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Learning Theories and Their Application for Online Learning
Molenda University
Introduction
What follows is a document created to help our faculty find ways to implement appropriate learning
theories as they transition from face-to-face delivery into an online environment. This reference tool
provides our faculty with research-based principles and specific instructional tactics for creating a
positive learning experience and maximizing the learning outcomes for our students.
This document begins with a compare/contrast matrix which highlights the similarities and differences
between each learning theory. This is followed by a more detailed overview of each individual learning
theory, and ends with examples of how to successfully apply each learning theory in an online setting.
We encourage our faculty to take the examples in this document, build on them and share them with
others in our online wiki.
Our University is committed to facilitating our students’ successful completion of their degrees and
programs. To that end, we strive to address academic as well as student support services, both of
which can positively increase the success of our students. We have addressed pedagogy by rigorously
developing pre-defined learning outcomes for our entire curriculum which will be implemented this
fall in both our online courses as well as our traditional face-to face classes.
Research has shown that online delivery of learning, if effectively designed and taught, can lead to
equally strong student learning outcomes as face-to-face delivery. We hope this guide aids in that
effort.
Transitioning to online instruction can be very overwhelming and we wish you, and your learners, the
best learning environment and experience possible!
Sincerely,
Patricia Delaney, Stacy McCormack, Jeff Pankin
Molenda University Instructional Design Team
Learning Theories Matrix for Online Learning
Radical Behaviorism
Definition of
Learning

Not specifically stated in this theory.


Learning is explained in terms of observable
behavior and environmental events
surrounding its occurrence.
Learning theory is based on how information
is received, organized, stored and retrieved
by the learner.

Influenced by Information Processing theory
of input, processing and output.

Key Ideas
Cognitivism
Skinner “defined learning as a more or less
permanent change in behavior that can be
detected by observing an organism over a
period of time.” (Driscoll, p. 34)

Instruction is focused arranging knowledge
of the real world to fit with how the mind
works and with learners prior knowledge
and experience so that learners build and
develop mental models of the world.
Constructivism

Learning theory is based on the learner’s
subjective perception and unique
construction of meaning which is influenced
by socio-economic biases.

The focus is on higher-order mental skills, in
which knowledge is constructed by the
learner rather than transmitted by the
teacher.

Social interaction is an important
component of creating and negotiating
meanings as is experiential learning.

Specific behavioral responses can be
extracted from learners by using stimuli
designed to strengthen desired behavior, or
weaken undesired behavior. (Driscoll, p. 36)

Learning is meaning-making. Learners are
constantly trying to make sense of their
world by revising and reorganizing their
mental models based on new information.

The learner is involved in actively
constructing knowledge for the purpose of
making “sense of their experiences”
(Driscoll, p. 385).

Behaviorist tactics and strategies should be
employed when you desire a specific
response to either be repeated or stopped
by your learners.

Context and experience are critical for
developing associations between new and
known information.


The instructor designs lessons which
organize information in ways which make
perception, association, storage and
retrieval consistent with how the mind
works.
The learner takes ownership for learning by
seeking out resources and solving authentic
problems in their quest to develop a
satisfactory mental structure, which they
test out with fellow learners and teachers.

When conflicting information and or
experiences are present, additional
information and/or experience is sought out
to restructure the knowledge.

Cognitive instructional design involves
selection and organization of key
information, linking new information to old,
and strengthening the new knowledge in
memory.
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Benefits and
Disadvantages
Benefits:
Benefits:
Benefits:

Used in many situations with repeatable
results.

The cognitive approach has a proven track
record in education.


Learning is easy to identify through simple
observation.

It is based in part on meeting the needs of
the individual learner.

Useful for students of all ages.

The theory has led to many useful tools for
instruction (taxonomies, lesson frameworks,
advance organizer, ISD models).
The constructivist approach can address
higher-order skills such as critical thinking,
reasoning, self-regulation and cognitive
flexibility, through mindful reflection, and
the ability to solve problems through selfdirection.

It supports active learning, ownership of
learning by the student, learning by
understanding versus memorization

It relies on the social environment and
negotiation to validate knowledge
Disadvantages:

Not transferable into learning situations with
higher-order thinking skills like creativity or
ill-structured learning environments that
provide little to no structure.

