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Chapter 16
1. Select the word or phrase from the Terms section that best matches the definition or example
provided in the Definitions section. Some terms may be used more than once; some may not be
used at all.
Terms
a. Columbian exchange
b. Ptolemy's Geography
c. encomienda system
d. Mexica Empire
e. conquistador
f. Inca Empire
g. Treaty of Tordesillas
h. viceroyalties
i. caravel
j. bride wealth
Reference: Ref 16-1
Also known as the Aztec Empire, a large and complex Native American civilization in modern Mexico
and Central America that possessed advanced mathematical, astronomical, and engineering
technology.
Answer: d. Mexica Empire
2. Select the word or phrase from the Terms section that best matches the definition or example
provided in the Definitions section. Some terms may be used more than once; some may not be
used at all.
Terms
a. Columbian exchange
b. Ptolemy's Geography
c. encomienda system
d. Mexica Empire
e. conquistador
f. Inca Empire
g. Treaty of Tordesillas
h. viceroyalties
i. caravel
j. bride wealth
Reference: Ref 16-1
A system whereby the Spanish crown granted the conquerors the right to forcibly employ groups of
Indians; it was a disguised form of slavery.
Answer: c. encomienda system
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3. Select the word or phrase from the Terms section that best matches the definition or example
provided in the Definitions section. Some terms may be used more than once; some may not be
used at all.
Terms
a. Columbian exchange
b. Ptolemy's Geography
c. encomienda system
d. Mexica Empire
e. conquistador
f. Inca Empire
g. Treaty of Tordesillas
h. viceroyalties
i. caravel
j. bride wealth
Reference: Ref 16-1
The name for the four administrative units of Spanish possessions in the Americas: New Spain,
Peru, New Granada, and La Plata.
Answer: h. viceroyalties
4. Select the word or phrase from the Terms section that best matches the definition or example
provided in the Definitions section. Some terms may be used more than once; some may not be
used at all.
Terms
a. Columbian exchange
b. Ptolemy's Geography
c. encomienda system
d. Mexica Empire
e. conquistador
f. Inca Empire
g. Treaty of Tordesillas
h. viceroyalties
i. caravel
j. bride wealth
Reference: Ref 16-1
The 1494 agreement giving Spain everything west of an imaginary line drawn down the Atlantic
and giving Portugal everything to the east.
Answer: g. Treaty of Tordesillas
5. Select the word or phrase from the Terms section that best matches the definition or example
provided in the Definitions section. Some terms may be used more than once; some may not be
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used at all.
Terms
a. Columbian exchange
b. Ptolemy's Geography
c. encomienda system
d. Mexica Empire
e. conquistador
f. Inca Empire
g. Treaty of Tordesillas
h. viceroyalties
i. caravel
j. bride wealth
Reference: Ref 16-1
In early modern Southeast Asia, a sum of money the groom paid the bride or her family at the time
of marriage, in contrast to the husband's control of dowry in China, India, and Europe.
Answer: j. bride wealth
6. Select the word or phrase from the Terms section that best matches the definition or example
provided in the Definitions section. Some terms may be used more than once; some may not be
used at all.
Terms
a. Columbian exchange
b. Ptolemy's Geography
c. encomienda system
d. Mexica Empire
e. conquistador
f. Inca Empire
g. Treaty of Tordesillas
h. viceroyalties
i. caravel
j. bride wealth
Reference: Ref 16-1
The vast and sophisticated Peruvian empire centered at the capital city of Cuzco that was at its
peak from 1438 until 1532.
Answer: f. Inca Empire
7. Select the word or phrase from the Terms section that best matches the definition or example
provided in the Definitions section. Some terms may be used more than once; some may not be
used at all.
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Terms
a. Columbian exchange
b. Ptolemy's Geography
c. encomienda system
d. Mexica Empire
e. conquistador
f. Inca Empire
g. Treaty of Tordesillas
h. viceroyalties
i. caravel
j. bride wealth
Reference: Ref 16-1
A second century C.E. work that synthesized the classical knowledge of geography and introduced
the concepts of longitude and latitude. Reintroduced to Europeans in 1410 by Arab scholars, its
ideas allowed cartographers to create more accurate maps.
