Download Final Annotated Source List

Binta Ka
Dec. 18, 2013
Period 2
Annotated Source List
"Advertising: The Basics." SBA.gov. US Small Business Administration, n.d. Web.
14 Nov. 2013. <http://www.sba.gov/content/advertising-basics>.
This source lays out the basic framework of how an advertisement is developed.
Businesses choose this option to establish or maintain an identity, attract new customers,
and/or promote their product(s), and they must complete five steps in order to create an
effective advertisement. They must start by designing the goals they have for the
advertisement, such as increase in revenue or acquisition of a new market. This is
followed by an evaluation of the product where they select the product’s best features as
well as their audience; it is best that they imagine the ideal customer that they are
targeting and decide how to make the product attractive to this person. This step is
followed by investigation of the industry, market, and intended audience. The research
must be extensive in order to prevent the failure of their advertising and may be
conducted with a variety of resources: university studies, trade organizations, surveys, or
they may choose to hire a professional market research firm, though the latter option is
often quite expensive. Once the information is gathered, they must then decide on what
media they will use for their advertisement, whether it be in a magazine, on the radio,
across a billboard, whichever would best reach their audience. The final step before
designing the advertisement is to choose a theme under which all of their advertisements
will fit; cohesion is important when establishing or maintaining an image. The
advantages of this approach is that businesses have power over how, when, and where
their advertisements are shown and can tailor them precisely to their audience. However,
multiple advertisements may need to be run simultaneously to save money; this ensures
that this entire process will not need to be repeated for each advertisement, but since
advertising through mass media only allows for one-way communication, there is little
opportunity for feedback before the ads are run.
This source was extremely helpful because it details the steps and processes that
contribute to a successful advertisement. It was interesting that there is an entire step
devoted purely to learning more about the audience, while other sources suggest that little
consideration is put into analyzing the audience and that this lack of commitment is what
causes ad failure. However, even with the commitment of time and resources to the
analysis of the audience, advertisements may still fail. This could be due to the neglect of
this step if businesses choose the lower cost options instead of hiring a market research
firm or otherwise do not research as thoroughly as required.
Baumgartner, Jennifer J. "Whitewash." Psychology Today. N.p., 5 Aug. 2011. Web.
3 Sept. 2013. <http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-psychology-dress/
201108/whitewash>.
Whitewashing is the practice where European features are toted as the societal
standard of beauty, and African-American features are considered to be “less attractive.”
As a result, there are few black role models in media and those that are present have
“Eurocentric” features that fit this standard. Psychologically, this creates a sense of
inferiority amongst people of color. This way of thinking is transferred primarily through
media, family, and peers; after the media presents this anglicized image, it is the family
and peer group that reinforce this standard and the sentiment becomes internalized. In
order to fight this on an individual level, one must acknowledge these views, and reevaluate whether these are his or her personal views or those imposed on him/her. On a
societal scale, the standards of beauty must become globalized to accept those that do not
fit the “lighter is prettier” standard.
This article served to properly define whitewashing, and the ways it has
proliferated in today’s society. It offers a sociological standpoint on the issue as it
explains how beauty standards are born in the media and reinforced by the community,
which in turn leads to internalization. It is this internalization that makes whitewashing
not as apparent, and causes the reader to realize the severity of this issue: it has reached
the point where one does not even realize it is happening.
Carson, Candance Camillia. "Race & Gender Stereotypes: A Content Analysis of
Magazine Advertising." MS thesis. The Pennsylvania State University
Schreyer Honors College, 2011. Schreyer Honors College. Web. 24 Oct. 2013.
<https://honors.libraries.psu.edu/paper/1872/936>.
This study examines the media as, not a source of stereotypes, but as an indicator
of stereotypes present within society and an influence on their spread. It discusses the
long history of stereotypes in media and the studies conducted to explore how advertising
reflected the attitudes of society. A stereotype is defined as the characterization of a
group of people based on little or no fact. Minorities are stereotyped through their
exclusion from/negative portrayal in the media; in theory, they should be depicted in
advertisements proportionately to their presence in the population. It was found that not
only were blacks and Latinos generally underrepresented and whites and Asians
overrepresented, but that the amount of representation was dependent upon the type of
advertising. Whites are generally shown to be clean, wealthy, and familial, while blacks
and Latinos are depicted as unhealthy and poor. Asians are portrayed as the “model
minority,” as wealthy, successful, assimilated individuals. The study explores the effects
of these stereotypes by following two theories: the cultivation theory, which states that,
over time, media begins to shape the reality of its viewers, and the expectancy theory,
which states that as viewers develop negative expectations, they behave according to
these expectations.
This source is extremely helpful because it examined stereotypes specifically in
the context of advertising and explains their effects. Most of the studies cited are in
communications, which will be my next area of research because it is in that area where
marketing and sociology meet.
Chen, Christine. "Minority on Minority Discrimination: Impact of Majority Social
Norm Perception." MS thesis. Carnegie Mellon U, 2010. Carnegie Mellon:
Research Showcase. Web. 14 Oct. 2013. <http://repository.cmu.edu/>.
This study examines the effects that social norms and environment have on
discrimination between minorities. Discrimination was defined as the expression of
prejudice, and prejudice was defined as the judgment of an individual or group purely
based on the group(s) to which they belong. The primary factor that impacts the level of
discrimination is social approval; individuals will adjust to and internalize social norms in
order to please the majority and in doing so, decrease discrimination against themselves.
As a result of this behavior, more research is being conducted to study what effect this
has on inter-minority interaction. This particular study found that discrimination between
minorities was dependent on gender and group composition. It was found that the
perception of social norms changes with gender: males are more likely than females to
feel that those around them are prejudiced, and as a result, are more likely to discriminate
in order to decrease this discrimination against themselves. It was also found that when
whites were present in the testing group, the minority members were likely to conform to
their social norms and become more discriminatory. This was true even when the racial
mix was close to being half White and half their own race, though in that situation, the
effect was less dramatic.
This source is particularly helpful because it is the first to examine how social
norms impact minorities’ interactions with one another and not in the larger scope of
society. In doing so, it helps exhibit the extent to which these norms have been
internalized, which serves to better diagnose the severity of the issue.
Chow, Kat. "Studying How the Blind Perceive Race." Code Switch: Frontiers of
Race, Culture and Ethnicity. National Public Radio, 29 Sept. 2013. Web. 2
Oct. 2013. <http://www.npr.org/blogs/codeswitch/2013/09/29/226833165/
studying-how-the-blind-perceive-race>.
