Download The Origin of Species

5th week‐ 黃之暘老師‐ Ch.22. Descent with Modification: A Darwinian View of Life
th
5 week‐ 黃之暘老師‐ Ch.23. The Evolution of Populations
6th week‐ 黃之暘老師‐ Ch.24. The Origin of Species
6th week‐ 黃之暘老師‐ Ch.25. The History of Life on Earth 7th week‐ 黃之暘老師‐ Ch.26. Phylogeny and the Tree of Life
7th week‐ 黃之暘老師‐ Ch.27. Bacteria and Archaea
8th week‐ 黃之暘老師‐ Ch.28. Protists
8th week‐ 黃之暘老師‐ Ch. 課程回顧與重點加強
考試部分另擇黃道吉日進行!
PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations for
Biology
Eighth Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
本學期授課講義中
大部分的字體大小
仰賴聽力輔助
(見山不是山!)
花非花、霧非霧
享受虛無飄渺的感受!
1
生物學的迷思？
1. 第一次修課都不會過?
2. 是否全都是英文考題?
3. 老師成績不會公佈?
4. 看中譯本就保證沒問題?
PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations for
Biology
Eighth Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
修過普通生物學的收穫
1. 強化生物基本知識/常識
2. 掌握英文關鍵字詞(中英雙語)
3. 找到讀書方法(個人訓練)
4. 組成同儕小組(鼓勵或強化學習)
PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations for
Biology
Eighth Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
2
Chapter 22
Descent with Modification:
A Darwinian View of Life
世代修飾
“經過改變的繼承＂
PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations for
Biology
Eighth Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Overview: Endless Forms Most Beautiful
• A new era of biology began in 1859 when
Charles Darwin published The Origin of
Species
物種源始--達爾文, 1859
• The Origin of Species focused biologists’
attention on the great diversity of organisms
生物的多樣性
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3
Overview: Endless Forms Most Beautiful
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Overview: Endless Forms Most Beautiful
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4
Overview: Endless Forms Most Beautiful
http://aslo.org/photopost/data/517/8Fish_diversity_Amazon_backwater-med.jpg
http://kinhquyen.com/dosomething/images/arowana.jpg
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• Darwin noted that current species are
descendants of ancestral species 承繼自祖先
• Evolution can be defined by Darwin’s phrase
descent with modification
• Evolution can be viewed as both a pattern and
a process
http://images.usatoday.com/tech/_photos/2006/11/07/fossil472.jpg
http://www.yowazzup.com/blog/images/lizard-couch.jpg
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http://www.thisviewoflife.org/evolution/finch.jpg
http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Fossil_Galleries/GreenRiverFossils/Lepisosteos/GarFishFossil.jpg
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6
Evolution
• “Evolvere” ---- Evolution
• evolution這個字在當時生物學上的意義，指的是胚胎發育
的過程，並且在當時的一般用語中具有「進步」的意含。
• 達爾文反對將「進步」之類的用語來描述生物改變的過程。
• 《物種起源》第7章中說：「天擇的最後結果，包括了生物
體的進步（advance）及退步（retrogression）兩種現
象」。
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http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/monkey-1.jpg
• Descent with modification 「經過改變的繼承」
• Process of modification 「改變過程」
• Doctrine of the modification of species
「物種改變的原理」
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http://spencer.lib.ku.edu/exhibits/darwin/originb.jpg
7
Fig. 22-2
Linnaeus (classification)
Hutton (gradual geologic change)
Lamarck (species can change)
Malthus (population limits)
http://www.educarm.es/paleontologia/imagenes/lamarck.jpg
Cuvier (fossils, extinction)
Lyell (modern geology)
美國獨立戰爭
Darwin (evolution, natural selection)
法國大革命
Wallace (evolution, natural selection)
American Revolution
French Revolution
U.S. Civil War
1800
1900
1750
1850
1795 Hutton proposes his theory of gradualism.
1798 Malthus publishes “Essay on the Principle of Population.”
1809 Lamarck publishes his hypothesis of evolution.
1830 Lyell publishes Principles of Geology.
1831–1836 Darwin travels around the world on HMS Beagle.