Answer: b. Ptolemy's Geography
8. Select the word or phrase from the Terms section that best matches the definition or example
provided in the Definitions section. Some terms may be used more than once; some may not be
used at all.
Terms
a. Columbian exchange
b. Ptolemy's Geography
c. encomienda system
d. Mexica Empire
e. conquistador
f. Inca Empire
g. Treaty of Tordesillas
h. viceroyalties
i. caravel
j. bride wealth
Reference: Ref 16-1
A small, maneuverable, three-mast sailing ship developed by the Portuguese in the fifteenth
century that gave the Portuguese a distinct advantage in exploration and trade.
Answer: i. caravel
9. Select the word or phrase from the Terms section that best matches the definition or example
provided in the Definitions section. Some terms may be used more than once; some may not be
used at all.
Terms
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a. Columbian exchange
b. Ptolemy's Geography
c. encomienda system
d. Mexica Empire
e. conquistador
f. Inca Empire
g. Treaty of Tordesillas
h. viceroyalties
i. caravel
j. bride wealth
Reference: Ref 16-1
The exchange of animals, plants, and diseases between the Old and the New Worlds.
Answer: a. Columbian exchange
10. Select the word or phrase from the Terms section that best matches the definition or example
provided in the Definitions section. Some terms may be used more than once; some may not be
used at all.
Terms
a. Columbian exchange
b. Ptolemy's Geography
c. encomienda system
d. Mexica Empire
e. conquistador
f. Inca Empire
g. Treaty of Tordesillas
h. viceroyalties
i. caravel
j. bride wealth
Reference: Ref 16-1
Spanish for “conqueror”; Spanish soldier-explorer, such as Hernando Cortés and Francisco Pizarro,
who sought to conquer the New World for the Spanish crown.
Answer: e. conquistador
11. What were the factors that facilitated the expansion of European society from 1450–1650? What
was the motivation, both for the individual European explorers and the states that supported
them?
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HTML Editor
Answer: The general factors that influenced exploration and the expansion of Europe include such
aspects as political centralization, Renaissance curiosity, increasing trade contacts, crusading zeal,
religious fervor, technological innovation that enabled exploration, and the impact of the Ottoman
Empire and Ming Dynasty on overland trade routes. Individual explorers were also influenced by these
factors, as well as the limited nature of economic and political opportunities in Europe. Thus profit was
a primary motivation. See section The European Voyages of Discovery.
12. What were the long-term repercussions for Spain and the Americas of Magellan's voyages in 1519
and 1522?
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Answer: The most important repercussion of Magellan's voyages is that they proved to Europeans
exactly how large the earth and the Pacific Ocean are. Because the Spanish realized that sailing across
the Pacific to reach Asia was both time-consuming and expensive, they turned their attention away
from their intention to overtake the Portuguese and the Asian spice trade. This left them to focus their
attention on the Americas, and thus encouraged the exploitation of American labor. See section The
European Voyages of Discovery.
13. What was the impact of European expansion on the indigenous peoples of the Americas, European
society, and the new American civilization?
HTML Editor
Answer: European expansion had an immediate and very negative demographic impact on indigenous
peoples. The Americas were depopulated through disease, overwork, and malnutrition; they were also
enslaved. The impact of the Americas on Europe was largely economic, in shifting patterns of world
trade to European control, and the introduction of new foods to the European diet. Furthermore, the
shift to using African slave labor on American plantations led to new European attitudes regarding race
and the concept of race-based slavery. See section The Impact of Conquest.
14. Explain how the most important element in the Columbian exchange was the trade in biological
material.
HTML Editor
Answer: The essay should describe the exchange of flora and fauna, of animals and diseases that the
migration of peoples precipitated. The essay should also be sure to indicate that the exchanges affected
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not only Europe and America, but Africa and Asia as well. The essay should assess the positive and
negative aspects of the exchange, including improved diets, diseases, slavery, and the Native American
holocaust. See section The Impact of Conquest
15. How did the discovery and settlement of the New World contribute to the development of the
ideas of skepticism and cultural relativism?
HTML Editor
Answer: After centuries of certainty about religious beliefs and cultural values, the discovery of
previously unknown lands, peoples, and cultures led Europeans to question their certainty. Writers such
as Montaigne expressed the radical idea that one culture might not be superior to another, also known
as cultural relativism. This replaced certainty with doubt. With doubt came skepticism. See section
Changing Values and Beliefs.