This article discusses a study conducted to determine the blinds’ perception of
race. While many people believe that the blind are unaware of race and that this makes
them “morally superior,” this misconception was disproven when Osagie Obasagie, a law
professor at Harvard, interviewed people who had been blind since birth. These
interviews revealed that the blind are not any more or less racist than sighted people, and
that their prejudices grew from the same social factors that influence the rest of the
population. Those interviewed reported that they used cues to create an idea of a person’s
race, such as touching hair for texture or listening to their voice or accent. Society seems
to have this idea of “color-blindness,” a term that suggests race is merely a superficial
feature and that it is not a political or social issue. However, the fact that the blind are
able to perceive race disproves this.
The findings of this article offer a new perspective because it analyzes racial bias
among the blind, which dismisses claims that race is only skin deep. By knowing that
race is not visual, it makes it easier to analyze how and why prejudices are formed. By
better understanding the origins of racial prejudices, it will then be possible to formulate
a solution to minimize the effects of negative influences and magnify the effects of
positive influences.
Cornell University. "Do Purpose-Driven People Handle Diversity Better?"
Futurity. Futurity, 4 Sept. 2013. Web. 23 Oct. 2013.
<http://www.futurity.org/purpose-driven-people-handle-diversity-better/>.
The US is steadily becoming more and more multicultural and this diversity prompted
Cornell University to conduct a study examining its effects. They surveyed college
students aboard a Chicago train concerning their sense of purpose and found that those
who reported having a lesser sense of purpose had negative moods that increased with the
ratio of different ethnicities on the train. This occurred regardless of race, familiarity
with the area, or perceived safety. Conversely, it was found that those who reported a
greater sense of purpose were immune to these effects. These results suggest that
negative reactivity to diversity is not due to interactions between people, but prompted by
our natural response to feel uncomfortable in such situations. However, those who are
more self-confident are able to build resilience to this adversity and thus feel more
comfortable than their less confident counterparts. In light of this outcome, the study
suggests that society create more opportunities for people so that they have an increased
sense of purpose and thus, are not affected negatively by diversity.
This source is helpful because it is the first to examine the effects of diversity, not a
lack thereof. It was especially interesting that those who were surer of their selves were
less affected by diversity because other previously analyzed case studies suggest that
stereotypes arise out of insecurity; could this suggest that without insecurity, prejudice
would be eliminated?
Demby, Gene. "What Did Your Parents Tell You about Race?" Code Switch: Frontiers
of Race, Culture, and Ethnicity. National Public Radio, 21 Sept. 2013. Web.
17 Oct. 2013. <http://www.npr.org/blogs/codeswitch/2013/09/21/224527919/
what-did-your-parents-tell-you-about-race>.
This article discusses the importance of parents addressing the issue of race when
rearing their children, despite the perceived difficulty of the topic. It was found that when
parents directly address the issue, going beyond the general concept of racial equality, the
children are less likely to become racially prejudiced. When kids are raised in a
“colorblind” household, it has the opposite effect; by not addressing the issue, race
becomes a taboo topic. It was also found that parents of color are three times as likely to
discuss race with their children, though many of these lessons tend to be negative. Some
colored parents warn their children that they will have to work harder than their white
counterparts due to the color of their skin. First generation immigrants often instruct their
children to abandon their mother culture in favor of assimilation.
This article is helpful because it addressed the role of parenting in the
development of racial prejudice, which has just as much, if not more, of an impact on the
development of children’s views. When it is not addressed, children may turn to other
sources to learn about race, which would increase the media’s influence.
Fisher, Lucina. "Is Hollywood Whitewashing Ethnic Roles?" ABC News 4 June 2008:
n. pag. ABC News. Web. 3 Sept. 2013. <http://abcnews.go.com>.
The lack of representation of minorities in Hollywood has long been an issue and
dates back more than a century. While before black and Asian actors may have been
excluded due to pervasive racism, now they are excluded for something that has more
grip than that ideology: money. Producers are so concerned with making money from
their films that they are willing to compromise the “ethnicity and reality of the story” by
giving white actors/actresses the roles to play colored characters. While this is generally
done with famous actors, like Angelina Jolie, to catch viewers’ attention, they all tend to
be white, which furthers the theory that this is purely based on appearance. Giving an
actress a cornrow wig or putting dark makeup on an actor may change them cosmetically,
but these racial indicators cannot be used to change the fact that the actor is white. Those
who oppose this trend believe that the actor’s appearance should be as close as possible
to that of the character. This is generally done in independent films, but those films do
not do as well in the box office, so again, it comes down to money.
This article is helpful because it discusses how the cinematic industry is affected
by marketing. Producers may decide to swap an obscure actor/actress for a star, such as
Angelina Jolie, which is understandable because it is the prestige of the cast that will
draw in viewers. However, when a black actor is fired in favor of a white actor of the
same status, it indicates the racial prejudice present in the film industry. It is further
harmful when white actors/actresses are altered to fit the stereotype of a minority in order
to play a role that should have been given to an actor of that minority.
Gates, Sara. "Impact of Latino Stereotypes: Latin Americans Viewed Most
Negatively in Immigrant Comparison Study." Huffington Post 21 Aug. 2012: n.
pag. Huff Post: Latino Voices. Web. 23 Oct. 2013.
<http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/08/21/
latino-stereotypes-impact-negative-study_n_1818087.html>.
Like any other stereotype, immigrant stereotypes are a conglomeration of half-truths
and exaggerations though they are especially based on the culture/heritage of the group.
They can also be formed when immigration attitudes are filtered through racial
stereotypes despite the fact that race and immigration are often separate. Of sizable US
minorities, Latinos are the only race associated with immigration and negatively so. They
were rated most negatively in effects on school quality, violence, and unemployment,
which are three of the five negative effects of immigration. This is likely due to the racial
stereotyping of Latinos, as shown in the fact that they were also rated most negatively in
wealth, intelligence, dependence on welfare, violence, and conformity.
This source is helpful because it offers explanation as to why prejudice against
Latinos remains so prevalent and how some seek justification; they are seen as being
negative influences on society, and for that, their numbers should be controlled. This is
especially obvious in the fact that discussions about immigration frequently do not often
include immigrants from Africa, Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. Minorities from
other regions do not bear as much as weight from immigrant stereotypes because they are
not so closely tied with stereotypes of their races. This suggests that the relationship
between immigrant and racial stereotypes does affect the level of racial prejudice against
a group.
