagavad Gita: The Bhagavad Gita (Sanskrit भगवद् गीता Bhagavad Gītā, "Song of
God") is a Sanskrit text from the Bhishma Parva of the Mahabharata epic. Due to
differences in recensions they may be numbered in the full text of the Mahabharata as
chapters 6.25 – 42.[1] or as chapters 6.23-40[2] According to the recension of the Gita
commented on by Shankaracharya, the number of verses is 700, but there is evidence
to show that some old manuscripts had 745 verses.[3]
Krishna, as the speaker of the Bhagavad Gita, is referred to within as Bhagavan[4] (the
divine one), and the verses themselves, using the range and style of Sanskrit meter
(chandas) with similes and metaphors, are written in a poetic form that is traditionally
chanted; hence the title, which translates to "the Song of the Divine One". The
Bhagavad Gita is revered as sacred by the majority of Hindu traditions,[5] and
especially so by followers of Krishna. It is commonly referred to as The Gita.[6]
The content of the text is a conversation between Krishna and Arjuna taking place on
the battlefield of Kurukshetra just prior to the start of a climactic war. Responding to
Arjuna's confusion and moral dilemma, Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a
warrior and Prince and elaborates on a number of different Yogic[7] and Vedantic
philosophies, with examples and analogies. This has led to the Gita often being
described as a concise guide to Hindu philosophy and also as a practical, selfcontained guide to life. During the discourse, Krishna reveals his identity as the
Supreme Being Himself (Bhagavan), blessing Arjuna with an awe-inspiring glimpse
of His divine absolute form.
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The Bhagavad Gita is also called Gītopaniṣad as well as Yogupaniṣad, implying its
status as an 'Upanishad'.[8] Since it is drawn from the Mahabharata, it is a Smṛti text,
however referring to it as an Upanishad is intended to give it status comparable to that
of śruti, or revealed knowledge.[9]
14. siddha: A siddha in Sanskrit means "one who is accomplished" and refers to
perfected masters who according to Hindu belief have transcended the ahamkara (ego
or I-maker), have subdued their minds to be subservient to their Awareness, and have
transformed their bodies composed mainly of dense Rajo-tama gunas into a different
kind of bodies dominated by sattva. This is usually accomplished only by persistent
meditation over many lifetimes.
A siddha has also been defined to refer to one who has attained a siddhi. The siddhis
as paranormal abilities are considered emergent abilities of an individual that is on the
path to siddhahood, and do not define a siddha, who is established in the Pranav - the
Aum, which is the spiritual substrate of creation. The siddhi in its pure form means
"the attainment of flawless identity with Reality (Brahman); perfection of Spirit."
The concept of siddhas is a prime notion in Jainism
15. jina: In Jainism, a Tirthankara ("Fordmaker") (also Tirthankara or Jina) is a
human who achieves enlightenment (perfect knowledge), through asceticism. A
Tirthankar becomes a Jina (after totally conquering anger, pride, deceit, desire, etc.).
A Tirthankar is the founder of a "Tirth", a Jain community which acts as a "ford"
across the "river of human misery".
After achieving enlightenment, a Tirthankar shows others the path to enlightenment.
The Tirthankar's religious teachings form the Jain canons. The inner knowledge of all
Tirthankars is perfect and identical in every respect, for the teachings of one
Tirthankar do not contradict those of another. However, the degree of elaboration
varies according to the spiritual advancement and purity of humans during that
period. The higher the spiritual advancement and purity of mind, the lower the
elaboration required.
At the end of his human life-span, a Tirthankar achieves liberation ('moksh' or
'nirvan'), ending the cycle of infinite births and deaths.
Jainism states time has no beginning or end. It moves like the wheel of a cart. There
have been an infinite number of time cycles before our present era and there will be
an infinite number of time cycles after this age. At the beginning of the twenty first
century, we are approximately 2,530 years into the fifth era of the present half cycle.
Twenty four Tirthankars are born in each half cycle of time (that is forty eight in each
full cycle), in this part of the universe. In our current (descending) half cycle of time,
the first Tirthankar Rishabh Dev[citation needed], lived billions of years ago and attained
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liberation ('moksh' or 'nirvan') towards the end of the third era. The 24th and last
Tirthankar was Mahavir Swami (599-527 BC), whose existence is a historically
accepted fact. Digambaras believe that all twenty four Tirthankars were men but
Svetambaras believe that the 19th Tirthankar, Malli Nath, was a woman.