16. Even before the discoveries of Columbus, Europeans participated in the world economy through
what merchants?
A. Parisian
B. Byzantine
C. Cordoban
D. Venetian
E. English
Answer: D
17. In the fifteenth century, the largest commercial center of the Indian Ocean was
A. Malacca.
B. Goa.
C. Ceylon.
D. Alexandria.
E. Calcutta.
Answer: A
18. Who had the most advanced economy in the world before the eighteenth century?
A. Persia
B. China
C. Italy
D. Mughals
E. Indonesia
Answer: B
19. How far west did Zheng He explore in the fifteenth century?
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A. Portugal
B. Rome
C. Morocco
D. England
E. Egypt
Answer: E
20. One of the most important trade goods that came out of India was
A. pepper.
B. tea.
C. palm oil.
D. ivory.
E. cowrie shells.
Answer: A
21. The peoples of Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines all spoke languages of what language
family?
A. Semitic
B. Indo-European
C. Austronesian
D. Nilo-Afro
E. Sino
Answer: C
22. The staple food of the Southeast Asian diet was
A. rice.
B. palm hearts.
C. wheat.
D. sugar.
E. lamb.
Answer: A
23. Why did women in Southeast Asia tend to have more economic power than women in India,
China, and Europe?
A. Women in Southeast Asia were always appointed as political leaders.
B. Women in Southeast Asia often managed sugar plantations.
C. Women in Southeast Asia usually managed the pepper harvest.
D. A primary role of women in Southeast Asia was rice production.
E. A primary role of women in Southeast Asia was silk weaving.
Answer: D
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24. The money exchanged at the time of marriage in Southeast Asia was called the bride wealth, and
it was given to
A. the groom.
B. the couple jointly.
C. the bride's father.
D. a marriage broker.
E. the bride.
Answer: E
25. The major trade commodity of the trans-Saharan trade route was
A. wood.
B. gold.
C. porcelain.
D. ivory.
E. iron.
Answer: B
26. By the sixteenth century, what empire dominated the sea trade in the Mediterranean?
A. Safavid
B. Spain
C. Song China
D. Ottoman
E. Mali
Answer: D
27. As early as 1291, Genoa sponsored an attempt to discover an Atlantic route to
A. China.
B. America.
C. India.
D. Mali.
E. Egypt.
Answer: C
28. Originally the Venetians and Genoese traded slaves from the
A. Persian Gulf.
B. Caspian Sea.
C. Nile Valley.
D. Strait of Gibraltar.
E. Black Sea.
Answer: E
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29. What empire captured Constantinople in the fifteenth century and then limited Europe's access to
spices from the east?