Green, Laura. "Stereotypes: Negative Racial Stereotypes and Their Effect on
Attitudes toward African-Americans." Perspectives on Multiculturalism and
Cultural Diversity XI.1 (1999): n. pag. VCU Counseling Services. Web. 25
Sept. 2013. <http://www.ferris.edu/htmls/news/jimcrow/links/VCU.htm>.
This article explores how the racial stereotyping of African Americans has
developed throughout American history and continues to have an impact on today’s racial
prejudices. Some stereotypes, such as those of Sambo and the Mammy, were developed
to justify slavery by suggesting that African Americans were hapless, and without their
white masters, had no purpose. Others, like the Savage and Sapphire were developed to
support theories that African Americans were an inferior race. The Savage was a crazed,
violent black man who had to be kept under control by whites, which supported the racial
violence that was rampant following emancipation. Sapphire was a bossy, stubborn
woman who was constantly emasculating her husband, and while this was not
particularly harmful for females, it served to further suggest that black males were
inferior because they could not keep control of their wives, unlike their white
counterparts. One stereotype that was particularly harmful to black women was that of
Jezebel, the Mulatto harlot whose European features were highly attractive to white
males; this stereotype was used to justify sexual violence against and the rape of black
women, who were supposedly at fault for tempting their assailants. While these
stereotypes are not as prominent today, they remain and have been joined by two modern
stereotypes: that of the criminal, violent, aggressive black man and the dominant, strong,
but lazy black woman. The consequences of the centuries-long exposure to such harmful
stereotypes are that the majority of both blacks and whites believe there are inborn
differences between the two races, and most of those endorsing these harmful stereotypes
were people who had not earned a high school degree and African Americans themselves.
This suggests that these self-stereotypes have, over time, been internalized.
This article is useful because it goes into detail about the racial stereotypes that
are developed and why; in the case of African Americans, most are developed to justify
their oppression. The stereotypes arose from social issues, which is likely true for other
minorities as well despite, whether it is the repercussions of immigration in the case of
Hispanics or the US’ educational inferiority to China in the case of Asians. It is important
to know that stereotypes arise from justification for social issues because these complex
issues are often not taken into consideration when examining the stereotypes and would
help explain why the stereotypes continue to live despite efforts to end racial prejudice.
*Gosin, Monika. Personal interview. 18 Nov. 2013.
In this interview with Dr. Gosin, the issues of the introduction, progression, and
effects of racial stereotyping were discussed. Stereotypes were introduced into
entertainment with minstrelsy, the first form of popular entertainment in America. Its
popularity demonstrated the importance of racial images in entertainment, a trend that
continues today. This began a tradition of using Black stereotypes to sell products, which
has now translated into the “denigration” of Black people and is shown through the
practice of whitewashing. The prevalence of whitewashing serves to lower the selfesteem of Blacks who do not fit this image. The effects of this sense of inferiority can be
seen through the prevalence of bleaching cream and hair straightening advertisements in
Black magazines. While there are those who fight this Eurocentric standard beauty,
opposite views are seldom found in commercial spaces, which cater to the mainstream.
The media does not challenge stereotypes for fear of losing its audience; by not
challenging them, the media perpetuates those stereotypes. Since the stereotyping of
Blacks has been occurring for decades, it is no longer challenged and instead taken as
fact; because of their majority status, Whites’ views on Blacks spread to those living
overseas as well as the Blacks themselves. Racist ideology and racial discrimination have
been present throughout the nation’s history, though they rarely remain in the same form.
This repetition can be stopped if people learn from past mistakes and finally solve the
issues, but this progress is halted by the upper strata’s desire to maintain the current
power balance. There has always been backlash against race-related policies because the
privileged claim rights infringement, a view that derives from the fact that a completely
equitable society would deprive the privileged of their privileges.
This interview serves to better connect the historical and social aspects of racial
stereotyping and supports evidence found in previous sources. This source will be useful
in addressing the effects of the power hierarchy on the spread of stereotypes, which many
other sources had not directly addressed; as the majority adopts a view of a minority, that
view spreads to other groups, including the minority themselves. However, there was
possible bias when discussing why stereotypes remain so prevalent in media; Dr. Gosin,
like many other Americans, views advertising as being driven primarily by economic
interests, though there are many other factors at work.
Hunter, Margaret. "The Persistent Problem of Colorism: Skin Tone, Status, and
Inequality." Sociology Compass 1.1 (2007): 237-54. PDF file.
Colorism, or color stratification, is a sub category of racism where people of color
are treated differently based on their skin tone. Those of lighter skin tones frequently
have advantages over those with darker skin tones in the areas of income, education,
housing, and marriage. While racism is based primarily on one’s race/ethnic identity,
colorism is based purely on skin tone; darker Latinos, Blacks, and Asians face more
frequent and intense discrimination than their lighter counterparts. This is due to
“bleaching syndrome,” the result of colonialism and slavery globally, in which white
ideals are internalized. While those of lighter skin tones are often viewed as more
attractive, friendly, and intelligent, they face the issue of not being as “ethnically
authentic” as those of darker skin tones. This causes conflict within minorities as darker
members shun the lighter members because they feel threatened, causing the lighter
members to feel threatened/unwelcome. This creates a paradox; while light members of a
minority are excluded from their racial group, they are lauded above darker members in
mainstream society. The issue of colorism is difficult to battle because the images that
support the system are found everywhere, and the effects are real; there is an evident gap
between light- and dark-skinned members that will be difficult to close.
This source is helpful because it introduces the concept of colorism, which may
explain why, when represented, it is usually lighter skinned members of minorities that
are depicted. In knowing this, it extends the issue of stereotyping beyond race to being
primarily a matter of skin tone.
Kelly, Aidan, Katrina Lawlor, and Stephanie O'Donohoe. "Advertising Ideology and
the Encoding of Advertising Meaning: An Ethnographic and Discursive
Approach." Advances in Consumer Research 32 (2005): n. pag. PDF file.
This source examines the process through which advertisements are developed.
