Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Technical and Scientific Description of the EMSO ERIC under final review Table of Contents 1. Executive Summary ................................................................................................................... 2 2. Rationale .................................................................................................................................... 2 3. EMSO ERIC ......................................................................... Errore. Il segnalibro non è definito. 4. Societal and Economic Drivers .................................................................................................. 5 5. Science Objectives ..................................................................................................................... 5 Geosciences ..................................................................................................................................... 6 Physical Oceanography ................................................................................................................... 6 Biogeochemistry.............................................................................................................................. 6 Marine Ecology ............................................................................................................................... 7 6. Observatory Design ................................................................................................................... 7 Generic Sensor Module ................................................................................................................... 7 Science Specific Modules ................................................................................................................. 9 Other Components ........................................................................................................................ 10 7. Data Infrastructure .................................................................................................................. 10 8. Standardization and Interoperability ..................................................................................... 11 9. Current EMSO Infrastructure .................................................................................................. 12 10. Tasks and Organisation ........................................................................................................... 12 Scope and Objectives .................................................................................................................... 12 Organisation ................................................................................................................................. 13 11. Perspectives ............................................................................................................................. 13 References ........................................................................................................................................ 14 Technical and Scientific Description of the EMSO ERIC 1. Executive Summary The European Multidisciplinary Seafloor and water-column Observatory (EMSO) is a pan-European distributed research infrastructure, composed of fixed point open ocean nodes, whose scientific aim is to provide coherent long-term data sets to monitor European seas. Changes relating to resource availability, climate change, habitat destruction, and geo-hazards have increased society’s need for an improved understanding of the driving factors and impacts of such changes. Representing the largest habitat on the planet, the open oceans and deep seafloor play a crucial role and many of the processes operating in the oceans affect human societies directly. In recognition of this significance, consecutive EU Frameworks have invested in the establishment of a European distributed research infrastructure that provides in situ measurements of key ocean variables on a continuous and longterm basis. These measurements are essential to tackle questions at the scales necessary for example to understand climate change and its impacts, and to improve geo-hazard early warning. An EMSO ERIC organisation will collect high-resolution data from the ocean surface, water column, seafloor, and sub-seafloor and transmit the data to shore via satellites or cable connection in real or near real-time, thereby contributing to answering major ocean science questions. By establishing a set of common standards and best practices, the distributed infrastructure will play a key role in integrating equipment, procedures, and data across the European Seas, bringing improved value for money. Moreover the ERIC will formalise the practice of using both generic and task-specific sensor packages. In particular the ERIC will work to implement a generic sensor suite at all EMSO nodes, providing a major enhancement to existing systems. An open-access policy for collected data will increase the involvement of an increasingly wide pan-European community, including researchers from new generations and from those areas where access to high-quality data is rare or absent. Linking into larger frameworks, including the Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS) and COPERNICUS is another integral part of EMSO ERIC activities which will contribute to increasing European competitiveness and transforming the ability of science to inform government policy and business strategy with increased certainty and efficiency. These observation systems will be critical infrastructures in meeting the observational needs of the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive and ensure fixed point marine data collection in coordination with the European research infrastructures in the environmental sciences domain. 2. Rationale Over the past few decades research has revealed the enormous complexity of processes that operate in the largest habitat on Earth, the oceans. The importance of these processes lies in the mechanistic link to functions that directly affect human societies, including climate regulation, carbon dioxide uptake and the provision of natural resources, all of which are essential to the wellbeing of human populations. Over the last century, global climate change, the worldwide degradation of ecosystems, rapid population growth and the depletion of resources have led governments and international organisations to acknowledge the imminent need to better understand the causes and consequences of these changes. For example, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that global warming will continue for centuries and will have pervasive impacts on society (IPCC, 2013 and 2007). As a result of this growing awareness, European researchers have been focusing on programmes that address urgent earth and ocean science related questions of international priority such as the impacts of climate change or threats posed by geo-hazards (e.g. earthquakes and tsunamis). 