A. Safavid
B. Mongol
C. Venice
D. Ottoman
E. Song China
Answer: D
30. In 1492, Spain conquered Granada, which encouraged
A. religious fervor to convert Muslims.
B. Ottomans to counterattack.
C. Spain to invade Morocco.
D. Christians to explore the Mediterranean.
E. Portugal to attack Spain.
Answer: A
31. One of the many motivations for exploration in the fifteenth century was the desire of European
monarchs to
A. find a new source of royal brides.
B. compete with one another.
C. find new lands to name for themselves.
D. figure out the geography of the globe.
E. find new markets for industrial goods.
Answer: B
32. On his voyages, Columbus took a copy of The Travels of Marco Polo and The Travels of
A. Bartholomew Diaz.
B. Prester John.
C. Sir John Mandeville.
D. Henry the Navigator.
E. Zheng He.
Answer: C
33. The most significant error of Ptolemy's Geography was that it
A. left out the continent of Asia.
B. had latitude but no longitude marks.
C. underestimated the size of the earth.
D. pictured the earth as flat.
E. only portrayed Europe.
Answer: C
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34. The astrolabe was
A. used to plot latitude using the sun.
B. used to locate the position of the earth.
C. invented by Muslims in India.
D. not very useful for European explorers.
E. rejected by Europeans as a pagan device.
Answer: A
35. The European kingdom that took the lead in overseas exploration was
A. Italy.
B. Spain.
C. France.
D. England.
E. Portugal.
Answer: E
36. Prince Henry II of Portugal is significant for his
A. role in subduing the Dutch revolt.
B. support of voyages of exploration.
C. support of the Protestants in the Thirty Years' War.
D. opposition to slavery of any peoples.
E. calling an end to crusades against Muslims.
Answer: B
37. The beginning of European exploration and expansion was marked by the 1415 conquest of
A. Ceuta.
B. Cairo.
C. Casablanca.
D. Morocco.
E. the Azores.
Answer: A
38. By 1500 Portugal controlled the flow of gold from where to Europe?
A. India
B. Persia
C. Brazil
D. Africa
E. China
Answer: D
39. The first European to round the Cape of Good Hope was
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A. Balboa.
B. Magellan.
C. da Gama.
D. de Leon.
E. Diaz.
Answer: E
40. How did Portugal come to be the entry point for Asian goods into Europe?
A. By defeating the Spanish navy and gaining control of the Atlantic
B. By capturing Muslim-controlled port cities in the Indian Ocean
C. By shutting down overland trade routes through the Sahara
D. By discovering a western passage to India
E. By invading and colonizing cities in the agricultural interior of India
Answer: B
41. Portolans were
A. Spanish merchants.
B. measurements of distance in the ocean.
C. a style of sail used by the Portuguese.
D. written descriptions of sea routes.
E. Portuguese sailors.
Answer: D
42. The central feature of Columbus's character was his
A. intense nationalist belief.
B. deep religious conviction.
C. rapacious greed.
D. Renaissance curiosity.
E. political ambition.
Answer: B
43. Columbus's goal was to reach the Indies, which for him meant
A. South Africa.
B. America.
C. Asia.
D. the Azores.
E. Turkey.
Answer: C
44. Where did Columbus first land in the Americas?
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A. The Bahamas
B. Florida
C. Cuba
D. Mexico
E. Canada
Answer: A
45. On his initial voyage to the Americas in 1492, Columbus considered the natives he met to be
A. brutal savages.
B. primitive and warlike.
C. incapable of becoming Christian.
D. deceptive and untrustworthy.
E. handsome and peaceful.
Answer: E
46. Scholars have identified the natives first encountered by Columbus as
A. Taino.
B. Olmec.
C. Mexica.
D. Tlaxcalas.
E. Moche.
Answer: A
47. Columbus landed on Cuba on October 28 and was convinced it was
A. Japan.
B. Malaysia.
C. China.
D. the Azores.
E. Persia.
Answer: C
48. As governor of the island of Hispaniola, Christopher Columbus
A. imported large numbers of African slaves to work on new sugar plantations.
B. subjected the indigenous people to forced labor.
C. offered the local people self-government.
D. quickly produced great riches for Spain.
E. proved to be politically innovative and enlightened.
Answer: B
49. By the end of his life, Columbus
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A. realized he had discovered a new but insignificant continent.
B. assumed he had changed the world by discovering new lands.
C. continued to believe he had discovered islands off the coast of Asia.
D. had become a critic of Spain's treatment of native peoples.
E. believed that he had found the mythical civilization of Atlantis.
Answer: C
50. The first European explorer to realize that Columbus had discovered an unknown continent was
A. Prince Henry of Portugal.
B. Vasco da Gama.
C. Pedro Alvares Cabral.
D. Amerigo Vespucci.
E. Bartholomew Diaz.
Answer: D
51. The competing claims to the Americas between Spain and Portugal were settled by
A. King Ferdinand.
B. the Holy Roman emperor.
C. an election by the Americans.
D. war between Spain and Portugal.
E. Pope Alexander VI.
Answer: E
52. Ferdinand Magellan was sent on a mission in 1519 to discover a direct route to
A. the Moluccas.
B. Japan.
C. Cathay.
D. the Philippines.
E. Hispaniola.
Answer: A
53. The French found trade in what commodity from the Americas to be most profitable?
A. Slaves
B. Silver
C. Furs
D. Iron ore
E. Cotton
Answer: C
54. Before attacking Tenochtitlán, Cortés established the first Spanish settlement in Mexico at
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A. San Salvador.