Disadvantages:

Role of the
Learner
It goes beyond behaviorism by considering
mental processes.
It may be less useful for learning to solve
complex problems, make evaluative
judgments, or to manage complex
interpersonal relationships (Ertmer &
Newby, 1993).
Disadvantages:

Because a constructivist approach provides
minimal structure for the learner, the
learner bears much of the responsibility for
learning; if the learner does not have the
ability to drive the learning, the learning
outcomes will not be achieved.
The learner:
The learner:
The learner:

is active in the environment

is actively engaged


consequences that follow behavior
determine whether it is repeated or stopped

makes meaning based on current knowledge
and experience
is actively involved in constructing
knowledge and meaning and extends this
knowledge out into the world

takes in new information and makes
associations with what is already known

uses social interaction with peers and
teachers to test out meaning and
contributes to learning
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Role of the
Instructor
When to Use
Resources
The instructor:
The instructor:
The instructor:

identifies learning goals



determines contingencies of reinforcements
is informed about the learner’s prior
knowledge and experience

implements program of behavior change


revises all of these with the learner’s
responses
conducts content analyses, organizes,
chunks and sequences information to aid the
learner in encoding new knowledge by
making associations with what is already
known
provides complex and authentic learning
situations that challenge the learner to
identify and solve problems

supports the learners’ efforts by encouraging
ownership in learning and encouraging them
to think self-critically

creates opportunities for collaborative
learning, apprenticeships, discovery learning,
and experiential learning using tools such as
simulations and games, blogs, microworlds,
and wikis
This approach is useful when teaching lowerlevel cognitive skills such as concept learning,
making associations, and performing multi-step
procedures (Molenda, presentation week 3)

gauges the learner’s success and offers
feedback and additional instruction to guide
learners to make appropriate connections

directs attention to relevant cues

provide opportunities for practice and
feedback on making cognitive connections
A cognitive approach may be used to teach facts,
concepts, principles, procedures and solving
well-formed problems.
A constructivist approach may be used when the
learner has a high level of knowledge in the
subject or task. This approach should not be
used when teaching a task that requires
consistent and repeatable execution.
Teaching Machines (1926)
Nine Events of Instruction (Gagne)
Constructivist Prescriptions (Driscoll)
Personalized System of Instruction (1968)
Cognitive Instructional Design Model (Silber &
Foshay)
Sociolinguistic Theory of Experientialism
(Lakoff)
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Bloom)
Epistemology of Radical Constructivism
(Glaserfeld)
Computer-Based Instruction
Advance Organizers (Ausubel)
First Principles of Instruction (Merrill)
5-Star Guide (Merrill)
Page 3
Theorists
Watson- 1910-1930’s (promoter and leader of
behavioristic psychology, conditioning,
stimulus and response)
Piaget – 1930’s (assimilation, accommodation,
developmental stages of thinking, active
learning)
Piaget – 1930’s (cognitive and developmental
perspectives, knowledge restructuring,
contextual learning)
Guthrie-1930’s (classical conditioning)
Vygotsky – 1920’s (socio-cultural interaction,
language involved in thinking process)
Vygotsky - 1920’s (socio-cultural approach to
learning emphasizing social and cultural social
roles and rules and the discussion and
negotiation of one’s mental structures with
others)
Tolman-1930’s (cognitive aspects of learning)
Hull-1930’s (stimulus-response conditioning by
repeated need-satisfaction)
Bruner – 1960’s (learning is meaning making,
quest to make sense of one’s world,
constructionism)
Skinner-1960’s (development of behavior
modification systems, programmed
instruction)
Shiffrin – 1960’s (structure of human memory
as sensory memory, short-term, and long-term
memory)
Anderson – 1970’s (expanded schema theory
based on Piaget’s assimilation and
accommodation)
Bruner – 1960’s (learners as active
constructers of knowledge within a socioculture to make meaning of things; importance
of language in constructing inner worlds)
Dewey – 1930’s (philosophical influence)
Glasersfeld – various dates (applications in
mathematics and science education)
Derrida – 1960’s (deconstruction)
Page 4
What is Behaviorism?
In behaviorism learning theory, conditions are designed where learners are either continually positively
reinforced or negatively reinforced when performing a particular task. Behaviorists desire to create a
specific conditioned response to stimuli, and this response (a “relatively permanent change in behavior”,
Driscoll, p. 52)) is then considered learning.
“B.F. Skinner viewed a curriculum as the formation of behavioral objectives and described the teacher as
one “who arranges the contingencies of reinforcement” whereby the learner is conditioned to perform
specified, quantifiable, terminal behaviors.” [Saettler, p. 288]
Behaviorists view specific desired responses (also known as operant behaviors) to stimuli as learning.
The act of creating these learning responses is known as behavior management or behavior
modification. These responses can either be positively reinforced (thus resulting in a strengthening of a
particular response through the use of a satisfying stimulus) or negatively reinforced (thus resulting in a
strengthening of a particular response through the use of an aversive stimulus) (Driscoll, pp. 37-39). In
order to weaken undesirable responses, punishment and/or reinforcement removal (extinction,
response cost, or timeout) can be employed.
The process of teaching behaviors can be done through strategies called shaping or chaining.
Maintaining behaviors can be encouraged through the use of fixed ratio, fixed interval, variable ratio, or
variable interval schedules. To begin a new behavior management program, the following steps are
essential:
Step 1: Set behavioral goals.
 Observe the learner to provide a baseline of behavior.