2 Technical and Scientific Description of the EMSO ERIC In order to provide meaningful answers to such questions, patterns and processes that range over many time and spatial scales have to be resolved (Fig. 1), which requires an integrated approach and a variety of tools. In situ observations of key ocean variables over long timescales and with 104 yr mantle convection magma chambers 1000 yr climate change 100 yr basin scale variability geodetic spreading 10 yr hydrothermalism 1 yr Time scale 1 mon barotropic variability ≤ m esoscale physical and biological interactions Organisms 1 wk eddies & fronts coastal upwelling 1h internal tides vertical turbulent mixing 1 min Geohazards surface gravity waves 0.1 s surface tides internal waves & inertial motions 1d 1s El Niño & NAO Rossby Seasonal waves cycles EQ fault capillary waves molecular processes 1 mm 1 cm 10 cm 1m 100 m 1 km 10 km 100 km 103 km 104 km 105 km Spatial scale Fig.1: Illustration of overlapping scales of major ocean and earth processes. From Ruhl et al., (2011). adequate temporal resolution are an essential part of addressing these issues. Indeed no single tool can span the kinds of temporal and spatial scales required to observe ocean and earth systems, so these fixed point nodes will be used in concert with other observing tools such as ship-based studies, satellite oceanography, drifting floats, and gliders. Until recently, marine time-series measurements were limited to only a few locations worldwide with data from the deep-sea benthos being particularly limited (Glover et al., 2010). Moreover, most of the data that is available suffers from a lack of continuity and integration. Such considerations and the growing awareness of the impact of open-ocean and deep-sea environments on human society have pushed the development of several observing programmes worldwide, with ocean observatories representing a critical part of a comprehensive ocean observing system. To provide an integrated approach, consecutive EU Framework Programmes have invested in the integration of the geosciences, physical oceanography, biogeochemistry and marine ecology communities with long-term, fixed point nodes in the deep ocean representing a key contribution. These distributed infrastructures augment traditional research projects with standardized and integrated in situ observations by addressing interdisciplinary objectives simultaneously across scales. 3 Technical and Scientific Description of the EMSO ERIC 3. EMSO ERIC Continuous monitoring of the deep ocean is a highly challenging objective that can be compared only with the exploration of outer space. One must be able to accommodate in a single infrastructure a multitude of scientific objectives addressing a very large and diverse user community. EMSO is truly a very ambitions and unique undertaking, facing technical challenges as well as financial, legal and governance ones. EMSO is the result of a conscious long lasting effort of the European marine science community towards multidisciplinary research in over 90% of the living space of our planet, across all disciplines in the ocean including the broad disciplines of biology chemistry, physics, geology, computer science and engineering; achieving a new unprecedented awareness of the Earth as an integrated system. EMSO's ground-breaking approach enables a much deeper understanding of the multiple interactive processes involved in how our complex planet functions. The EMSO Preparatory Phase (EMSO-PP) project endorsed the European Research Infrastructure Consortium (ERIC) as the legal body which will allow the creation of a formal organization to operate ocean observatory infrastructure in Europe. According to an analysis by ESONET NoE 1 , the governance structure of an ERIC could reduce personnel and operating costs by 31% during the construction and by 60% during the operation phase. The centralised management of an ERIC will enhance interoperability and standardization as well as synchronising funding of regional nodes. Overall, the EMSO ERIC will increase European competitiveness by representing the counterpart to infrastructures such as Ocean Networks Canada (ONC) and the United States Ocean Observatories Initiative (OOI). The sustained delivery of basic and standardized data products to international agencies responsible for environmental and Earth monitoring will be among the core services of the EMSO ERIC. The goal will therefore not only to provide scientific research data, but also supply deep-ocean data to COPERNICUS and to the Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS) programmes in order to integrate and complement Marine Services of the satellite, sea surface and subsurface observing systems. EMSO will supply the required synchronous measurements from fixed locations in four of the five areas defined by the Marine Services as 1. the Global Ocean, 2. the North East Atlantic, 3. the Arctic, and 4. the Mediterranean Sea. EMSO members can leverage the infrastructure to increase the capability of ICG/NEAMTWS (Intergovernmental Coordination Group for the Tsunami Early Warning and Mitigation System in the north-eastern Atlantic, the Mediterranean and connected Seas) through the monitoring of tsunamigenic areas. It will also help member states facilitate important contributions to meet the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) vision. Another important mission of the EMSO ERIC is the implementation of open data access through the adoption of policies favouring free access to all EMSO data by a wide range of users, from scientists, to educators and the public alike. A European distributed research infrastructure of ocean observatory nodes, while increasing our understanding of key phenomena such as global change, will also lead to socio-economic benefits such as increased expertise, and provide access to a new public environmental scientific culture and inform European government policy and business strategy. EMSO ERIC will generate significant benefits, including: knowledge transfer to industry, particularly for SMEs; high quality educational content and services for academia and for the media; a one-stopshopping world-class reference point and lobby group on marine policy, innovation and ethics for 1 European Sea Observatory-Network of Excellence: a project funded by the Framework Programme 6, running from 2007 until 2011 (http://www.esonet-noe.org/) 4 Technical and Scientific Description of the EMSO ERIC government(s). A communication strategy will be implemented exploiting the capabilities of EMSO observatory nodes for education and citizen science interactivity for the general public. 