B. Vera Cruz.
C. Mexico City.
D. Cuzco.
E. Tordesillas.
Answer: B
55. Upon reaching the city of Tenochtitlán, Cortés
A. killed the state council.
B. proclaimed himself a god.
C. took Montezuma hostage.
D. declared Spain to be in charge.
E. demanded the Mexica pay tribute.
Answer: C
56. The Aztec Empire was conquered by
A. Hernando Cortés.
B. Francisco Pizarro.
C. Pedro Alvares Cabral.
D. Francisco Bald.
E. Vasco Nunez de Balboa.
Answer: A
57. The Spanish conquest of Tenochtitlán was aided by what disease?
A. Syphilis
B. Measles
C. Cholera
D. Smallpox
E. Bubonic plague
Answer: D
58. When the Inca leader Atahualpa first met the Spanish, he
A. tried to lure them into an ambush, but was thwarted.
B. was seized and ultimately executed.
C. had just defeated the Mayans in war.
D. offered them chests of jewels as a peace offering.
E. and his unarmed followers were taken captive.
Answer: B
59. The Spanish crown established a monopoly of New World traffic to what city?
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A. Madrid
B. Mexico City
C. Lisbon
D. Cordoba
E. Seville
Answer: E
60. Spanish viceroys presided over what judicial advisory council?
A. Quinto
B. Hacienda
C. Encomienda
D. Audiencia
E. Obras
Answer: D
61. The Spanish intendant system was loyal to
A. the local viceroy or his designee.
B. the governors of the New World colonies.
C. the Spanish monarch directly.
D. the audiencias of the colonies.
E. a board of directors and investors.
Answer: C
62. It is believed that the native population of the Americas in 1492 was
A. 250 million.
B. 100 million.
C. 50 thousand.
D. 50 million.
E. 1 billion.
Answer: D
63. The encomienda system, established by the Spanish Crown, allowed Spaniards to
A. exact tribute and forced labor from the native people on a particular piece of land.
B. attempt to convert the indigenous people in a particular area.
C. exterminate the native people residing in a particular area.
D. trade in particular American ports.
E. invest in Spanish enterprises in the Americas without having to pay taxes.
Answer: A
64. The encomiendas were essentially legalized forms of
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A. prostitution.
B. immigration.
C. education.
D. trade.
E. slavery.
Answer: E
65. The most significant food item introduced from Europe to the New World was
A. wheat.
B. meat.
C. sugar.
D. olives.
E. grapes.
Answer: B
66. The most important food item introduced from the New World to Europe was
A. sugar.
B. tomatoes.
C. white potatoes.
D. peppers.
E. pumpkins.
Answer: C
67. In the sixteenth century, there was a huge increase in the use of enslaved Africans in Brazil in
order to produce
A. sugar.
B. rum.
C. cotton.
D. tobacco.
E. cocoa.
Answer: A
68. The Royal African Company was created by England to facilitate trade in
A. potatoes.
B. gold.
C. weapons.
D. African slaves.
E. wood.
Answer: D
69. Most of the African slaves who died on the voyage to the Americas died
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A. of smallpox.
B. of dysentery.
C. of typhus.
D. of cholera.
E. in accidents.
Answer: B
70. What was discovered by the Spanish at Potosi in the sixteenth century?
A. Gold
B. Mummies
C. Silk
D. Iron ore
E. Silver
Answer: E
71. The seventeenth century Dutch trade was based on
A. spices.
B. silks.
C. silver.
D. gold.
E. slaves.
Answer: A
72. Europeans believed that they improved African slaves by
A. moving them to America.
B. converting them to Christianity.
C. making them equal to Europeans.
D. teaching them how to farm.
E. recognizing the value of African culture.
Answer: B
73. Support for European theories associating race and slavery were provided by Aristotle and
A. English tradition.
B. Shakespeare.
C. Catholic tradition.
D. the Bible.
E. African myths.
Answer: D
74. Montaigne's essays helped introduced what new philosophical concept into European intellectual
tradition?