The next Tirthankar in our part of the universe will be born at the beginning of the
third era of the next (ascending) half cycle of time, in approximately 81,500 years.
As Tirthankars direct us to enlightenment, their statues are worshipped in Jain
temples by Jains aspiring to achieve enlightenment. Tirthankars are not God or gods.
Jainism does not believe in the existence of God in the sense of a creator, and gods
are beings superior to humans but, nevertheless, not fully enlightened.
16. ajiva: In Jainism, ajiva is anything that has no soul or life, the polar opposite of jiva.
Because ajiva has no life, it does not accumulate karma and cannot die. Examples of
ajiva include chairs, computers, paper, and plastic.
17. nirvana: Nirvāṇa ( Sanskrit: ननवााण; Pali: Nibbāna; Vietnamese: Niết bàn; Chinese:
涅槃; Mandarin Pinyin: nièpán, Cantonese: nihppùhn; Japanese: nehan (涅槃?);
Korean: 열반, yeolban; Thai: nibpan นิพพาน); Tibetan mya-ngan-las-'das-pa;
Mongolian ɣasalang-aca nögcigsen), is a Sanskrit word that literally means "to cease
blowing" (as when a candle flame ceases to flicker) and/or extinguishing (that is, of
the passions).
It is a state that is free from any mind-contaminants (kilesa) such as lust, anger or
craving; a state of perfect peace unobstructed by psychological conditioning
(sankhara). All forms of craving are extinguished such that one is no longer subject
to human suffering (dukkha) or further states of rebirths in samsara. The Buddha in
the Dhammapada says of Nirvāṇa that it is "the highest happiness". This is not the
sense-based happiness of everyday life, nor the concept of happiness as interpreted by
Western culture, but rather an enduring, transcendental happiness integral to the
calmness attained through enlightenment or bodhi. The knowledge accompanying
nirvana is expressed through the word bodhi.
The Buddha describes the abiding in Nirvāṇa as "deathlessness" (Pali: amata or
amaravati) or "the unconditioned" and as the highest spiritual attainment, the natural
result that accrues to one who lives a life of virtuous conduct and practise in
accordance with the Noble Eightfold Path. Such a life dissolves the causes for future
becoming (Skt, karma; Pali, kamma) that otherwise keep beings forever wandering
through the impermanent and suffering-generating realms of desire, form, and
formlessness, termed samsara.
18. moksha: In Indian religions (Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism), Moksha
(Sanskrit: liberation) or Mukti (Sanskrit: , release) refers to liberation from the cycle
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of death and rebirth and all of the suffering and limitation of worldly existence. In
Hindu philosophy, it is seen as a transcendence of phenomenal being, of any sense of
material consciousness, time, space, and causation (karma). It is not seen as a
soteriological goal in the same sense as in a Christian context, but signifies a
dissolution of the material self to uncover the underlying, pure spirit: the undoing of
conditioned mentality-materiality or nama-roopa (lit. name-form) to uncover one's
eternal identity. Liberation is achieved by (and accompanied with) the complete
stilling of all material passions — a state of being known as Nirvana. Buddhist
thought differs slightly from the Advaita Vedantist reading of liberation.
19. Mauryan dynasty: The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE), ruled by the Mauryan
dynasty, was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military empire in
ancient India.
Originating from the kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic plains (modern Bihar
and Bengal) in the eastern side of the sub-continent, the empire had its capital city at
Pataliputra (near modern Patna). The Empire was founded in 322 BCE by
Chandragupta Maurya, who had overthrown the Nanda Dynasty and began rapidly
expanding his power westwards across central and western India taking opportunistic
advantage of the disruptions of local powers in the wake of the withdrawal westward
by Alexander the Great's Macedonian and Persian armies. By 316 BCE the empire
had fully occupied Northwestern India, defeating and conquering the satraps left by
Alexander.