Determine behavior to be changed and what change is desired.

Set behavioral goals and determine requirements for behavior maintenance.
Step 2: Determine appropriate reinforcers.
 Select reinforcers that are either positive or negative.

Effective reinforcers may be difficult to determine.
Step 3: Select procedures for changing behavior.
 Strengthen: reinforcers (positive or negative) are used.

Teach: use strategies like shaping, chaining, or fading.

Maintain: determine reinforcement schedule to produce desirable behavior.

Reduce/weaken: use strategies like punishment, response cost, timeout, or extinction.
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Step 4: Implement procedures and record results.
 Observe learners for efficacy of behavior change related to baseline.
Step 5: Evaluate progress and revise as necessary.
 Determine if program needs to be revised or continued as determined.

Problems could result from procedures, selection of reinforcers, etc. Modify as appropriate.

Continue to revise and monitor as needed until desired results are achieved.
Adapted from Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Radical behaviorism. In Psychology of learning for instruction
(3rd ed.) (p. 59). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Fred Keller’s Personalized System of Instruction (PSI), proposed in 1968, is a course design strategy
grounded in behaviorist strategies (Driscoll, p. 59). The characteristics of PSI are the following:
o
Emphasis on individual study.
o
Self-pacing.
o
Unit mastery requirement.
o
Use of proctors.
o
Supplementary instructional techniques. (Driscoll, pp. 59-60)
To improve upon the results found when PSI first began, many instructors recommended more
moderate levels of mastery be set, alternative instructional presentations be made available for some
students and limiting self-pacing to reduce procrastination be employed (Driscoll, pp. 60-61).
After PSI, behaviorist principles were then used in Computer-Based Instruction (CBI) with the invention
of the personal computer. Although initially most instructional software was specifically tailored for
“drill and practice on various academic skills” (Driscoll, p. 62), it continues to evolve and we now see
“simulations to enhance problem-solving, or tutorials in various subject matters” (Driscoll, p. 62).
Behaviorist strategies and tactics are employed with great success in many face-to-face learning
environments, and the online classroom is no different. Read the next section on examples to find
specific ways that you can integrate these strategies in your own class.
Page 6
General Suggestions for Behaviorist Approaches to Online Learning

Determine what is necessary for learners to repeat and/or cease

Decide on reinforcers that will modify learner behavior

Select the procedure that will encourage the desired behavior change

Implement, evaluate through observation, revise as necessary
Specific Examples

Require students to continue trying online homework problems over and over again until
problems are solved correctly. Credit will not be awarded until a correct solution is shown
(encouraging mastery learning).

Maintaining a score of 85% or higher on all exams makes the final exam optional (a negative
reinforcement as students may avoid an unpleasant experience).

Any homework assignments not turned in on time result in a score of zero (a punishment used
to deter an unwanted behavior).