4. Societal and Economic Drivers The decline of ocean resources and our ability to use those resources in a sustainable way is one of the most urgent problems facing human populations today. The oceans have been playing an increasingly important part in human societies, providing trade routes, living resources, energy, and recreation. Presently, about 40% of the world’s population lives within 100 kilometres of the coast and as population density and economic activity in the coastal zone increase, pressures on coastal ecosystems increase. These coastal ecosystems are directly linked to the open ocean forming the largest habitat on earth and an ever-rising number of forcing factors underline the societal need for an improved understanding of the oceans. These forcing factors include: natural disasters (e.g. earthquakes, tsunamis); overfishing; pollution; habitat destruction; invasive species; acoustic noise; and climate change related factors, such as ocean warming, ocean acidification, ocean deoxygenation, storm intensity and frequency, seafloor stability and sea-level rise. Human societies depend on accurate and timely information to mitigate and protect themselves against the socio-economic impacts of these factors, such as an increased geo-hazard risk, habitat loss, human and animal migration, food security, disruption of marine-related industries, and reduced tourism, recreation, and aesthetics. It is a societal need to understand the negative effects of these forcing factors that drives the majority of earth and ocean science today. For example, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP, 2007) has highlighted the importance of oceanic and deep-sea ecosystems in providing crucial goods and services that translate into socio-economic benefits. The EMSO research infrastructure will feed into GEO, the IPCC, UNEP, and OSPAR (the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic) with essential data to help inform and revise policy and legislation. Furthermore, EMSO’s open ocean seafloor data will contribute to the Marine Strategy Framework Directive initiated by the EU in 2008, which aims to achieve good environmental status in Europe’s seas by 2020. The Directive is supporting the development of coherent approaches to assess good environmental status in a comprehensive and holistic manner, thereby supporting an ecosystem-based approach to management. The EU strategy provides the major driver for EMSO, and its schedule of implementation. EMSO will pioneer delivering European multidisciplinary real-time data from the sea by providing data from the surface ocean through the water column to the seafloor and sub-seafloor. Through the installation and operational phases, EMSO is expected to generate significant economic benefits, including advanced training and support services (incubator, testing) for industry, particularly for SMEs. The scientific initiatives in the U.S., Canada., Australia and Japan related to the construction of cabled observatories show total investment in research of nearly 1 billion euros over a period of 5 years (2010-2015). A substantial indirect impact for companies both large and SMEs involved in various sectors such as production for offshore oil and gas, offshore wind energy and marine biotechnology (blue biotechnology) and ICT companies is expected as a consequence of the technological developments and implementation of observatories such as EMSO. 5. Science Objectives The processes that occur in the oceans have a direct impact on human societies, therefore it is crucial to improve our understanding of how they operate and interact. To encompass the breadth of these major processes, sustained and integrated observations are required that appreciate the 5 Technical and Scientific Description of the EMSO ERIC interconnectedness of atmospheric, surface ocean, water column, deep-sea, and solid-Earth dynamics (Fig. 2) and that can address: Natural and anthropogenic change Interactions between ecosystem services, biodiversity, biogeochemistry, physics, and climate Impacts of exploration and extraction of energy, minerals, and living resources Geo-hazard modelling and early warning capability for earthquakes, tsunamis, gas-hydrate release, and slope failure Connecting scientific outcomes to stakeholders and policy makers Long-term, continuous data sets from a variety of fields are necessary to build a comprehensive picture of the earth-ocean system. These include: Geosciences The field of geosciences covers a range of processes, including gas-hydrate stability, submarine landslides, seismic activity, and geo-hazard early warning. Seismic activity and seafloor slippages, in particular, can have direct effects on human activities, such as causing damage to offshore industry infrastructure and catastrophic impacts on citizens through the formation of earthquakes and tsunamis. In order to produce robust forecasting, measurements need to be carried out continuously over sufficiently long periods of time to be able to differentiate between episodic events and trends or shorter period variations. Physical Oceanography One of the most urgent problems of modern societies is the effect of global warming on the marine environment (IPCC, 2007a, b). For example, a rise in sea temperatures will lead to sea ice melting (IPCC, 2007a) and increasing oceanic stratification (Marzeion et al., 2010; Levin et al., 2001), which can render large areas of the ocean anoxic and inhabitable. Therefore, detailed knowledge about ocean transport, wind-driven and deep-ocean circulation is mandatory to assess the role of the oceans in the global climate system. Biogeochemistry One of the effects of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide levels (which also leads to global warming) is an increased uptake of carbon dioxide by the oceans. Up to one third of anthropogenic carbon dioxide produced today is taken up by the oceans through two processes, solubility and the biological pump. This leads to the