Advertising is such an influential force in society because it reflects and affects cultural
institutions and social systems, such as family, religion, and the arts, all of which guide
the development of the individual and society as a whole. Advertising agencies are seen
as the cultural middlemen in the sense that they provide a link between these institutions
and consumerism. This relationship is what makes advertising a good indicator of
societal values because it reflects the “consumers’ sense of social reality.” Advertising
agencies are able to connect to their consumers through encoding, the process through
which cultural norms and values are inserted into the advertisement to make it more
relatable, and despite its importance, there is not much research conducted on the area.
This study solves this issue by conducting in-depth research within advertising agencies
and found that advertisers combine their own knowledge of culture with results from
research to gather codified knowledge, knowledge that has already been put into social
context. Another influence on the way advertisements are developed is the client for
whom the advertising agency is working; they will conduct research according to the
client’s wishes because it is the client who funds it.
This source is helpful because it tells of the entire process through which
advertisements are encoded. Most of the other sources place an emphasis on the
importance of encoding, but do not thoroughly explain how it takes place as this source
does. Given the personal and business influences, it is easier to understand the steps in
this process during which stereotypes might be inserted. This source is especially
important in understanding the psychological effects of advertising, whether stereotypes
are present or not. In understanding how advertising affects the psyche, it will in turn be
easier to understand why negative effects occur.
*Lewis, Joe. "The Physiological and Psychological Development of the Adolescent."
Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute. Yale University, 2014. Web. 28 Jan.
2014. <http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1991/5/
91.05.07.x.html#c>.
Adolescence is a relatively short period of time during which drastic psychological
and physiological changes take place. Due to these changes, adolescents become
increasingly self-conscious; this increased self-awareness, in turn, leads to increased selfevaluation in relation to other individuals and groups in society. According the Lewis,
there are three stages of adolescence: early adolescence, which occurs between ages 11
and 13, middle adolescence, which occurs between ages 14-15, and later adolescence,
which occurs in those over the age of 16. During early adolescence, the individual begins
to define his or herself according to the physiological changes that come with puberty,
and he or she begins to develop logical thinking. This introspection is then adapted to
include the opinions of others in middle adolescence, when the individual begins to
develop emotions and intellect; it is during this time that the individual finds his or her
place in relation to a person, group, the opposite sex, etc. It is not until later adolescence
when this sense of identity is stabilized and the individual realizes his or her place in
society. Lewis’s theory is in stark contrast to Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory.
Erikson theorized that identity is not developed at specific ages or within a certain time
period, but as a result of crises through the individual endures. A crises is defined as a
period when an individual is actively questioning his or her identity. In addition to the
crises component, Erikson theorized that not only must these crises occur for identity
development, but that each society encourages such crises.
This source is helpful because it is the first to give a psychological justification for
the adoption of adolescents between ages 14-18 as the target group for this project. This
will serve well when justifying why this particular group was chosen. Also, a second,
lesser known, but equally relevant, theory is introduced that can be included as further
justification once additional information is collected on the topic.
*Lucas, Paul. Personal interview. 22 Nov. 2013.
In this interview with Dr. Lucas, the ethical concerns of marketing and its effects
on children and adolescents were discussed. Many people assume that the primary
motivation of marketing is making a profit, and while it is important, companies may
choose to market their services and goods for other reasons, such as informing their
audience of an issue or building an identity. This negative view towards mass media is
due to a “victim” mentality; people believe that they are being manipulated and misled by
the media. Advertising is seen as a means of one-way communication, which leads many
to believe that advertisements simply throw images at the audience and expect them to
adopt them as their own, but this is not true. There are multiple ways for the marketing
practitioner to receive feedback, such as through social media, word of mouth, or sales in
comparison to a competitor. The issue with these methods of measuring the effects of an
advertisement is that they all reflect the effects of the advertisement in terms of the
company and not in terms of the psyche and society. Gauging the effects of media on the
population is difficult because it is impossible to determine the origin of an attitude or
perception, but this prejudice towards media is so strong that even if there were evidence
that suggested that media may have a positive effect, it would quickly be dismissed due
to this prevailing belief that the audience is being victimized. The effects of media are
seen in the contexts of morphing social attitudes and perceptions and addiction. This is
especially the case when discussing the effects of media on adolescents and children
because this group is likely significantly impacted by mass media. Children and
adolescents process information differently from adults; they have more difficulty
differentiating between fiction and reality, which causes them to pick up more social and
cultural cues from the media. This effect is especially extensive within this age group
because they are constantly bombarded with these messages and frequently do not have a
reality to which they can compare media portrayals, which leads to the adoption of
stereotypes as fact. There is constant debate over whether the effects of media can be
trumped by parenting, and while it is the role of the parent to monitor and raise their
children, media has become a part of American culture, so children seek it out. Children
and adolescents create their perceptions and attitudes according to social institutions,
which include school, family, friends, and mass media. Though media is an omnipresent
influence, its effects can be lessened if there are other institutions playing a role.
This interview was incredibly helpful because it addressed the reasons behind this
stigma against mass media. In examining the reasoning behind this prejudice, it becomes
clearer that though advertising may not be primarily driven by thoughts of profit, it is the
perception of the population. This has tempered previous research that only addressed
media in a negative manner and has labeled it as bias, but since it is a view shared by
nearly all of the population, it is difficult to separate it from honest criticism. The
information on how advertising affects children and adolescents will be very important in
justifying the audience for this project and could be used to inform the audience and to
suggest an audience.
Machery, Edouard, and Luc Faucher. "Social Construction and the Concept of
Race." Philosophy of Science 72 (2005): 1208-19. PDF file.
Today’s dominant view in the development of racism is social constructionism
after it gained popularity in the 1970s. This is the most popular theory used to explain the
concept of race, the belief that artificial differences, such as skin color, body shape, hair,
etc. indicate meaningful biological differences and was used to justify the unequal
treatment of certain groups. According to social constructionism, this concept is
constantly being adjusted to the social environment, which suggests that racism changes
between cultures. However, this theory does not explain the commonalities between the
racial views of different societies and to account for this, the theory that racism is the
result of the ethnic cognitive system was developed. This is a system used by primitive
humans to categorize people into tribes, or “ethnies.” Racism is the malfunction of this
system where it is mistakenly assumed that certain ethnic markers, such as skin color and
body type, suggest that that person belongs to another ethnie. This theory suggests that
people are predisposed to notice ethnicity, but the degree changes according to social
factors, such as conformity to the cultural beliefs of the group, and the prestige that
comes with holding such views.