1837 Darwin begins his notebooks.
1844 Darwin writes essay on descent with modification.
1858 Wallace sends his hypothesis to Darwin.
1859 The Origin of Species is published.
Scala Naturae and Classification of Species
• The Greek philosopher
Aristotle viewed species
as fixed and arranged
them on a scala naturae
• The Old Testament
holds that species were
individually designed by
God and therefore
perfect
http://sxxz.blogspot.com/2005/02/what-species-is-best.html
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8
• Carolus Linnaeus interpreted organismal
adaptations as evidence that the Creator had
designed each species for a specific purpose
• Linnaeus was the founder of taxonomy, the
branch of biology concerned with classifying
organisms
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http://www.geneious.com/assets/img/sm/637/44/linnaeus2.png
http://www.ouls.ox.ac.uk/__data/assets/image/0018/17055/Linnaeus_exhibit.jpg
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9
Ideas About Change over Time
• The study of fossils helped to lay the
groundwork for Darwin’s ideas
• Fossils are remains or traces of organisms from
the past, usually found in sedimentary rock,
which appears in layers or strata (stratum)
化石的定義、形成與意義
http://www.treasure-hunting-team.com/Pictures/Fossil-Fish-1.jpg
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Fig. 22-3
Layers of deposited
sediment
古生物學是以生物化石為
基礎，以研究生物親緣關
係的一種研究
Younger stratum
with more recent
fossils
Older stratum
with older fossils
10
• Paleontology, the study of fossils, was largely
developed by French scientist Georges Cuvier
Ò 古生物學----研究化石種之生物科學
• Cuvier advocated catastrophism, speculating
that each boundary between strata represents
a catastrophe
災變論 (Catastrophism)
1. 地質學理論。
2. 認為地球曾經遭受許多短暫的
災難。
3. 災變論中的某些思想演變為今
天如生物大滅絕或月球形成理
論之基礎。
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http://www.paranoiamagazine.com/images/vulcan_impact.jpg
• 造成生物集群滅絕的可能原因包括外星體撞擊地球、火山活動、
氣候變冷或變暖、海進或海退和缺氧等事件。
• 每次大的滅絕事件都能在相對短時期內造成80-90％以上的物種滅
絕。但是少數生命力強或逃逸能力佳的物種能夠忍受災變造成的
極端惡劣的環境，或逃離災區至異地避難而留存下來。
• 災變引起的環境變化也給新物種的誕生，創造了特殊條件和絕佳
機運。因此每次全球性滅絕事件後，都伴隨著生物的復甦發展。
• 根據化石記錄，地質歷史上曾發生過5次大的生物集群滅絕事件，
即奧陶紀末期、泥盆紀末期、二疊紀末期、三疊紀末期和白堊紀
末期的生物大規模絕滅。
• 白堊紀-第三紀滅絕事件因恐龍的滅絕而受到關注，不過二疊紀生
物絕滅事件卻是規模最大、涉及生物類群最多、影響最為深遠的
一次。
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11
• Geologists James Hutton and Charles Lyell
perceived that changes in Earth’s surface can
result from slow continuous actions still
operating today Ò 地質學家認為地球表面處於持續變動之狀態
• Lyell’s principle of uniformitarianism states
that the mechanisms of change are constant
over time
• This view strongly influenced Darwin’s
thinking
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• Uniformitarianism 均變說
1. 不能拿聖經內容敘述當作地質學上
的解釋。
2. 漸進式變化必然累積出相對結果。
3. Lyell 的學說被稱為是「均變」說，
但更貼切的形容是 steady-state，
也就是一種動態平衡。
4. Lyell 所承認的地球環境變化是局部
或區域性的，也就是此消彼長或具
有循環性。
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http://www.rockingeology.com/sites/lnielson/_files/Image/project2.jpg
12
Lamarck’s Hypothesis of Evolution
• Lamarck hypothesized
that species evolve
through use and disuse
of body parts and the
inheritance of acquired
characteristics
用進廢退
• The mechanisms he
proposed are
unsupported by evidence
http://img.sparknotes.com/figures/1/1534327ece5d347f8fe2828c8fdb7677/giraffe.gif
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Lamarck’s Hypothesis of Evolution
• Lamarck hypothesized
用進廢退
http://www.musclebymail.com/library/family.jpg
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13
Darwin’s Research
達爾文的科學啟蒙與研究
• As a boy and into adulthood, Charles Darwin
had a consuming interest in nature
• Darwin first studied medicine (unsuccessfully),
and then theology at Cambridge University
• After graduating, he took an unpaid position
as naturalist and companion to Captain Robert
FitzRoy for a 5-year around the world voyage
on the Beagle
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The Voyage of the Beagle
• During his travels on the Beagle, Darwin
collected specimens of South American plants
and animals 採集標本 / 觀察比較 / 發現問題
• He observed adaptations of plants and animals
that inhabited many diverse environments