Employing point deductions for late work is a punishment. By supplying a punishment, “the
individual administering punishment for some misbehavior does so with the expectation that
the behavior will stop and not be repeated” (Driscoll, p. 40).

Supplying praise when grading work and/or providing feedback is a positive reinforcement.
Praise is an example of a conditioned reinforcer known as a social reinforcer.

Providing grading rubrics for students to use when completing a task is a form of a contingency
contract. A contingency contract “sets out the terminal behavior the student is to achieve,
along with any conditions for achievement and the consequences for completion (or noncompletion) of the assigned tasks” (Driscoll, p. 59).

If using public discussion boards to discuss topics, instructors could give out “merit badges” for
students who go “above and beyond” with their contribution and post these merit badges and
the reasons for their distribution on the public discussion board for the class to see. This is
another form of praise (social reinforcer) for the student who displayed such behavior, and also
is an encouragement to others in the class to repeat the same behavior.

For completing all work on time, a reward could be given such as dropping a low quiz score. This
is an example of a negative reinforcement as the strategy is aimed at reducing the number of
late assignments submitted, rather than increasing the behavior.

Mastery learning can be used to encourage students to try again if their initial attempts were
unsatisfactory. This strategy works best if feedback from the instructor (a positive reinforcer)
can be provided to help the student to learn the material.
Page 7
What is Cognitivism?
Cognitivist learning theory is a model of how our brain receives information from our environment and
organizes it into useful knowledge. It attempts to explain what happens inside our mind as learning
occurs. It begins when sensory information, both visual and verbal is selectively perceived, continues
with an extremely short stay in a sensory store (1 second), then a longer stay in short-term memory (20
seconds) where associations are made with previous knowledge and information is encoded before
landing in long-term memory (Silber & Foshay, 2006). Mental models (schemas, scaffolds) are formed
based on our experience and context, our language and culture and the social feedback we receive and
the way in which we talk to ourselves.
These ideas were developed by early cognitivists Piaget and Vygotsky (Molenda, 2006). Piaget suggested
in the early 20th century that we assimilate information into our mental models and modify those
models to accommodate new information which does not fit (Molenda, 2006). Piaget also contributed
the idea of developmental levels of thinking.
Silber and Foshay discuss types of knowledge – declarative and procedural. These include facts,
concepts, principles, well-defined and ill-defined procedures and problem solving.
Cognitive instructional theory attempts to show how best to organize content in a manner which will
support the cognitive view of mental processing and would include, for example, focusing attention and
linking new information with existing knowledge as Foshay, Silber & Stelnicki, Gagne, and Ausubel
prescribe. (Silber & Foshay, 2006, Molenda, 2006). Cognitivists would feel absolutely comfortable
presenting an already constructed model the learner.
For cognitivists, promoting mental processing is paramount. Developing in learners the capabilities of
planning, goal setting and using appropriate organizational strategies are key instructional goals.
Learning to learn and self-reflection are also significant to cognitivist instruction. Feedback is essential to
determine how best to support learners to make appropriate mental connections. (Ertmer & Newby,
1993)
Course design framework:
From Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Cognitive information processing. In Psychology of learning for
instruction (3rd ed.) (pp. 71-110). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Step 1: Select
 Gain attention: explain, demonstrate, show a video of key concepts in lesson

WIIFM: Explain why the content is important

YCDI: instill confidence in the learner that they are capable of learning the content
Page 8
Step 2: Link
 Recall: review related content the learner already knows

Relate: relate new content to what the learner already knows
Step 3: Organize
 Specify the objectives: specify the behavior and knowledge to be learned

Structure the Content: organize the content into related chunks; present structure of entire
model

Text and illustrations: organize text and illustrations to assist assimilation of new material;
highlight key areas of text and illustrations
Step 4: Assimilate
 Present new knowledge: present new knowledge

Present Examples: offer a variety of real-life examples
Step 5: Strengthen
 Practice: have learner actively engage with the new knowledge

Feedback: report to learners where they have done well and clarify errors for them

Summary: present the structure and new knowledge again

Test: learners use the knowledge again to prove they have mastered it

On-the-job application: learners use new knowledge in lab, discussion group or project work
General Suggestions for Cognitivist Approaches to Online Learning

Focus learners attention on key ideas

Provide advance organizers to help learners prepare mentally for the for content

Break content into manageable units

Assess learning and provide feedback to help learners assimilate content
Specific Examples

Provide a detailed syllabus as an advance organizer. Include descriptions of content for each
week’s class. Be sure the syllabus is always available online.