This source was helpful because it introduced the two opposing views on the
development of racism and its psychological basis. By suggesting that racism is the result
of adaptation to a social environment and the culture of a society, it becomes more
apparent that it is society that is at fault for the prevalence of racism, and it is present in
all societies. This counters previous sources that suggested that it was primarily the media
to blame for the perpetuation of racism. Since it is a psychological phenomenon that has
been taking place for millennia, it will be all the more difficult to attempt to rid society of
racial prejudice, but the great strides that the world has taken in the last few decades
suggests that it could be possible.
*McLeod, Saul. "Erik Erikson." SimplyPsychology. Simply Psychology, 2013. Web. 28
Jan. 2014. <http://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html>.
Psychologist Erik Erikson theorized that the development of identity was linked to
psychosocial, as opposed to psychological, factors. He placed an emphasis on the
importance of culture and society on the development of the individual, stating that the
ego develops as a result of social crises. There are three types of crises: those that
determine the individual’s willingness to put trust in others, those that impact his or her
sense of identity, and those that concern the next generation. Of all life stages,
adolescence remains the most important time for identity development. Erik Erikson
considers adolescence to be the typical time during which the fifth stage of ego
development occurs. It is during this time that the conflict between identity and role
confusion takes place: the individual desires to fit in and become more independent, and
his or her experiences in pursuit of these desires are what form his or her identity.
However, if the identity is not properly solidified, the individual may experience role
confusion, a state where he or she is unsure of his or her place in society.
This source is helpful because it elaborates further on Erik Erikson’s theory, which seems
increasingly relevant because it applies to those of any age: this would explain why even
those who come from another country/culture, regardless of age, tend to undergo the
same process of self-identity.
*National Association of School Psychologists. "NASP Position Statement: Racism,
Prejudice, and Discrimination." 2012. PDF file.
This source is a position statement made by the National Association of School
Psychologists concerning racism, racial prejudice, and racial discrimination in the school
environment and how they should be addressed. The document is adamant in its view
that racism harms both those in the majority and the minority and that both groups are
susceptible to racial prejudice. Even given this assertion, discrimination is defined as any
act that the majority commits that may negatively impact the minority. Research has
proven that environments charged with racial prejudice and discrimination yield poorer
“school achievement, self-efficacy, and personal growth;” this theory is supported by
educational gaps in test scores, disciplinary action, etc. correlate directly with the
students’ minority/majority statuses. Exposure to prejudice and discrimination was linked
to a negative perception of their minority group and a decreased belief in equal
opportunity. These negative effects were in turn linked to depression, and increased
disciplinary action, high school drop-out rates, and incarceration. To combat this, school
psychologists are urged to work to maintain diversity, ensure that prejudice and
discrimination are not passively tolerated, and promote parent and community
involvement to provide the support system that minority students need to remain resilient
to the factors that work against them.
This source is helpful because it is the first to offer practical solutions to combat
racial prejudice and discrimination among children and adolescents. It also outlines the
effects that these have on the views of students, which in turn, would explain why
adolescents’ racial attitudes develop in the manner that they do. Other sources have
suggested that adolescence is the most crucial period in the development of racial
attitudes, and with exposure to prejudice and discrimination on a daily basis during
school, it helps explain why many adolescents may have become immune to signs of
discrimination and thus do not recognize racism for what it is.
Ndiaye, Aboubacar. "Black Boys Have an Easier Time Fitting in at Suburban
Schools than Black Girls." The Atlantic Monthly 21 Oct. 2013: n. pag.
The Atlantic. Web. 8 Nov. 2013. <http://www.theatlantic.com/education/
archive/2013/10/
black-boys-have-an-easier-time-fitting-in-at-suburban-schools-than-black-girls/
280657/>.
When affirmative action is discussed, the effect that integration has on minority
students attending primarily white schools is rarely considered. This article discusses two
studies conducted on the effects of gender on racial integration. The first, conducted by
the American Sociological Association, reveal that minority males are better able to
integrate into the fabric of the school than their female counterparts. The other,
investigating the Diversify program, further details this phenomenon; males are
welcomed into predominantly white groups so long as they fit within the stereotypes of
“athleticism” and “coolness” assigned to them. This often results in code switching and
posturing for acceptance. Minority females, on the other hand, are perceived as “ghetto”
and “loud” when they fit into these stereotypes, and as a result are considered more
difficult and less attractive, which leaves them at a disadvantage because they have fewer
opportunities to move up in the social hierarchy. This inability to integrate into the social
hierarchy extends beyond high school and college, making minority women three times
more likely to marry within their race than their male counterparts. The results of these
studies suggest that many times, the structures present in schools and racial stereotyping
reinforce the concept of minority male privilege, leaving minority women to combat both
sexism and racism.
This source is helpful because it examines the negative effects of integration, such
as reinforcement of stereotypes and exclusion of those who do not fit them, which were
not discussed in other sources. It also explores how gender plays a role in stereotyping
and perception; it was interesting to think that female stereotypes are seen as negative
relative to those of the male. It brings to attention the plight of minority females, who are
discriminated against due to both their race and gender. While the source is not against
integration by any means, it points out that the system will not work if this double
standard remains in place.
Pallais, Denise M. "How African Americans and Hispanics Perceive Their Racial
Equality in American Advertising." MS thesis. Louisiana State U, 2006.
Louisiana State University: Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Library.
Web. 11 Oct. 2013. <http://etd.lsu.edu/docs/available/
etd-03272006-193913/unrestricted/Pallais_thesis.pdf>.
This study examines how Blacks and Hispanics perceive themselves in the
context of race in American advertising. It compared the two groups and found that there
was no difference between the races and their levels of perception, which suggests that
their exclusion/negative portrayals in advertisements is an issue that affects both groups
equally. Today, advertisers are placing increased emphasis on the two groups because of
their increased spending power; they are an economic force to be reckoned with.
Marketers are working on advertisements that resonate with these “new” ethnic audiences
because it was found that neither race was reached using traditional advertising due to a
cultural disconnect. The advertisements that do include people who are Black or Hispanic
usually presented them as if the groups were homogenous, which is extremely untrue due
to the variety of cultures that make up each race. As a result, companies must learn about
the groups’ languages, cultures, and beliefs in order to successfully target them.