Ò 在不同狀態的環境中動植物皆表現出持續的適應
• Darwin was influenced by Lyell’s Principles of
Geology and thought that the earth was more
than 6000 years old
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14
• His interest in geographic distribution of
species was kindled by a stop at the
Galápagos Islands near the equator west of
Ò 物種的地理性分布
South America
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Galapagos-satellite-esislandnames.jpg
http://www.poseidonsciences.com/images/annual%20fish_distribution_map_copy.jpg
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GREAT
BRITAIN
EUROPE
NORTH
AMERICA
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
AFRICA
Pinta
Marchena
Santiago
Genovesa
Daphne
Islands
Pinzón
Fernandina
Isabela
Santa
Santa
Cruz
Fe
Florenza
PACIFIC
OCEAN
San
Cristobal
Española
Equator
SOUTH
AMERICA
AUSTRALIA
Andes
The
Galápagos
Islands
Cape of
Good Hope
Tasmania
Cape Horn
Tierra del Fuego
http://www.csuchico.edu/~curbanowicz/Images/HMSBeagleWWW.gif
New
Zealand
http://people.rit.edu/rhrsbi/GalapagosPages/SlideShow/slides/Beagle.jpeg
15
http://www.genesis-publications.com/voyages/beagle2.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Voyage_of_the_Beagle.jpg
16
http://www.desktopexchange.com/gallery/albums/Movie-Wallpapers/Master_and_Commander_1024.jpg
The
Galápagos
Islands
Pinta
Marchena
Santiago
Fernandina
Pinzón
Isabela
Genovesa
Daphne
Islands
Santa
Cruz Santa
Fe
Florenza
San
Cristobal
Española
http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/staticfiles/NGS/Shared/StaticFiles/animals/images/primary/galapagos-tortoise.jpg
17
Darwin’s Focus on Adaptation
• In reassessing his observations, Darwin
perceived adaptation to the environment and
the origin of new species as closely related
processes
• From studies made years after Darwin’s
voyage, biologists have concluded that this is
indeed what happened to the Galápagos
finches
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Fig. 22-6
(a) Cactus-eater
(c) Seed-eater
(b) Insect-eater
18
Fig. 22-6
http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-media/11/54911-004-B661673C.jpg
Fig. 22-6
• Galápagos finches
http://neuroanthropology.files.wordpress.com/2008/04/darwins-finches.jpg
http://people.rit.edu/rhrsbi/GalapagosPages/Pictures/LandBirds/FinchTypes.jpeg
19
http://porpax.bio.miami.edu/~cmallery/150/unity/c1x17b-finches.jpg
• In 1844, Darwin wrote an essay on the origin
of species and natural selection but did not
introduce his theory publicly, anticipating an
uproar
物種源始與天擇
• In June 1858, Darwin received a manuscript
from Alfred Russell Wallace, who had
developed a theory of natural selection
similar to Darwin’s
• Darwin quickly finished The Origin of Species
and published it the next year
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20
The Origin of Species 物種源始
• Darwin developed two main ideas:
– Descent with modification explains life’s unity
and diversity 1. 生命的相同與不同來自於經過改變的繼承
– Natural selection is a cause of adaptive
evolution 2. 天擇為促成生物適應演化的原因
http://pctips4vn.com/wp-content/files/charles-darwin-the-origin-of-species.jpg
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Descent with Modification 經過改變的繼承
• Darwin never used the word evolution in the
first edition of The Origin of Species
• The phrase descent with modification
summarized Darwin’s perception of the unity
of life
• The phrase refers to the view that all
organisms are related through descent from
an ancestor that lived in the remote past
Ò 所有生物承繼了祖先在過去歷程的改變
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21
• In the Darwinian view, the history of life is
like a tree with branches representing life’s
diversity
• Darwin’s theory meshed well with the
hierarchy of Linnaeus
Ò生命發展的歷程就像是不斷延伸的樹枝
Ò不斷延伸的生命型態造就了物種多樣性
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http://www.tulane.edu/~wiser/protozoology/notes/images/tree.gif
Fig. 22-7
22
Hyracoidea
(Hyraxes)
Sirenia
(Manatees
and relatives)
Moeritherium
Barytherium
Deinotherium
Mammut
Platybelodon
Stegodon
Mammuthus
Elephas maximus
(Asia)
Loxodonta
africana
(Africa)
Loxodonta cyclotis
(Africa)
34
24
Millions of years ago
5.5
2 104 0
Years ago
Platybelodon