lowering of the pH of seawater, known as acidification of the 6 Technical and Scientific Description of the EMSO ERIC oceans (Feely et al., 2004; Orr et al., 2005; Raven et al., 2005; Fabry et al., 2008; Feely et al., 2008). An increasingly acidic ocean impacts the ability of marine organisms, such as calcifying primary producers, molluscs, and corals, to calcify their skeletons (Orr et al., 2005; Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007; Tyrrel, 2008). In the longer run, there is only so much carbon dioxide the oceans are able to absorb. Once this threshold is reached the declining oceanic uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide could increase the proportion that accumulates in the atmosphere and thereby accelerating the effect of global warming. Marine Ecology An increased understanding of ecosystem functioning is crucial in evaluating the sensitivity of marine ecosystems to anthropogenic change and represents one of the main challenges in marine science over the next decades (Sutherland et al., 2006). Marine ecosystem functions maintain key services such as primary production, climate regulation, carbon sequestration and storage, and living resources, including fisheries. Compared to terrestrial systems, changes in the ecology of the oceans as a result of global warming and carbon dioxide accumulation could have significant and numerous repercussions (Richardson, 2008). So far, only a limited number of data sets are available allowing for the observation of climatically-driven changes in marine ecosystems by discerning between interannual and interdecadal variations and secular change (Rosenzweig et al., 2008; Glover et al. 2010). The pace and scale of anthropogenic changes occurring in the oceans, such as overfishing and pollution, and the impact of these changes on marine biodiversity and ecosystems are cause for serious concern. Ocean observatory research efforts to better understand marine biodiversity will provide the knowledge necessary to inform an adaptive management process by linking variations in biodiversity, its function, and the ecological and environmental forcing that drive change in a comprehensive way. 6. Observatory Design Science objectives guide observatory design and dictate the ability to collect data autonomously. Traditional means will complement the EMSO distributed infrastructure, which will be serviced by a combination of research vessels and remotely operated vehicle (ROV) operations provided by EU Members. The most transformative facet of observatory design is its ability to address interdisciplinary objectives simultaneously across scales (NRC, 2000; Priede et al., 2003, 2005; Favali and Beranzoli, 2006; Barnes et al., 2008 Ruhl et al., 2011). Data will be collected from the surface ocean, through the water column, the benthic boundary layer (BBL), to the sub-seafloor. Depending on the application, in situ infrastructure can either be attached to a cable, which provides power and enables data transfer, or operate as independent benthic and moored instruments. In the latter case, data can also be transmitted through acoustic networks that are connected to a satellite-linked buoy. Mobile systems, such as benthic rovers and autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) can also be used to expand the spatial extent of a node. Cabled infrastructure provide important benefits including high power, high-capacity real-time data transmission lines, allowing interactive observatory operation as well as rapid geo-hazard early warning systems (Favali and Beranzoli, 2006; Ruhl et al., 2011). Elements of observatory design and standardisation are addressed specifically in the development of the ESONET Label (Rolin et al. 2011), which define a set of criteria to be applied in order to make choices for the specifications of stand-alone and cabled observatory nodes. Generic Sensor Module While not all questions can be addressed by each individual infrastructure, it is feasible to include a specific set of variables that are measured at all sites and depths, including: temperature, conductivity (salinity), pressure (depth), turbidity, dissolved oxygen, ocean currents, and passive acoustics. These variables are important in the context of climate system monitoring and are known 7 Technical and Scientific Description of the EMSO ERIC as Essential Climate Variables (ECVs), which were defined to support the work of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the IPCC. As sensor development progresses, other variables can be added, such as the remaining ECV and other key chemical variables (e.g. Chl-a, pH, CO2, CH4, H2S, Eh, and hydrocarbons). These generic sensors can be used to directly address a wide range of geo-hazard warning and scientific applications related to understanding natural and anthropogenic variation and the possible impacts of climate change. They will also provide supporting data to a large set of additional uses. Some of these systems are able to detect passing tsunami waves and associated low frequency sounds related to earth motions. In the observatory setting these data can then be relayed back to shore via seafloor cable or satellite telemetry within seconds to minutes respectively. Because nearly all tide gauges are along shorelines, offshore data can improve warning times. The systems are also able to detect storm and tide wave loading, sedimentation dynamics that influence turbidity, such as resuspension and benthic boundary layer dynamics. By linking tide, turbidity, and current meter readings, interaction strength and thresholds for resuspension and sediment transport can be further described. Furthermore, the measurement of these parameters on the seabed and in the water column can help determine how seabed processes interact with ocean circulation, biogeochemistry, and ecological parameters. Combining generic sensors with specific sensors such as seismometers, geodetic sensors (e.g., tiltmeters, bottom pressure recorders), bubble flux observing systems, hydrothermal flow meters, and piezometers, the remaining key questions outlined in Ruhl et al. (2011) can be addressed such as: How are seismic activity, fluid pore chemistry and pressure, gas-hydrate stability, and slope failure related? What are the feedbacks between deformation, volcanism, seismic, and hydrothermal activity? Generic sensors can also address questions related to physical oceanography. However, a generic sensor module at the surface, midwater and/or at the seafloor can only answer these questions partially. The