This source is useful because while it does not explicitly address the racial
stereotypes present in media, by examining the self-perceptions of minorities, it evaluates
the effects of these stereotypes. Also, by discussing how advertisers are adjusting to
minorities’ increased net worth, it is made clear that their motives are primarily
economic, which suggests that racial portrayals in advertisements may be prone to
change due to the state of the economy.
Perkins, Mitali. "Straight Talk on Race: Challenging the Stereotypes in Kids'
Books." School Library Journal. N.p., 1 Apr. 2009. Web. 11 Sept. 2013.
<http://www.slj.com/2009/04/books-media/collection-development/
straight-talk-on-race-challenging-the-stereotypes-in-kids-books/>.
Throughout most of history, American literature has revolved around white
characters, primarily because that was the race of the majority. Americans as a population
are becoming more diverse, but books have yet to account for this change through the
race of their characters, leaving those of ethnic background unacknowledged. This is due
to the idea that only writers of that background can write about it, and as the publishing
industry tends to favor white writers, there are consequently fewer ethnic characters.
Some try to fix this problem by including “nonwhite characters” to show an author’s
“open-mindedness,” but these characters are generally included to benefit the white
protagonist. Others exoticize characters based on what would be most successful in the
market and all too often this economic perspective leads to the sacrifice of the
authenticity of the character. In order to prevent the perpetuation of ethnic stereotypes, or
outright exclusion of ethnic characters, authors should learn to alter the race of their
characters according to the plot and setting of the story, not as ways of projecting their
“progressive” attitudes or getting the books off the shelves.
This article offers the point of view of an ethnic writer, and shows how even
though the problem of whitewashing has been acknowledged, it is a difficult process to
reverse; it may be a while before minorities receive equal representation in all kinds of
media, from books to commercials. It also suggests that much of whitewashing in
literature and cover art is rooted in marketing, which makes it likely that this is the case
in other sectors. This raises the question of how large of an effect marketing has on the
decisions that writers make when creating their characters, and the choices that producers
make when casting actors to play the roles of these characters.
Plous, S., and Dominique Neptune. "Racial and Gender Biases in Magazine
Advertising." Psychology of Women Quarterly 21 (1997): 627-44. PDF file.
This study analyzed advertisements from the mid-1980s to the early 1990s to
examine the increase in racial bias and development of stereotypes of black women
during this time period. American society is described as an “adcult,” a culture overrun
with advertising; a large portion of the media to which people are exposed daily are
devoted solely to advertising. Due to this omnipresence, mass media is seen as a good
indicator of society’s racial attitudes. Historically, blacks in advertising have been
depicted as menial laborers: between 1949 and 1950, only 0.5% of magazine
advertisements had black subjects and in 95.3% of those cases, they were depicted in this
way. Between the 1950s and 1970s, there was an increase in representation, but this trend
declined in the 1980s through to the mid-1990s. It is during this period of decline that the
study focuses. Following the Civil Rights Movement, racial stereotypes were adjusted
from their original crude depictions of the Mammy and Jim Crow to a more subtle form,
and it is this discretion that lead to the halt in progress. The study found that in the case of
black women, this image of a sexually aggressive, almost animal-like image followed
that of Jezebel and the Mammy, as shown in an increase in depiction of black women as
being sexually dominant and clad in animal-print. It was acknowledged that this change
in image may be due to fashion trends, but the increase in these images did not
correspond to the cyclical nature of fashion trends, which suggest that it was the result of
a change in thinking. Other studies had interviewed marketers on the subject of the
underrepresentation and portrayal of Blacks in advertising, and it was found that neither
due to economic or ideological reasons.
This source was extremely helpful because it juxtaposed the time period in which
the stereotype of the Mammy was still present and that in which this stereotype began to
evolve into the images seen in today’s advertisements. The finding that marketers
admitted to neither economic or ideological reasons being the cause for
underrepresentation and stereotypical portrayal is interesting because, according to
another source, this appears to be the result of implicit stereotyping in action. Though
dated, this source offers important information about the development of advertisements
in recent decades and so, should be considered valuable.
Quereshi, Bilal. "British Filmmakers Shift American 'Conversation on Race.'"
Code Switch: Frontiers of Race, Culture and Ethnicity. National Public
Radio, 30 Sept. 2013. Web. 2 Oct. 2013. <http://www.npr.org/blogs/
codeswitch/2013/09/30/227851302/>.
This blog post discusses several works by British filmmaker Steve McQueen that
have sparked interest in America because despite the fact that the casts are primarily
black, McQueen says that “none of these movies are about race.” This attitude is different
from those of American filmmakers because black Britons, unlike their American
counterparts, choose not to be defined by the color of their skin, but rather, their
nationality. This is because of the differences in black history; there was no enslavement
or emancipation, no migration northwards, and no civil rights movement. Conversely, the
arrival of minorities in Britain is relatively recent; many civil rights movements occurred
in their home countries and because of this relationship, the immigrants would rather be
defined by their mother cultures or their nationality than by their race. Because of these
differences in histories, the two countries have dissimilar views on race. While America
prides itself in being “sensitive” and “inclusive,” this causes many issues to go
unaddressed as being offensive or controversial. Britain, on the other hand, does not
perceive race as being as major an issue.
This source is helpful because it further details the reasons why racial attitudes
vary between the US and other countries. This is important consider because America
does indeed have a unique history concerning race, and so the history has played a role in
the development of racial attitudes and stereotypes. Since the US is a special case, more
information should be found concerning race in other societies that perhaps did not have
the racial revolution that took place in America.
Ramasubramanian, Srividya. "Media Based Strategies to Reduce Racial Stereotypes
Activated by News Stories." J&MC Quarterly 84 (2007): 249-96.
Academia.edu. Web. 25 Sept. 2013. <http://www.academia.edu/441105/
Media_based_strategies_to_reduce_racial_stereotypes_activated_by_news_stories>.
This journal discusses studies that worked to examine how second hand
experience through media impacted the development of stereotypes in viewers. It
examines its effects on the two stages of stereotyping: stereotype activation, which is
implicit, and stereotype application, which is explicit. Thus far, studies have been
targeting the application of stereotypes, but not their activation, which is why even if
someone is not expressing prejudice, prejudicial thoughts lie in their subconscious. The
effects were measured in the test subject’s reaction time to words typically associated
with a stereotype, which would reveal in which stage the stereotype lies. The journal
examines two possible ways to reduce the activation of stereotypes: an audience centered
approach, where the test subjects are instructed to be critical of the stereotypes being
shown, and a message centered approach, where counter-stereotypical portrayals were
shown. It was found that the audience centered approach promoted the development of
“discriminatory responsiveness,” or the individual’s critique of the messages being sent,
which in turn demonstrated that implicit stereotyping can be reduced with conscious
effort. The counter examples in the message approach were shown to either completely
changed a viewer’s attitude or be catalogued as an exception, leaving the stereotype
intact. In the case study, it was found that it was most effective to use both approaches
rather than one over the other.