Stegodon
Mammuthus
Elephas maximus
(Asia)
Loxodonta
africana
(Africa)
Loxodonta cyclotis
(Africa)
34
24
Millions of years ago
5.5
2 104 0
Years ago
23
Artificial Selection, Natural Selection, and
Adaptation
• Darwin noted that humans have modified
other species by selecting and breeding
individuals with desired traits, a process
called artificial selection
Ò 人擇---因偏好產生的選汰與繁殖
人擇----因偏好產生的選汰與繁殖
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Terminal
bud
Cabbage
http://darwiniana.org/equid2t.gif
Lateral
buds
Flower
clusters
Brussels sprouts
Leaves
Kale
Cauliflower
Stem
Wild mustard
Flowers
and stems
Broccoli
Kohlrabi
24
Artificial Selection, Natural Selection, and
Adaptation
• Darwin then described four observations of
nature and from these drew two inferences
Ò 達爾文觀察後的4
達爾文觀察後的4個發現與2
個發現與2個推測
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• Observation 1: Members of a population often
vary greatly in their traits
Ò 種群中的個體經常表現多樣性的特徵
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• Observation 2: Traits are inherited from
parents to offspring
Ò這些特徵具有自親代傳遞給
子代的遺傳特性
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http://asb.brain.riken.jp/files/Parent-InfantInMammals.jpg
• Observation 3: All species are capable of
producing more offspring than the
environment can support
Ò 所有生物都會產生足以超過環境支持之子代數量
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http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Mola_mola.jpg
26
• Observation 4: Owing to lack of food or other
resources, many of these offspring do not
survive
Ò 由於環境中具有食物、空間或其他限制因子，因此並非所
有子代皆可活存
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http://www.wildlifeextra.com/images/golden-eagle_chicks.JPG
• Inference 1: Individuals whose inherited traits
give them a higher probability of surviving and
reproducing in a given environment tend to
leave more offspring than other individuals
Ò 個體承繼自親代的特徵成為在適應環境時的可能優勢
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27
• Inference 2: This unequal ability of individuals
to survive and reproduce will lead to the
accumulation of favorable traits in the
population over generations
Ò 持續累代後的表現能突顯特徵的價值與重要性
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• Darwin was influenced by Thomas Malthus
who noted the potential for human population
to increase faster than food supplies and
other resources Ò食物收成與其他因素牽動人口族群變動
• If some heritable traits are advantageous,
these will accumulate in the population, and
this will increase the frequency of individuals
with adaptations Ò正向發展的遺傳特徵會增加其於群體中的出
現頻度，並增加個體在適應上的優勢
• This process explains the match between
organisms and their environment
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28
Natural Selection: A Summary
• Individuals with certain heritable
characteristics survive and reproduce at a
higher rate than other individuals
• Natural selection increases the adaptation of
organisms to their environment over time
• If an environment changes over time,
natural selection may result in adaptation to
these new conditions and may give rise to
new species
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Fig. 22-12a
(a) A flower mantid in Malaysia
29
(b) A stick mantid in Africa
http://www.divingthegoldcoast.com.au/images/a2985_lg.jpg
http://honkytonkdragon.blogspot.com/2006/12/leafy-sea-dragon.html
30
• Note that individuals do not evolve;
populations evolve over time
• Natural selection can only increase or
decrease heritable traits in a population
• Adaptations vary with different environments
Ò 適應隨環境而變化
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Concept 22.3: Evolution is supported by an
overwhelming amount of scientific evidence
• New discoveries continue to fill the gaps
identified by Darwin in The Origin of Species
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31
Direct Observations of Evolutionary Change
• Two examples provide evidence for natural
selection:
1. The effect of differential predation on
guppy populations
2. the evolution of drug-resistant HIV
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Predation and Coloration in Guppies :
Scientific Inquiry
• John Endler has studied the effects of