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A. Faith
B. Confidence
C. Skepticism
D. Racial awareness
E. Intolerance
Answer: C
75. Shakespeare's Othello reflects sixteenth century uncertainty about
A. politics.
B. race and religion.
C. nationalism.
D. gender.
E. warfare.
Answer: B
76. What was the Afroeurasian trade world like before the voyages of Columbus?
HTML Editor
Answer: Prior to Columbus's voyages, well-developed trade routes linked the peoples and products of
Africa, Asia, and Europe. The Indian Ocean was the center of the Afroeurasian trade world, ringed by
cosmopolitan commercial cities such as Mombasa in Africa, Calicut in India, and Malacca in Southeast
Asia. Among the goods traded were silk, porcelain, spices, textiles, gold, and slaves. Overall, Europe
played a minor role in the Afroeurasian trade world because it did not produce many products desired
by Eastern elites. Nevertheless, Europeans—especially Venetian and Genoese merchants—sought to tap
into the goods and wealth of Afroeurasian commerce.
77. Why and how did Europeans undertake ambitious voyages of expansion?
HTML Editor
Answer: A revival of populations and economies after the time of the Black Death created markets for
spices and other goods from the East. In addition to searching for routes that would undo the Italian
and Ottoman dominance of trade in the East, Europeans were motivated by intellectual curiosity,
driving ambition, religious zeal, and a lack of opportunities at home. Strengthened monarchies
possessed sufficient resources to back ambitious seafarers like Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama,
and Ferdinand Magellan. Technological developments such as the invention of the caravel and magnetic
compass enabled Europeans to undertake ever more ambitious voyages. Driven by desires for conquest
and wealth, Europeans—first Hernando Cortés and then Francisco Pizarro—eventually penetrated
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farther into the New World than Columbus had.
78. How did conquest affect indigenous populations and bring about a new era of economic and
cultural exchange, commercial empires, and forced migrations?
HTML Editor
Answer: In the aftermath of conquest, the Spanish established new forms of governance to dominate
native peoples and exploit their labor. The arrival of Europeans also brought enormous population
losses to native communities, primarily through the spread of infectious diseases. Disease was one
element of the Columbian exchange, a complex transfer of germs, plants, and animals between the Old
and New Worlds. Although this exchange brought diseases to the Americas, it also gave both the New
and Old Worlds new crops that eventually altered consumption patterns internationally. These new
cultural linkages were part of the creation of the first truly global economy. Tragically, a major
component of global trade was the transatlantic slave trade, in which Europeans transported, under
horrific conditions, many thousands of Africans to labor in the sugar plantations and silver mines of the
New World. European nations vied for supremacy in global trade, with early Portuguese success in
India and Asia being challenged first by the Spanish and then by the Dutch, who took control of trade
with the East in the mid-seventeenth century.
79. How did new encounters shape cultural values and beliefs in Europe and the New World?
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Answer: Increased contact with the outside world led Europeans to develop new ideas about cultural
and racial differences. Europeans had long held negative attitudes about Africans; as the slave trade
grew, they began to express more rigid notions of racial inequality and to claim that Africans were
inherently suited for slavery. Most Europeans, with some important exceptions, shared such views. In
his essays, Michel de Montaigne challenged the idea that natives of the Americas were inferior
barbarians, while William Shakespeare's plays contain ambivalent attitudes toward complex
non-European characters. Religion became another means of cultural contact, as European missionaries
aimed to spread Christianity in the New World, with mixed results. Christianity was especially embraced
in Central and South America, where large-scale conversion led to the development of distinct and
enduring Catholic cultures. Missionaries were less successful in North America because of the distance
between settlements and the lesser integration of native populations into colonial society.
80. What products were transported on the Indian Ocean from the fifteenth through the seventeenth
centuries, and who was involved in the trade?
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Answer: European elites demanded spices to which they attributed various aphrodisiac and medicinal
qualities above and beyond their uses as flavorings and preservatives. Spices such as pepper, nutmeg,
and cloves grew in India and Southeast Asia. There was a demand throughout Eurasia for Chinese
porcelain and silks. Chinese elites were particularly interested in ivory and slaves from Africa as well as
peacocks and other exotica from India. India exported cotton textiles to Africa and even to Europe and
the Middle East. See section The Afroeurasian Trade World Before Columbus.
81. Compare and contrast the popular attitudes, behaviors, and practices regarding women in
Southeast Asia with Europe, India, and China.
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Answer: Women in Southeast Asia had higher status than women in Europe, India, or China. Because
women played a key role in planting and harvesting rice, they had economic influence which gave them
authority and power. The bride's price was given to the bride, not the groom or his family. Family
property belonged equally to both spouses, and all children inherited equally. See section The
Afroeurasian Trade World Before Columbus.