This source takes an in depth look at the ways that stereotypes are developed and
methods that can be used to reduce or stop their development. This is extremely helpful
because, in knowing how prejudices are formed, it will be easier to examine how the
media impacts the normal development of stereotypes and how the mind processes the
information being distributed via advertising. Since these two approaches have proven
effective in reducing the activation of stereotypes, they offer a solution to the growing
problem.
Stanford, Cheraine. "Advertising in Black and White: How and Why Perception of
Difference Shape Magazine Advertising." Eruditio (2007): n. pag. Duke
University. Web. 14 Nov. 2013. <https://web.duke.edu/eruditio/
Stanford.html>.
The use of stereotypes has frequently become an issue in advertising because the
industry depends heavily on the power of association. Advertisements are meant to show
the consumers what their lives could become if they purchase this product, but in order
for the scenario to be relatable, they must first relate to those being portrayed in the
advertisement. This causes an issue when targeting minority consumers because of the
use of stereotypes that only serve to alienate, not to appease, their target audience. The
subtle racial stereotypes are born of society’s views at the time and serve to both create
and confirm them. This is especially the case concerning the inclusion of Blacks in
advertisements; their inclusion has historically been limited to subservient or comic roles,
which suggests that Blacks are limited to the lower strata of society due to the perception
that they are less intelligent. This reinforced the concept of white dominance, which
ensured that white consumers would not react negatively to the advertisement. In fact, up
until the early 1900s, advertisers did not even consider Blacks to be an audience worth
targeting, though this changed in the 1930s as the country’s Black population, and
consequently its spending power, increased. As studies were conducted to better
understand this new audience, it was found that Black consumers desired to be accepted
as being on the same social footing as their white counterparts, though they did not desire
to imitate them. As a result, while Blacks tend to spend more money on products that
indicate social standing to fight the stereotype of poverty, they maintain their own unique
culture. However, advertisers’ acknowledgement of these differences only resulted in the
use of stereotypes or the inclusion of a certain type of Black person. Lighter skinned
people became favored because it allowed for Blacks to see figures of their own race
while appeasing the white majority; Black celebrities became overused because the fact
that society already accepted them offered security. In order to overcome this, advertisers
have begun “encoding” their advertisements by using cultural cues that would resound
with their audience while allowing viewers to “decode” the message and come to the
conclusion themselves. While this allows for political correctness, this strategy also leads
to misinterpretation as hidden stereotypes are exposed. Analysis of the presence of
Blacks in advertising has shown that, in the past as well as today, racism has become an
integral part of social and political structures, though the issue is often ignored.
This source is helpful because it analyzes the progression of the presence of
blacks in advertising through history, starting from their nonexistence during the slavery
era to their value as a target audience today. It is especially useful in providing an
analysis of the social events during these periods that lead to the changing views on
Blacks. This is extremely valuable as it supplements other sources concerning the
changing views on Blacks that failed to discuss the views’ social origin. The source
marries history, sociology, and marketing, which make it a good starting point for any
continued research in those areas.
Tugend, Alina. "How to Market to Minorities." National Journal 2 June 2011: n.
pag. National Journal. Web. 22 Oct. 2013.
<http://www.nationaljournal.com/njonline/no_20100508_1960.php/
how-to-market-to-minorities-20110602>.
A couple decades ago, there was no such thing as “multicultural marketing,” but as
minorities’ buying power increases, marketers are paying them more attention. This
recognition in and of itself is a breakthrough, but marketing to minorities has become a
science. First, marketers must observe several focus groups and perhaps take part in a
couple live-in experiences in order to better understand what minorities want in a
product. The Latino group is coveted as the group with the fastest growing buying power,
and is a large focus of marketers. This prized group is difficult to target due to the fact
that it becomes segmented between the Americanized, the Spanish-only speaking, and the
decidedly bicultural. In order to overcome these differences, marketers emphasize values
that are present throughout the Latino community, such as the importance of family.
They have also learned that Blacks are drawn to brand names and expensive products due
to the respect they garner, and Asians are most easily reached through the Internet.
However, they must be careful in their choice in advertisement because ads that fail tend
to be seen as condescending and would instead have the effect of driving minorities
away.
This article is helpful because it helps shed light on the factors that advertisers take
into consideration when marketing to minorities, as well as how they overcome the
diversity within the groups. This desire to market to the rising economic powers may be
what has truly driven advertisers to include minorities in advertising, though if a minority
is their target group, they tend to be less likely to use harmful stereotypes. If they applied
these rules when applying to the general population, not just a particular minority group,
perhaps advertisements would be less likely to promote racial prejudice.
University of California at Irvine. "In Romance, Race Matters-Even Online."
Futurity- Research News from Top Universities. Futurity, 27 Apr. 2009.
Web. 19 Sept. 2013. <http://www.futurity.org/
in-romance-race-matters%E2%80%94even-online/>.
Racial stereotyping has proliferated all aspects of society, even the Internet. A
study conducted at the University of California at Irvine showed that Caucasians have
particular racial tastes; white men prefer Latina and Asian women over black women, and
white women are least likely to date Asian men. These racial preferences are due
primarily to the ways that femininity and masculinity are portrayed in media; black
women are consistently described as being strong and stubborn, which does not fit the
picture of the desirable, delicate woman. While Asian women are hyper-sexualized,
Asian men are portrayed as nearly asexual, with no sex appeal whatsoever. As people as
exposed to these racial clichés repeatedly, it begins to shape their opinions on having
partners of that race. Though there is increased acceptance of interracial couples,
interracial marriage rates remain noticeably low and this is because minorities have a
higher preference for whites than whites have for minorities. This discrepancy places
whites as being the “privileged” group that can help further incorporate or exclude
minorities. This is distressing because judging by the low interracial marriage rates, they
seem to be leaning more towards exclusion.