predators on wild guppy populations
Ò掠食者與花鱂
掠食者與花鱂野生族群變動試驗
• Brightly colored males are more attractive to
females
Ò擁有鮮豔體色之花鱂雄魚具有對雌魚較佳的吸引力
擁有鮮豔體色之花鱂雄魚具有對雌魚較佳的吸引力
• However, brightly colored males are more
vulnerable to predation
Ò然而鮮豔體色卻亦遭致掠食者注意與攻擊
• Guppy populations in pools with fewer
predators had more brightly colored males
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32
Fig. 22-13a
EXPERIMENT
Predator: Killifish; preys
mainly on juvenile
guppies (which do not
express the color genes)
Experimental
transplant of
guppies
Guppies: Adult males have
brighter colors than those
in “pike-cichlid pools”
Pools with
killifish,
but no
guppies prior
to transplant
Predator: Pike-cichlid; preys mainly on adult guppies
Guppies: Adult males are more drab in color
than those in “killifish pools”
Fig. 22-13b
RESULTS
12
Number of
colored spots
Area of colored
spots (mm2)
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Source
Transplanted
population population
10
8
6
4
2
0
Source
Transplanted
population population
33
• Endler transferred brightly colored guppies
(with few predators) to a pool with many
predators
• As predicted, over time the population
became less brightly colored
• Endler also transferred drab colored guppies
(with many predators) to a pool with few
predators
• As predicted, over time the population
became more brightly colored
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The Evolution of Drug-Resistant HIV
• The use of drugs to combat HIV selects for
viruses resistant to these drugs
• HIV uses the enzyme reverse transcriptase to
make a DNA version of its own RNA genome
• The drug 3TC is designed to interfere and
cause errors in the manufacture of DNA from
the virus
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34
• Some individual HIV viruses have a variation that
allows them to produce DNA without errors
• These viruses have a greater reproductive success
and increase in number relative to the
susceptible viruses
• The population of HIV viruses has therefore
developed resistance to 3TC
• The ability of bacteria and viruses to evolve
rapidly poses a challenge to our society
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Percent of HIV resistant to 3TC
Fig. 22-14
100
Patient
No. 1
Patient No. 2
75
50
Patient No. 3
25
0
0
2
4
6
Weeks
8
10
12
35
• Natural selection does not create new traits,
but edits or selects for traits already present
in the population Ò天擇未能創造新的遺傳特徵 !!
• The local environment determines which
traits will be selected for or selected against
in any specific population
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The Fossil Record
• The fossil record provides :
1. Evidence of the extinction of species,
2. The origin of new groups,
3. And changes within groups over time
Ò 化石記錄提供了：
1. 曾經出現但現已滅絕的化石種
2. 新種群的起源
3. 種群的變動
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36
The Fossil Record
http://www.manandmollusc.net/Shell_photos/Images/nautilus.jpg
http://berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2007/09/images/echo-nautilus.jpg
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0
2
4
Depth (meters)
4
3
6
4 Bristolia insolens
8
3 Bristolia bristolensis
10
12
14
2 Bristolia harringtoni
16
18 1 Bristolia mohavensis
3
2
1
Latham Shale dig site, San
Bernardino County, California
37
• The Darwinian view of life predicts that
evolutionary transitions should leave signs in
the fossil record
• Paleontologists have discovered fossils of
many such transitional forms
Ò 過渡形質
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(a) Pakicetus (terrestrial) Ò 陸生動物
(b) Rhodocetus (predominantly aquatic) Ò 水生優勢種
Pelvis and
hind limb
(c) Dorudon (fully aquatic) Ò 全水生物種
Pelvis and
hind limb
(d) Balaena
(recent whale ancestor)
Ò 現生鯨類祖先
38
(a) Pakicetus (terrestrial)
(b) Rhodocetus (predominantly aquatic)
Pelvis and
hind limb
(c) Dorudon (fully aquatic)
Pelvis and
hind limb
(d) Balaena
(recent whale ancestor)
39
Homology 同源
• Homology is similarity resulting from common
ancestry
Ò 生物體中相對應結構
和特性之間的一種關係。
生物體中相對應結構和
特性之間的一種關係。
Ò 源於胚胎的相同部分，但在各生物體中存在於不同的狀態。
源於胚胎的相同部分，但在各生物體中存在於不同的狀態。
Ò 例如馬的前肢、鳥的翅膀、人的手臂都是同源結構。這些結