use of salinity and conductivity sensors spaced regularly along strings and additional ADCP coverage can, however, capture themes related to ocean physics. These include understanding wind-driven and deep-ocean circulation, planetary waves, and interactions between the BBL and the seabed. Mobile systems, such as gliders, used in conjunction with the fixed infrastructure can also augment the impact of generic sensors. The oxygen sensor in the generic specification can address several aspects of biogeochemistry. Oxygen itself is important for aerobic life in the oceans which includes all metazoans (e.g. zooplankton, fish, and benthic invertebrates). Oxygen in the oceans is replenished primarily by inputs related to photosynthesis and equilibration at the air-sea interface. By making some basic assumptions one can estimate how much oxygen has been utilized by measuring how much remains compared to saturation levels (apparent oxygen utilisation [AOU]) (Garcia et al., 2006). So, variations in oxygen minimum zones (OMZs), as well as oxygen dynamics in the rest of the water column are of interest. Generic modules will also be able to make sensitive measurements of how oxygen concentration relates to turbidity and temperature, which have both connections to time variant respiration and/or remineralisation. Carbon dioxide is an abundant greenhouse gas and is a key molecule in the oceans’ biological pump. It is transferred from the atmosphere into the ocean and incorporated into phytoplankton production during photosynthesis. Some of this photosynthetic production is exported out of sunlit surface waters and sequestered for extended periods of time. There remains, however, much uncertainty in the transfer rates and dynamics of CO2 uptake. Measuring chlorophyll-a as an indication for the amount of primary production through the water column has many implications for biogeochemistry and marine ecology. These include sedimentation processes from the sea surface to the seabed, the input amount and seasonality of 8 Technical and Scientific Description of the EMSO ERIC organic material, and the latter’s role as food supply and the resulting implications for the existing fauna in different habitats. Chlorophyll-a also provides an insight into the importance of other parameters that trigger plankton blooms, as well as their seasonality/periodicity. As sensor technology develops, biogeochemical sensors will likely transit from specialized to generic instruments in the coming months and years, including pCH4 and pH sensors. Moreover, the more specialized measurements of particulate fluxes greatly augment the breadth of biogeochemical themes that can be addressed. The most elemental of these themes is oceanic carbon and greenhouse gas uptake, storage dynamics, and estimating how anthropogenic change might alter the efficiency of the biological pump. With pictures taken hourly, the activity of hydrothermal vent communities, the growth of chimneys and fluid venting may be recorded on a time-series basis. Similarly, the behaviour, diversity, activity rates, and size distributions of many fauna can be determined (Lampitt et al., 1983; Smith et al., 1993) for slope, canyon and abyssal plain habitats. In addition, photogrammetric techniques can determine the coverage and lifetime of visible phytodetritus on the seafloor and thus quantify biogeochemical fluxes (Bett et al., 2001; Smith et al., 2008). Another sensor with generic specification is the hydrophone, which is capable of detecting marine mammal sounds. Currently, there are hydrophone-based systems that can detect the position and identity of mammal sounds and thereby come up with estimates of density and distribution. Other sounds can also be detected, including geohazard events, anthropogenic sounds like those of passing ships, as well as rain, and the sounds of certain plankton and fish. Combining these systems with other ecological measurements will provide verification data that is needed to improve the detection of even more sounds. ADCP systems are sensitive to zooplankton and fish distributions, as well as currents. For example, the relative density variations associated with diurnal vertical migrations and their variation from hours to decades can be quantified and calibrated (Flagg and Smith, 1989; Kaufmann et al., 1995). The addition of cameras and active acoustic systems like scanning sonar or synthetic aperture systems can greatly enhance the quantification of abundances. Fluorometers, zooplankton samplers, and advanced microbial sensing systems also add to the impact of the generic observing system in order to address a diverse set of ecological questions. Science Specific Modules Each site has its characteristic features and can address science questions that are specific to a certain environment. Science-specific sensor modules complement generic sensors and can be set up in varying combinations depending on site-specific objectives. For example, measuring seismic motion, gravity, magnetism, seafloor deformation, sedimentation, pore-water properties, gas hydrates, and fluid dynamics results in a much more comprehensive understanding and significantly increases geo-hazard early warning capability (Ruhl et al., 2011). Many physical and biological applications require instruments throughout the water column for recording high resolution timeseries data over long periods. Depending on the specific application, these can be made up of profiling sensor arrays or sensors along mooring lines and even mooring arrays. Such systems can, for example detect variations in deep ocean currents and variations in the surface ocean or BBL. These specialized systems can include the capability to synoptically measure physics, oxygen, nutrients, and other biogeochemical and ecological parameters. Other more specialized biogeochemical systems include sediment traps, pigment and hydrocarbon sensors and in situ mass spectrometry. Systems for marine ecological research include deep-biosphere monitoring time-lapse and video imaging, active acoustics, plankton sampling, holographic plankton imaging, in situ respiration, and in situ molecular and genetic analysis. 