This article is helpful because it analyzes the effects of racial stereotyping on
romantic relationships. These effects are especially important in advertising because of
the concept that “sex sells”; the races shown in advertisements are those that are
considered more attractive by the general population, and this study examines the
possible reasons why some races are preferred over others. By knowing the reasons why
the population as a whole finds a particular race attractive, it will be easier to understand
why other races are underrepresented.
University of Rochester. "In US South, More Racial Bias Where Cotton Was King."
Futurity. Futurity, 20 Sept. 2013. Web. 23 Oct. 2013.
<http://www.futurity.org/us-south-racial-bias-cotton-king/>.
This study was the first to quantitatively document the lasting effects of slavery
on today’s political attitudes in the South. It was found that in counties within the Cotton
Belt, a band of states whose economies relied on plantations from the late 18th into the
20th centuries, there were increased negative racial attitudes than in other Southern
counties outside of the Belt. While slavery does not explain all racism, it does explain the
differences in racial attitudes between the North and the South; this is called the “slavery
effect” and without it, the two regions would have more similar political attitudes. The
consequences of slavery are so far reaching due to the exploitation of former slaves to
cultivate cotton that occurred into the 20th century. By the time machinery was introduced
to replace the labor in the 1930s, anti-black sentiment had become a part of Southern
culture, as reflected in the results of this study.
This source is the first to provide statistical evidence of the effects of slavery on
negative racial attitudes in the South. The results of this study would help demonstrated
to the audience that racial prejudice is still very much an issue and that history plays a
role in its development. It was interesting that the prevalence of slavery is the major
factor that separates the North and the South politically, especially since others have
claimed that other factors are to blame.
University of Toronto. "To Sell Food on TV, Advertisers Veer White."
Futurity-Research News from Top Universities. Futurity, 27 Aug. 2013.
Web. 19 Sept. 2013. <http://www.futurity.org/
sell-food-tv-advertisers-veer-white/>.
This study analyzed the connection between race and the types of products being
sold in advertising. It was found that those of Hispanic and Middle Eastern descent were
underrepresented, and that blacks and East and Southeast Asians were typically
associated with fast food. Conversely, Caucasians were overrepresented and were shown
in a wider variety of advertisements than their colored counterparts. This is because
Caucasians are associated with four “cultural trends,” or societal values: nostalgia, where
tradition is emphasized, nature, where the focus is on agriculture and healthful eating,
“high brow,” which markets more expensive products, and the nuclear family, which is
happy, healthy, and intact. When minorities are included in advertising, they do not
follow these trends or even are associated with the opposite. Blacks are associated with
the lower class with little care for family or tradition, and Asians are depicted as being
successful, but are often portrayed as cold hearted. The study also suggested that the
reason for racial stereotyping in advertising was simple: by boiling down entire ethnic
groups to a race and assigning certain qualities to it, advertisers can get their point across
quicker and to a wider audience.
This study was conducted in Canada, which is very interesting because the results
of the study were similar to those of studies conducted in American advertising. It also
introduced cultural trends as the components that helped show Caucasians in a positive
light and, by exclusion, cast a shadow on minorities. By better understanding why these
qualities are usually associated with Caucasians, it will serve to explain why minorities
are portrayed as the opposite.
University of Washington. "Tests Shows Many Unaware of Their Racial Bias."
Futurity-Research News from Top Universities. Futurity, 23 June 2009.
Web. 19 Sept. 2013. <http://www.futurity.org/
test-shows-many-unaware-of-their-racial-bias/>.
This study was conducted using the Implicit Association Test, a tool used to
predict social behavior, and found that 70% of those taking the test had a preference for
Caucasians. This directly contradicts the results of surveys where less than 20% of those
surveyed admitted to having a preference for Caucasians. This discrepancy suggests that
while people may not consciously exhibit racial bias, the unconscious preference
remains; this, in turn, makes the test more accurate than self-reporting when it comes to
sensitive topics, such as race. The test drew from studies conducted in several European
countries, Australia, Canada, and the US and was able to accurately predict behavior in
areas of consumer preference, black-white interracial behavior, personality differences,
clinical phenomena, alcohol and drug use, non-racial intergroup behavior, gender and
sexual orientation, close relationships, and political preference. Despite its accuracy, the
results of the test are controversial because they contradict this image of tolerance and
acceptance that has been constructed, and it is this same construct that may be what has
been leading people to ignore the issue.
This study is especially valuable because it is the first to address the fact that there
are indeed subconscious racial biases, and that while people may not act on them, they
are present and influence people’s actions and views. It is also very important that the
data used for the test comes from different countries, specifically those where the
majority of the population is white because it shows that racial bias is indeed a global
issue and is not limited to the US, which has a large focus on race due to its diverse
population. Since racial bias does not necessarily seem to limit itself to one society,
perhaps it is solely an issue in Western societies, or maybe it is completely independent
of the culture and has more psychological roots.
Yoo, Lindsey. "Feminisim and Race: Just Who Counts as a 'Woman of Color'?"
Code Switch: Frontiers of Race, Culture, and Ethnicity. National Public
Radio, 12 Sept. 2013. Web. 19 Oct. 2013. <http://www.npr.org/blogs/
codeswitch/2013/09/12/221469077/
feminism-and-race-just-who-counts-as-a-woman-of-color>.
Mainstream feminisim is often criticized for catering to the needs of well-off
white women and not looking after the interests of “women of color.” However, the term
“women of color” is often only applied to black women; women of other minorities are
often ignored. This is especially the case of Asian-American women. They are not
considered “women of color” because Asians are often more privileged than other people
of color. However, their modern “model minority” status does not equate to a lack of
racial prejudice against them. Like any other minority, Asians are often limited to
stereotypes perpetuated in the media. To solve this problem, the term “women of color”
must apply to those outside the white-black binary; it should also apply to Asians,
Latinas, Native Americans, etc., so that their struggles can be acknowledged.
This source is helpful because it chronicles the plight of Asian-American women
and serves to further explain why Asians are often sidelined in conversations concerning
race. This, in turn, helps explain the reasoning that leads to a lack of information on the
racial prejudice that Asian-Americans face. It is startling to think that feminism does not
recognize women as colored unless they are black because all women face a certain
degree of discrimination solely based on their sex, but minorities must also face the
additional racial prejudice.
*Entries preceded by an asterisk are those that were not graded prior to submission. (2/7)