82. Explain the shift from employment of Slavic and Turkish slaves by Europeans to the employment
of Africans from south of the Sahara.
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Answer: In the Middle Ages, slaves for Europe came from the Balkans, Anatolia, and what is now
southern Russia (the northern shore of the Black Sea). The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople and
the Eastern Mediterranean cut Italian slave traders off from these sources of supply. The Portuguese
and Genoese development of sugar plantation agriculture used African slaves on islands in the
Mediterranean and Atlantic in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. After the depopulation of the
American coasts and Caribbean islands, Portuguese, Spanish, and Italian merchants imported Africans
to work sugar plantations and other economic enterprises in these areas. See sections The Afroeurasian
Trade World Before Columbus and The Impact of Conquest.
83. What are some of the technical developments that facilitated the exploration voyages of the
fifteenth and sixteenth century?
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Answer: In the fifteenth century, European explorers were introduced (or re-introduced) to navigation
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technology directly from the Arabs and indirectly from China, including an improved magnetic compass,
the astrolabe, sternpost rudder, the lateen sail, and better maps. See section The European Voyages of
Discovery.
84. What factors led Portugal to take the initial lead in the European entry into global trade?
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Answer: Portugal was a small and poor nation in western Europe and was historically overshadowed
by Spain. Limited in its access to the rest of western Europe, it turned westward to the Atlantic.
Because of its ocean coastline, the Portuguese had a long history of seafaring and navigation. In the
fifteenth century, exploration was also encouraged by Prince Henry, who sponsored expeditions down
the west coast of Africa. Portuguese goals included finding military glory, converting Muslims, and
finding gold. See section The European Voyages of Discovery.
85. Why was Columbus convinced he had reached Asia? What does this say about his goals?
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Answer: Because Columbus was convinced that his maps were accurate, and because he and his
sponsors were determined to locate an alternate route to the spice trade of Asia, Columbus was
convinced that he had located some small islands off the coast of Japan. His confidence in his beliefs
reveals that Columbus was focused on what could be economically exploited. See section The European
Voyages of Discovery.
86. Compare the European conquests of the Aztec and Incan empires.
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Answer: Cortés was able to conquer the Mexica Empire (the Aztecs) with a small force of six hundred
men. His main advantage was military superiority in cannon and horses. He also turned local peoples,
who had been exploited for sacrifices and tribute, against the Mexica. He was also aided by the
divisions among the Mexica council and was able to take the last Mexica emperor hostage. In
conquering the Inca, Pizarro was also able to take advantage of dissension, in that the Inca had just
suffered through five years of warfare for the throne. See section The European Voyages of Discovery.
87. Explain how the Spanish organized and ruled their new colonial holdings in the Americas.
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Answer: Spain granted the port of Seville a monopoly on New World trade, and created a Royal and
Supreme Council of the Indies with authority over colonial affairs. The New World holdings were divided
into two viceroyalties, which were administrative districts. Later two more viceroyalties were created.
In each, a viceroy, or governor, had military and civil authority on behalf of the Spanish monarchy. The
viceroy was assisted by a council he appointed, the audiencia, and by intendants, or royal
administrators who were directly loyal to the monarch, not the viceroy. Economically, the crown
granted conquerors an encomienda, or license to demand labor or tribute from native peoples. See
section The Impact of Conquest.
88. How were African slavery and sugar connected to the New World colonies of Spain and Portugal?
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Answer: When Spanish and Portuguese sugar plantations in the New World exhausted their native
labor supply (due to disease, overwork, and malnutrition), they turned to African slave labor. The
Portuguese had already been using African slave labor in Portugal and on the Canary and Madeira
Islands. Furthermore, Europeans were able to connect to the pre-existing African slave trade. Sugar
production was a particularly labor-intensive industry and required a large labor force. See section The
Impact of Conquest.
89. How did the Dutch create a trade empire in the seventeenth century?
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Answer: In the seventeenth century the Dutch already had an economy invested in trade and
commerce. They used their money to build a fleet of trade ships and created the Dutch East India
Company to oversee their trade. The Dutch used a combination of approaches to convince Indonesian
rulers to grant them trade concessions, and eventually took political control over the region. See
section The Impact of Conquest.
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