構源自胚胎的相同部分,
構源自胚胎的相同部分,但外形完全不同。
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Anatomical and Molecular Homologies
• Homologous structures are anatomical
resemblances that represent variations on a
structural theme present in a common
ancestor
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40
Fig. 22-17
肱骨
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
徑骨
尺骨
Carpals
腕骨
Metacarpals
掌骨
Phalanges
指骨
Human
Cat
Whale
Bat
• Comparative embryology reveals anatomical
homologies not visible in adult organisms
Ò比較胚胎學顯示出在解剖學上的相似
比較胚胎學顯示出在解剖學上的相似
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41
Fig. 22-18
Pharyngeal
pouches
Post-anal
tail
Chick embryo (LM)
Human embryo
• Vestigial structures are remnants of features
that served important functions in the
organism’s ancestors Ò 痕跡結構
• Examples of homologies at the molecular level
are genes shared among organisms inherited
from a common ancestor
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42
Homologies and “Tree Thinking”
• The Darwinian concept of an evolutionary
tree of life can explain homologies Ò演化樹的概念
• Evolutionary trees are hypotheses about the
relationships among different groups
• Evolutionary trees can be made using
different types of data, for example,
anatomical and DNA sequence data
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 22-19
Branch point
(common ancestor)
Lungfishes
Mammals
2
Ò四足動物
Amnion
Lizards
and snakes
3
Ò具有羊膜
Homologous
characteristic
Amniotes
Tetrapod limbs
4
Tetrapods
Amphibians
1
Crocodiles
Feathers
Ò具有羽毛
Ostriches
6
Birds
5
Hawks and
other birds
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Convergent Evolution
Ò趨同演化
• Convergent evolution is the evolution of
similar, or analogous, features in distantly
related groups Ò 發生於具有一定演化距離之兩群物種
• Analogous traits arise when groups
independently adapt to similar environments
in similar ways
• Convergent evolution does not provide
information about ancestry
Ò 未能提供兩群物種在演化歷程中之祖先資訊
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Fig. 22-20
Sugar
glider
NORTH
AMERICA
AUSTRALIA
Flying
squirrel
44
Biogeography
Ò生物地理學
• Darwin’s observations of biogeography, the
geographic distribution of species, formed an
important part of his theory of evolution
• Islands have many endemic species that are
often closely related to species on the nearest
mainland or island
Ò生物在地理上的分布狀態是演化上的重要參考
Ò與大陸分隔的島與通常是研究的好素材
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• Earth’s continents were formerly united in a
single large continent called Pangaea, but
have since separated by continental drift
• An understanding of continent movement and
modern distribution of species allows us to
predict when and where different groups
evolved
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45
What Is Theoretical About Darwin’s View of
Life?
• In science, a theory accounts for many
observations and data and attempts to explain
and integrate a great variety of phenomena
• Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural
selection integrates diverse areas of biological
study and stimulates many new research
questions
• Ongoing research adds to our understanding of
evolution
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Observations
Individuals in a population
vary in their heritable
characteristics.
Organisms produce more
offspring than the
environment can support.
Inferences
Individuals that are well suited
to their environment tend to leave
more offspring than other individuals
and
Over time, favorable traits
accumulate in the population.
46
Fig. 22-UN2
Fig. 22-UN3
47
You should now be able to:
1. Describe the contributions to evolutionary
theory made by Linnaeus, Cuvier, Lyell,
Lamarck, Malthus, and Wallace
2. Describe Lamarck’s theories, and explain
why they have been rejected
3. Explain what Darwin meant by “descent with
modification”
4. List and explain Darwin’s four observations
and two inferences
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5. Explain why an individual organism cannot
evolve
6. Describe at least four lines of evidence for
evolution by natural selection
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48