9 Technical and Scientific Description of the EMSO ERIC Other Components The first generation of EMSO subsea observatory nodes are now operating and they provide a foundation for EMSO implementation. Since the beginning of EMSO-PP project, the capital and R&D investments of several Member States have been postponed due to the financial crisis. This has not stopped progress however. Depending on the availability of investment funds and the main focus of research, the infrastructure will consist either of: 1. a cabled backbone providing power and internet connection to the shore or 2. acoustic stand-alone stations transmitting data to relay buoys which are able to provide a satellite link to the shore. The power distribution and real-time data rates are the advantage of the cabled observatories, while stand alone battery powered observatories are more power and data limited but can more easily be installed far offshore. The branches of the cabled observatories include nodes for high voltage to low voltage transformation and junction boxes (200 W, 1kW or 9kW) providing data and power branching of instruments. In the medium-term, plans are developing for renewable energy technologies to power stand alone observatories from the sea surface. EMSO distributed infrastructure is facing the challenge of linking remote sites in extreme oceanic environments. Data transmission is the crucial function of a subsea observatory and opens new opportunities to perform ocean scientific research. Indeed, real-time or near real-time data collection and transmission ensure that the data is collected under more standardised conditions and will foster inter-comparison of time stamped series from generic and specific instruments of all disciplines, across the range of European ocean environments. 7. Data Infrastructure An open access policy requires all data collected by EMSO to be freely accessible. The immediate delivery of data from the bottom of the oceans directly to the desktops of researchers worldwide turns observatory networks into “gateways to the oceans” accessible to scientists, educators, and the public alike. The EMSO data infrastructure has been conceived to utilize the existing distributed network of data infrastructures in Europe and use the INSPIRE and GEOSS data sharing principles. A number of standards have been set forth that will allow for state-of-the-art transmission and archiving of data with the kinds of metadata recording and interoperability that allow for more straightforward discovery, use and communication of data. These standards include the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) Sensor Web Enablement (SWE) suite of standards, namely the OGC standards SensorML, Sensor Registry, Catalogue Service for Web (CS-W), Sensor Observation Service (SOS) and Observations and Measurements (O&M). OGC SensorML is an eXtensible Markup Language (XML) for describing sensor systems and processes. Following on progress from EuroSITES and others, a SensorML profile is being created that can be stored in a so-called Sensor Registry that will act as a catalogue of each EMSO sensor. This dynamic framework can accommodate the diverse array of data and formats used in EMSO, including the addition of delayed mode data. EMSO is exploiting the power of EGI (European Grid Infrastructure) to create a data infrastructure to serve the wide communities of scientists studying marine mammals, acoustics, oceanography, geophysics, high energy astro-particle physics, and ecology. A special objective is to also provide open access and shared tools for collaborative studies with state-of-the-art analysis algorithms. The distributed computing paradigm of the EU e-infrastructure will be used to provide large CPU and storage capacity. 10 Technical and Scientific Description of the EMSO ERIC Main user perspective Portal Data presentation and application layer Knowledge Base Ocean Observatory Owners UDDI (WSDL) GEOSS Data Archive Catalogue Services (CS-W + OAI-PMH) Sensor Registry metadata Data Archive Ocean instruments and data ontologies SensorML SensorML SensorML SensorML SensorML SOS handles data transfer via internet using O&M to encode data. SensorML- IDs sensors, describes metadata; also Sensor Registry via by CS-W. O&M O&M SensorML SensorML SensorML Data Archive 010010 01001 001001010 01001 0110100110 1001 01 Internet SOS IEEE 1451 Network Capable Processor with web services Network Communication IEEE1451 STIM IEEE1451 STIM Sensor +A/D Sensor + A/D + TEDS TEDS + TIM Sensor + A/D + TEDS Sensor + A/D + TEDS Sensor + A/D 'near-sensor' standards and interfaces Fig. 3: Developing data management structure for European open-ocean observatory nodes. The lowermost area shows the standards and interfaces, which are sensor related and the line represents the internet. Network connected and delayed mode data enter the scheme through the internet and SOS using O&M to encode the data itself. This data is archived in the data centres, represented to the right. SOS uses SensorML to identify and describe the observatory capacities. Capacities are also stored in the Sensor Registry and can be queried there via C-SW. SensorML is used to generate metadata for data archiving. The uppermost part of the figure shows the user perspective, the data portal and knowledge base. Acronyms include Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) Sensor Web Enablement (SWE), Markup Language (ML), eXtensible Markup Language (XML) Catalogue Service for Web (CS-W), Sensor Observation Service (SOS), Observations and Measurements (O&M), Open Archives Initiative-Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH), Universal Description Discovery and Integration (UDDI), Web Service Definition Language (WSDL), analogue to digital conversion (A/D), Transducer Electronic Data Sheet (TEDS), Transducer Interface Module (TIM), and Smart Transducer Interface Module (STIM). From Ruhl et al., 2011 (Fig. 12). 8. Standardization and Interoperability To create an efficient observatory distributed research infrastructure, the technical and scientific components need to be standardized and interoperable. The “ESONET label” was formulated during ESONET-NoE project, representing a quality guideline for standardization and reliability of equipment and procedures that is underpinned by technical auditing, equipment testing, calibration, reliability analysis, and common data management protocols. The guidelines encompass the standardization of data management, sensor interoperability, underwater intervention procedures, quality assurance, as well as the creation of a sensor registry reference that complies with the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) and adapts standards such as IEEE 1451, CanOpen, Puck, etc. Another aim of the EMSO community is to define and standardize basic observatory core services that will be adopted by the oil and gas industry, for example, to help them comply with environmental standards, and which will complement the COPERNICUS satellite sea surface Marine Services. Recently, additional challenges for EMSO regarding standardization and data exchange came up as a result of intensified cooperation with other environmental infrastructures within an international, multidisciplinary network including observatory operators from the United States, Canada, Japan and Australia. These standardization and harmonisation efforts are ongoing within the framework of EC projects (e.g., ENVRI2 and COOPEUS3). 