For each class provide an overview of the major content and an outline of the topics to be
learned. Post this at least a week ahead of the class.

Begin class with a summary of the previous week’s content. Alternatively, have students build
the summary in a chat room or a wiki.
Page 9

Provide questions for learners to answer online about upcoming topics. Alternatively, have
students develop their own questions about upcoming content. Post the questions in a chat
room or wiki. Have students post answers.

Provide an online summary the week’s major points for the students. This may be emailed to
each student or posted in a Leaning Management System. Or, have students post online a
summary of their understanding of the week’s work which you can assess and provide feedback.

When creating PowerPoint slides highlight key points on the slide by color, bold, underline.
Show only the point under discussion and hide the other bullet points. Provide only useful and
not extraneous information.

Organize information into small chunks of 5-9 discrete ideas for students to deal with at any one
time.

Have students build a concept map using an online group outlining program like MindMeister
(http://www.mindmeister.com/).

Provide a detailed rubric for assignments. Use assignments to determine learners’ current
mental structures and how best to guide their learning.
Page 10
What is Constructivism?
Constructivist learning theory has its roots in multiple disciplines (cognitivist theories, psychology,
linguistics, and philosophy) and may be considered a branch of cognitivist learning theory and even a
collection of approaches. There is no one definition or label, however, there are several assumptions
that are generally accepted by those associated with the theory which we will discuss in this section.
Other terms that may refer to constructivist learning include Piaget’s constructivism, generative
learning, embodied cognition, situated cognition, cognitive flexibility (Driscoll, 2005).
Some of the major sources of constructivist theory include:
 Cognitivist theorists such as Piaget, Vygotsky, and Bruner focusing on the development of the
lifelong quest of learners to develop personal meanings from their experiences
 George Lakoff’s sociolinguistic theory of experientialism which describes the development of
abstract structures by connecting various structural frames
 Ernst von Glasersfeld’s epistemology of radical constructivism which emphasizes the subjectivity
of knowledge and its tenuous relationship with “reality”
 Postmodernism which acknowledges the filters of the learner’s own cultural and political biases
along with their experiences in the construction of knowledge which is subjective
 Psychologists and philosophers such as Dewey, James, Derrida, and Foucault
A summary of constructivist learning goals (Driscoll, 2000) and lesson frameworks (David Merrill, 2002)
are provided below.
Goals – the teacher will provide the overall learning framework while the learner will be encouraged
to take responsibility for their learning; the learning should be applied in realistic contexts and the
learner will reflect on the what s/he has learned and revise their mental constructions as
appropriate.
The cognitive skills developed through this approach include:
1. Problem solving
2. Reasoning
3. Critical thinking
4. Active and reflective use of knowledge
Course design framework:
Adapted from Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Radical behaviorism. In Psychology of learning for instruction
(3rd ed.) (p. 393). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Step 1: Provide context
Activate: remind learner of what they already know about the knowledge or skill.
Step 2: Practice in different contexts
Embed learning in complex and realistic problems to be solved: provide the learner with multiple
contexts and scenarios in which to practice problem solving.
Page 11
Collaborate with others: create group projects so that the learners will view the problem solving
from multiple perspectives and be required to reconcile others’ views and findings in creating a
new mental framework.
Encourage practice in different authentic contexts: this learning condition will increase the
mastery and fluency of the learner as different sensory modes and contexts are experienced.
Step: 3 Encourage ownership and self-reflection by learner
Create larger framework: provide the learner with the larger framework in which new learning
will be created.
Encourage reflection: students should be active in assessing their own learning needs and
finding ways to satisfy those needs.
Ask learners to reflect on their evolution of their mental constructions: learners should adopt a
critical view of how their learning takes place, e.g., how their socio-economic experiences have
shaped their assumptions, so that they can step back and decide whether different and new
assumptions would be more meaningful and useful.
The increased use of the computer and the World Wide Web have coincided with the increased
acceptance of constructivism as an important theory in instructional design as evidenced by these
methods of instruction (Driscoll, 2005): microworlds, problem-based learning, collaborative learning,
Bubble Dialogue, collaborative learning, problem-based learning, etc.
General Suggestions for Constructivist Approaches to Online Learning