At its greatest extent, the Empire stretched to the north along the natural boundaries
of the Himalayas, and to the east stretching into what is now Assam. To the west, it
reached beyond modern Pakistan and significant portions of what is now Afghanistan,
including the modern Herat and Kandahar provinces. The Empire was expanded into
India's central and southern regions by Emperor Bindusara, but it excluded a small
portion of unexplored tribal and forested regions near Kalinga.
The Mauryan Empire was perhaps the largest empire to rule the Indian subcontinent
until the arrival of the British. Its decline began fifty years after Ashoka's rule ended,
and it dissolved in 185 BCE with the foundation of the Sunga Dynasty in Magadha.
Under Chandragupta, the Mauryan Empire conquered the trans-Indus region, which
was under Macedonian rule. Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led by Seleucus
I, a Greek general from Alexander's army. Under Chandragupta and his successors,
both internal and external trade, and agriculture and economic activities, all thrived
and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single and efficient system of
finance, administration and security. After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced
half a century of peace and security under Ashoka: India was a prosperous and stable
empire of great economic and military power whose political influence and trade
extended across Western and Central Asia and Europe. Mauryan India also enjoyed
an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of the sciences and
of knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of Jainism increased social and
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religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's embrace of
Buddhism was the foundation of the reign of social and political peace and nonviolence across all of India. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist ideals into
Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia and Mediterranean Europe.
Chandragupta's minister Kautilya Chanakya wrote the Arthashastra, one of the
greatest treatises on economics, politics, foreign affairs, administration, military arts,
war, and religion ever produced in the East. Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan
rule in South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The
Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are primary sources of written records of the
Mauryan times. The Mauryan empire is considered one of the most significant
periods in Indian history. The Lion Capital of Asoka at Sarnath, is the emblem of
India.
20. shudra: Shudra (IAST: Śūdra) is the fourth Varna in the traditional four-section
division in historic Hindu society. Their assigned and expected role in post-Vedic
India was that of labourers. The four Varnas are Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaisya, Shudra.
21. Mahayana
22. raja
23. eight-fold path: V.I.S.A.L.E.A.N.
24. manumission
25. asceticism
26. sky-clad
27. white-clad
28. yoga
29. "Four Noble Truths"
30. The Mahābhārata (Devanagari: महाभारत), /məɦaːbʱaːrət̪ə/ is one of the two major
Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the Ramayana. With more than 74,000
verses, long prose passages, and about 1.8 million words in total, the Mahābhārata is
one of the longest epic poems in the world.[1] Including the Harivamsa, the
Mahabharata has a total length of more than 90,000 verses.
It is of immense importance to the culture of India and Nepal, and is a major text of
Hinduism. Its discussion of human goals (artha or wealth, kama or pleasure, dharma
or duty/harmony, and moksha or liberation) takes place in a long-standing tradition,
attempting to explain the relationship of the individual to society and the world (the
nature of the 'Self') and the workings of karma.
The title may be translated as "the great tale of the Bharata Dynasty", according to the
Mahābhārata's own testimony extended from a shorter version simply called Bhārata
of 24,000 verses[2] The epic is part of the Hindu itihāsa, literally "that which
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happened", which includes the Ramayana and the Purāṇas.
Traditionally, Hindus ascribe the Mahabharata to Vyasa. Because of its immense
length, its philological study has a long history of attempts to unravel its historical
growth and composition layers. Its earliest layers date back to the late Vedic period
(ca. 5th c. BCE) and it probably reached its final form in the early Gupta period (ca.
4th c. CE).
31. The Vedic period (or Vedic Age) is the period in the history of India when the sacred
Vedic Sanskrit texts such as the Vedas were composed. The associated culture,
sometimes referred to as Vedic civilization, was centered on the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
Academic scholars place the Vedic period into the 2nd and 1st millennia BCE,
continuing up to the 6th century BCE. This civilization is the foundation of Hinduism
and the associated Indian culture that is known today.
Its early phase saw the formation of various kingdoms of ancient India. In its late
phase (from ca. 700 BCE), it saw the rise of the Mahajanapadas, and was succeeded
by the golden age of Hinduism and classical Sanskrit literature, the Maurya Empire
(from ca. 320 BCE) and the Middle kingdoms of India.
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