2 http://envri.eu/ 11 Technical and Scientific Description of the EMSO ERIC 9. Current EMSO Infrastructure The principal observatory nodes of EMSO are distributed from the Arctic Ocean near Svalbard to the MidAtlantic Ridge, the Mediterranean to the Black Sea. Based on their scientific, technological, and socioeconomic importance, ESONET NoE identified eleven sites as potential nodes. The proposed sites span the major biogeochemical provinces identified in European waters (Longhurst, 2006) and reflect a wide range of habitats, including abyssal plains, open slopes, seamounts, canyons, ridges, faults, fluid seeps, hydrothermal vents, gas hydrates, mud volcanoes, deep-sea corals, carbonate mounds, and potential geo-hazard zones (Fig. 4). Observatory nodes either represent a primary source of data or they will Fig. 4: Figure showing the distribution of EMSO observatories be used in a supporting manner. Eight EMSO nodes out of eleven are presently operating, plus three shallow water cabled test sites. They include cabled and stand alone sites, with water column moorings and benthic instruments, communicating in real time or in delayed mode. Remaining sites will become fully operational over the next years as part of the EMSO ERIC implementation plan. Mobile systems, such as ROVs and AUVs will augment the potential of some of the nodes by expanding their spatial extent. 10. Tasks and Organisation Detailed information on tasks of the EMSO ERIC and duties of the different bodies are available in EMSO Statutes and in the EMSO Business Plan (see www.emso-eu.org, “documents” section). We provide here a synthesis of the fundamental scope and objectives of the EMSO organisation. Scope and Objectives EMSO ERIC will coordinate and facilitate access to open ocean fixed point distributed observatory infrastructure according to selection criteria defined by the participating members. The EMSO ERIC will be the central point of contact for observatory initiatives in other part of the world to set up and promote cooperation in this field. EMSO ERIC will also integrate research, training, and information dissemination activities of ocean observatory nodes in Europe, to enable scientists and other stakeholders to make efficient use of a distributed ocean observatory research infrastructure around Europe. EMSO ERIC will consist of contributing member states and observer member states and shall ensure maximum benefit by coordinating and focusing the use of the commonly available infrastructure resources. 3 http://www.coopeus.eu/ 12 Technical and Scientific Description of the EMSO ERIC EMSO ERIC will integrate the existing open ocean fixed point ocean observatory nodes around Europe, coordinate their extension, and coordinate the planning and deployment of new nodes. The mission is also to facilitate the operation of the nodes, ensure the continuity and quality of time series measurement acquisition, and provide a reliable and user-oriented data management. EMSO will act as an advocate for its stakeholders, which include the scientific community and other users in the public, private, and policy sectors. EMSO ERIC will sustain connections with international initiatives relevant to open ocean observation and will represent Europe in other parts of the world to promote cooperation. Organisation The EMSO ERIC will be established to coordinate the activities of the EMSO observatory distributed infrastructure. The main components of the EMSO ERIC organisational structure shall be: - Assembly of Members (AoM) Scientific Technical and Ethical Advisory Committee (STEAC) Executive Board (EB) Director General (DG) EMSO Regional Team and Service Groups The governing bodies will be supported by a Central Management Office (CMO) that will collaborate with the Director General to ensure the day-to-day management of the ERIC. 11. Perspectives The founding of the EMSO ERIC is timely, coincident with the start of Horizon 2020, the European programme for funding research and innovation from 2014 until 2020. Research Infrastructures are an important pillar of the programme, which will put emphasis on activities which are also among the statutory tasks of EMSO ERIC, such as: training of highly qualified staff for managing and operating RIs; exchange of staff and best practices (including standards) between facilities; fostering of the innovation potential, which will be stimulated by the technical challenges connected to ocean observation in extreme environments; promoting international cooperation with parent initiatives outside Europe. In November 2013 the science community of EMSO gathered during a science conference (EMSO Ocean Observatories Challenges and Progress, Rome 13-15 November) to review scientific ideas, early results and infrastructure development. One of the main outputs of the conference was a final statement4 jointly issued by the community, expressing a set of priorities and advocating for longterm, sustained support by the funding agencies. 4 http://www.emso-eu.org/management/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&layout=item&id=34&Itemid=148 13 Technical and Scientific Description of the EMSO ERIC References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Barnes, C.R., Best, M.M.R., Zielinski, A., 2008. The NEPTUNE Canada regional cabled ocean observatory. Sea Technology 49, 10–14. Bett, B.J., Malzone, M.G., Narayanaswamy, B.E., Wigham, B.D., 2001. Temporal variability in phytodetritus and megabenthic activity at the seabed in the deep northeast Atlantic. Progress in Oceanography 50: 349368. Fabry, V.J., Seibel, B.A., Feely, R.A., Orr, J.C., 2008. Impacts of ocean acidification on marine fauna and ecosystem processes. ICES Journal of Marine Science 65, 414–432. Favali, P., Beranzoli, L., D’Anna, G., Gasparoni, F., Marvaldi, J., Clauss, G., Gerber, H.W., Nicot, M., Marani, M.P., Gamberi, F., Millot, C., Flueh, E.R., 2006a. A fleet of multiparameter observatories for geophysical and environmental monitoring at seafloor. Annals of Geophysics 49, 659–680. Feely, R.A., Sabine, C.L., Lee, K., Berelson, W., Kleypas, J., Fabry, V.J., Millero, F.J., 2004. Impact of anthropogenic CO2 on the CaCO3 system in the oceans. Science 305, 362–366. Feely, R., Sabine, C.L., Martin Hernandez-Ayon, J., Ianson, D., Hales, B., 2008. Evidence for upwelling of corrosive ‘‘acidified’’ seawater onto the continental shelf. Science 320, 1490–1492. Glover, A.G., Gooday, A.J., Bailey, D.M., Billett, D.S.M., Chevaldonnè, P., Colaço, A., Copley, J., Cuvelier, D., Desbruyères, D., Kalogeropoulou, V., Klages, M., Lampadariou, N., Lejeusne, C., Mestre, N.C., Paterson, G.L.J., Perez, T., Ruhl, H., Sarrazin, J., Soltwedel, T., Soto, E.H., Thatje, S., Tselepides, A., Van Gaever, S., Vanreusel, A., 2010. Temporal change in deep-sea benthic ecosystems: a review of the evidence from recent time-series studies. Advances in Marine Biology 58. doi:10.1016/S0065-2881(10)58001-5. Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Mumby, P.J., Hooten, A.J., Steneck, R.S., Greenfield, P., Gomez, E., Harvell, C.D., Sale, P.F., Edwards, A.J., Caldeira, K., Knowlton, N., Eakin, C.M., Iglesias-Prieto, R., Muthiga, N., Bradbury, R.H., Dubi, A., Hatziolos, M.E., 2007. Coral reefs under rapid climate change and ocean acidification. Science 318, 1737–1742. IPCC, 2013: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker, T. F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S. K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P. M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, in press. IPCC, 2007. Climate change 2007: impacts, adaption and vulnerability. In: Parry, M.L., Canziani, O.F., Palutikof, J.P., van der Linden, P.J., Hanson, C.E. (Eds.), Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom. Kildow, J.T., Colgan, C.S., Scorse, J. (2009) State of the U.S. Ocean and Coastal Economies. National Ocean Economics Program. (http://oceaneconomics.org/Download/) Lampitt, R.S., Burnham, M.P., 1983. A free fall time lapse camera and current meter system ‘Bathysnap’ with notes on the foraging behaviour of a bathyal decapod shrimp. Deep-Sea Research I 30, pp. 1009–1017. Levin, L., Etter, R.J., Rex, M.A., Gooday, A.J., Smith, C.R., Pineda, J., Stuart, C.T., Hessler, R.R., Pawson, D., 2001. Environmental influences on regional deep-sea species diversity. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 32, 51–93. Marzeion, B., Levermann, A., Mignot, J., 2010. Sensitivity of North Atlantic subpolar gyre and overturning to stratification-dependent mixing: response to global warming. Climate Dynamics 34, 661–668. Morrissey, K., Hynes, S., Cuddy, M., O’Donoughue, C. (2010) Ireland’s Ocean Economy. Socio-Economic Marine Research Unit, National University of Ireland, Galway. (http://www.nuigalway.ie/semru/documents/final_report_small.pdf) National Research Council (NRC), 2000. Illuminating the Hidden Planet. The Future of Seafloor Observatory Science. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 135pp.. Orr, J.C., Fabry, V.J., Aumont, O., Bopp, L., Doney, S.C., Feely, R.A., Gnanadesikan, A., Gruber, N., Ishida, A., Joos, F., Key, R.M., Lindsay, K., Maier-Reimer, E., Matear, R., Monfray, P., Mouchet, A., Najjar, R.G., Platter, G.-K., Rodgers, K.B., Sabine, C.L., Sarmiento, J.L., Schiltzer, R., Salter, R., Totterdell, I.J., Weirig, M.-F., Yamanka, Y., Yool, A., 2005. Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the twenty-first century and its impact on marine calcifying organisms. Nature 437, 681–686. Priede, I.G., Mienert, J., Person, R., van Weering, T.C.E., Pfannkuche, O., O’Neill, N., Tselepides, A., Thompson, L., Favali, P., Gasparioni, F., Zitellini, N., Millot, C., Gerber, H.W., Miranda, J.M.A., 2003. ESONET – European sea floor observatory network. In: Dahlin, H., Fleming, N.C., Nittis, K., Petersson, S.E. (Eds.), 14 Technical and Scientific Description of the EMSO ERIC 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. Building the European Capacity in Operational Oceanography. Elsevier Oceanography Series 69. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 291–294. Priede, I.G., Person, R., Favali, P., 2005. European seafloor observatory network. Sea Technology 46, 45-49. Pugh, D., 2008. Socio-Economic Indicators of Marine Activities in the UK Economy. The Crown Estate, 68 pp. Raven, J., Caldeira, K., Elderfield, H., Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Liss, P., Riebesell, U., Shepherd, J., Turley, C., Watson, A., 2005. Ocean Acidification due to Increasing Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide. Royal Society, London. p. 60. Richardson, A.J., 2008. In hot water: zooplankton and climate change. ICES Journal of Marine Science 65, 279–295. Rolin, J.F., Bompais, X., Choqueuse, D., Delory, E., Huber, R., Waldmann, C., Salvetat, F., Ruhl, H., Schleisek, K. and Grant, F. (2011) ESONET Label Definition (http://www.esonetnoe.org/content/download/42247/574588/file/Deliverable_D68_esonet-label-definition_1.0.pdf Rosenzweig, C., Karoly, D., Vicarelli, M., Neofotis, P., Wu, Q., Casassa, G., Menzel, A., Root, T.L., Estrella, N., Seguin, B., Tryjanowski, P., Liu, C., Rawlins, S., Imeson, A., 2008. Attributing physical and biological impacts to anthropogenic climate change. Nature 453, 353–357. Ruhl, H.A., André, M., Beranzoli, L., Cağatay, M.N., Colaco, A., Cannat, M., Dañobeitia, J.J., Favali, P., Géli, L., Gillooly, M., Greinert, J., Hall, P.O.J., Huber, R., Karstensen, J., Lampitt, R.S., Larkin, K.E., Lykousis, V., Mienert, J., Miguel Miranda, J., Person, R., Priede, I.G., Puillat, I., Thomson, L., Waldmann, C. 2011. Societal need for improved understanding of climate change, anthropogenic impacts, and geo-hazard warning drive development of ocean observatories in European Seas. Progress in Oceanography 91 (1), 1-33. Sutherland, W.J., Armstrong-Brown, S., Armsworth, P.R., Brereton, T., Brickland, J., Campbell, C.D., Chamberlain, D.E., Cooke, A.I., Dulvy, N.K., Dusic, N.R., Fitton, M., Freckleton, R.P., Godfray, C.J., Grout, N., Harvey, H.J., Hedley, C., Hopkins, J.J., Kift, N.B., Kirby, J., Kunin, W.E., MacDonald, D.W., Marker, B., Naura, M., Neale, R., Oliver, T., Osborn, D., Pullin, A.S., Shardlow, M.E.A., Showler, D.A., Smith, P.L., Smithers, R.J., Solandt, J.C., Spencer, J., Spray, C.J., Thomas, C.D., Thompson, J., Webb, S.E., Yalden, D.W., Watkinson, A.R., 2006. The identification of 100 ecological questions of high policy relevance in the UK. Journal of Applied Ecology 43, 617–627. Tyrrell, T., 2008. Calcium carbonate cycling in future oceans and its influence on future climates. Journal of Plankton Research 30, 141–156. 15