Require and encourage participation in discussion forums

Encourage the student to go beyond the course readings to learn about a particular subject and
share these findings with course participants

Do not highlight the critical issues in a problem

Ask questions of the students throughout the problem solving process
Specific Examples

Ask students in a course on improving talent acquisition to review several real-life company
websites and then compare those to their own and answer the question: How would you
improve your company’s website

Ask the students in an investing class to create their own investment fund for their university
and to recommend a portfolio allocation plan for the next three years; compare these with the
portfolio allocation plans of other public, private, large, and small universities and develop
rationales for the differences or question the differences

Ask students who are running business development departments to develop the business plan
for their own company to increase revenue by 10% each year for the next three years
Page 12
The absence of a single definition has made it difficult to study constructivist pedagogy and develop
evidence to support theories about its usefulness. It is generally believed that constructivism is not
useful where instructional scaffolds are needed, e.g., motivation is an issue or the learner does not have
any prior task knowledge.
Conclusion
Your lesson frameworks should draw from all three of the learning theories outlined in this document.
The successful achievement of the course learning outcomes depends on your skillful choice of the
instructional strategies depending on the level of task knowledge and cognitive processing required by
the task (Ertmer and Newby, 1993).
The resources we have developed for our faculty teaching to online environments include:
o
Definition of pre-determined learning outcomes
o
Social networking and simulations tools available on our learning management system
o
Our online training course
o
This reference guide
o
Our online faculty communities of practice social networks
It is our belief that no one theory is the complete answer for every situation. It is critical that you
examine your learners, the content, and the learning objectives to choose the appropriate theory or
theories to employ in an eclectic approach. Generally, the Behaviorist approaches are successful with
teaching lower level cognitive skills such as remembering facts or discriminating among examples and
non-examples. Cognitivist approaches are useful for developing mid-level cognitive skills such learning
principles or procedures. And, Constructivist approaches work best to develop higher-level cognitive
skills such as solving complex and ill-structured problems in authentic situations.
Your active participation and engagement with these resources along with your personal explorations
will increase your proficiency in the development of powerful frameworks for instruction in an online
environment. We encourage you to develop and share your own examples of a variety of instructional
tactics and lesson frameworks that have proven successful in different situations with your peers and
our instructional design team.
Page 13
References
Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Cognitive information processing. In Psychology of learning for instruction (3rd
ed.) (pp. 71-110). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Constructivism. In Psychology of learning for instruction (3rd ed.) (pp. 384-410).
Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Radical behaviorism. In Psychology of learning for instruction (3rd ed.) (pp. 29-69).
Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Driscoll, M. P. (2007). Psychological foundations of instructional design. In R. A. Reiser (Ed.), Trends and
issues in instructional design and technology (2nd ed.) (pp. 36-44). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Education, Inc.
Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical
features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 50-72.
Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved October 5th, 2011, from http://www.merriam-webster.com/
Merrill, M. D. (2002). First principles of instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development,
50(3).
Molenda, M. (2006). Module F: Cognitivism & constructivism, Part 1 - Descriptive theories. Bloomington,
IA: Indiana University.
Molenda, M. (2006). Module F: Cognitivism & constructivism, Part 2 - Prescriptive theories.
Bloomington, IA: Indiana University.
Molenda, M. (2008). The programmed instruction era: When effectiveness mattered. TechTrends, 52(2),
52-58.
Saettler, P. (1990). Behaviorism and educational technology. In The evolution of American educational
technology (pp. 286-317). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.
Silber, K. H., & Foshay, W. R. (2006). Designing instructional strategies: A cognitive perspective. In J. A.
Pershing (Ed.), Handbook of human performance technology (3rd ed.) (370-413). San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Wilson, B. G. (1996). What is a constructivist learning environment? In B. G. Wilson (Ed.), Constructivist
learning environments (pp. 3-8). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Page 14
Glossary
Behaviorist Terminology
Association
The process of forming mental connections or bonds between
sensations, ideas, or memories.
Chaining
Establish complex behaviors made up of discrete, simpler behaviors
already known to the learner.
Conditioned Reinforcers
Those that acquire their reinforcement value through association with
a primary reinforcer.
Contingency Contracts
An instructional application that may make use of both behavior
modification and instructional objectives.
Extinction
Previously existing contingencies of reinforcement are taken away,
thereby causing a reduction in the frequency of a response.
Fixed Interval Schedule
Reinforcement is delivered after some fixed period of time.
Fixed Ratio Schedule
Requires the learner to make so many responses before
reinforcement is delivered.
Learned Helplessness
The passive acceptance of events seemingly beyond one’s control.
Negative Reinforcement
Strengthens a response through the removal of an aversive stimulus
contingent upon that response.
Operant Behavior
Behavior that is emitted in reaction to a stimulus.
Personalized System Of
Instruction (PSI)
Also known as the Keller Plan, proposed by Fred Keller in 1968, an
approach to college instruction based on behavioral principles.
Positive Reinforcement
The presentation of a reinforce (satisfying stimulus) contingent upon a
response which results in the strengthening of that response.
Primary Reinforcers
One whose reinforcement value is biologically determined.
Punishment
The presentation of an aversive stimulus contingent upon a response
that reduces the rate of that response.
Response
Something constituting a reply or reaction.
Respondent Behavior
Behavior that is elicited involuntarily in reaction to a stimulus.
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Response Cost
The removal of reinforcement contingent upon behavior.
Shaping
The reinforcement of successive approximations to a goal behavior.
Stimulus
Something that rouses a particular activity (called a response).
Timeout
Removing the learner, for a limited time, from the circumstances
reinforcing the undesired behavior.
Variable Interval Schedule
The time required for reinforcement is varied from reinforcement to
reinforcement.
Variable Ratio Schedule
The number of responses required for reinforcement is varied from
reinforcement to reinforcement.
Cognitivist Terminology
Accommodation
Process by which new structures are created for new information
which cannot be assimilated.
Assimilation
Process by which new information is integrated with existing
knowledge.
Chunking
Building larger units of related information from discrete items.
Concept
A unit of meaning based on other units which serve as the concept’s
characteristics.
Declarative Knowledge
“Knowing that” as opposed to procedural knowledge “knowing how”.
Fact
Discrete unit of information.
Long-Term Memory
Stores information in chunks based on the context in which
information was encountered; new information is either assimilated
or accommodated; information stored in linear or spatial codes which
are grouped in structures by relationships.
Memory Strength
The measure of how quickly stored information is retrieved.
Mental Models
An individual’s explanation of their thought process about something
in the world.
Procedural Knowledge
“Knowing how” as opposed to declarative knowledge “knowing
what”.
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Procedure
A course of action.
Schema
A mental structure which represents a part of the world.
Sensory Stores
Hold almost complete records of what we perceive but lose
information after one second.
Short-Term Memory
The area where we rehearse and build associations for new
information; may last 20 seconds; may have separate areas for
rehearsing verbal and spatial information.
Constructivist Terminology
Anchored Instruction
All of the elements of the instruction are anchored in some concrete
shared experience (field trip, viewing of a video documentary,
interactive simulation game).
Authentic Assessment
The learner is asked to perform real-world tasks to demonstrate
meaningful application of knowledge and skills.
Coaching And Mentoring
Instructing through advice and supervision rather than through
didactic instruction.
Cognitive Apprenticeship
Novices work in teams on projects or problems with close scaffolding
of an expert.
Collaborative Learning
Learners must work together and share viewpoints to reach a learning
goal.
Goal-Based Scenarios
Story based problem situation in which the learner is asked to achieve
some goal or solve a problem related to the story line.
Inquiry-Based Or
Discovery Learning
Learners are guided to explore questions for themselves and seek
answers.
Microworlds
Computer based immersive environments.
Problem-Based Or
Experiential Learning
Explore for solutions to a real or realistic problem.
Reflection
The learner is asked to think about and verbalize their thought
processes.
Situated Cognition
All knowledge is specific not generic; all learning is a function of the
specific context in which the learning took place.
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