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RELIGIOUS REFORM AND
STATE BUILDING IN EUROPE
Chapter 15
Prelude to Reformation

Beginning in the Late Middle Ages there
was an increasing number of calls for the
reform of the Catholic Church.
 Complaints
about the corruption in the clergy
 Complaints about the excessive power of the
Pope.
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What were the complaints?
Christian Humanism
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Objections to structure and government of
church?
Objections to approach and role of priests?
What did Christian Humanists believe about
the power of individual Christians?
Supported education in Christian Classics,
schools and translation of the bible into the
vernacular language of the people.
Erasmus
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Most influential of the Christian
humanists.
The Handbook of the Christian
Knight.
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In Praise of Folly—
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What was his central thesis?
His most famous work
What was his basic message?
Erasmus is considered to have laid
much of the philosophical
groundwork for the later reformation
Did he want to divide the church?
How did he feel about Luther?
Church and Religion on the Eve of the
Reformation
Belief that the clergy was corrupt and
incompetent.
 Focus on finances.
 Church offices purchased by wealthy.
 Sale of indulgences.
 Poor quality of parish priests
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Martin Luther
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Germany Monk, very spiritual,
well educated.
Professor in theology; Lectured
on the Bible.
Concerned with the question of
how one attained salvation.
Church’s view
Luther’s view on salvation
Luther’s view on ultimate
authority of religious truth.
95 Theses
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Johann Tetzel. What did he do that angered
Luther? Why was he doing it?
Luther’s objection to indulgences
95 Theses
Luther’s intent in publishing his Theses?
Luther’s 95 Theses were widely printed and
circulated and resonated with many in Germany
What did he ultimately call on German Princes to
do?
Luther’s Views
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Salvation
Source of Religious Truth
Sacraments
Celibacy of Priests
Language of Mass
Veneration of Saints
Edict of Worms
Luther is excommunicated in 1521
 Summoned before the imperial diet at
Worms to appear before the newly-elected
Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V
 What was Luther asked to do? How did
he respond?
 Edict of Worms.
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 What
is it?
Lutheranism Spreads
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Between 1521-1525 Luther’s movement became a
revolution.
Many princes adopt Lutheranism and make state church
How did structure of The Holy Roman Empire contribute
to its spread?
Spreads to Scandinavia.
Luther creates a new religious service for these
churches.
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How does it differ from Catholic service?
Mid-1520s the reform movement undergoes growing
pains as dissenters try to espouse views of their own.
Many conservative Christian humanists abandon the
movement. Why?
German Peasant Revolts
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Peasants in Germany
revolted in 1524 and looked
to Luther for support.
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Why did they revolt?
How did Lutheranism
contribute to their revolt
What did Luther do?
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Why?
Politics and Religion in the German
Reformation
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“Germany” was a loosely affiliated group of
Principalities, free imperial cities, and
ecclesiastical principalities.
All pledged loyalty to the Holy Roman Emperor,
whom they elected,
States had gained a great deal of independence
from the Emperor and they wanted to keep it.
How did this contribute to adoption of
Lutheranism by Princes?
Charles V
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Charles V (Hapsburg) was heir to the Spanish
throne (as Charles I)
He ruled over a far-flung empire.
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Spain and its possessions,
Hapsburg territories of Austria, Hungary, Bohemia
and the Low Countries.
Also, selected as the Holy Roman Emperor, which
had traditionally gone to the Hapsburgs.
He wanted to stamp out Lutheranism and exert
stronger control over the princes, but he had
other problems.
Charles’ Frustration
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Charles wanted to preserve
Catholic unity in his empire,
but had to deal with other
problems. What are they?
War with France that lasted
from 1521 until 1544 and
Incursions in the east from
the Turks.
The Pope (Clement VII) had
sided with the French King,
Peace of Augsburg
By the time Charles V was able to bring
military forces to Germany Lutheranism
had taken hold and princes were unified
and organized.
 Forced to enter into the Peace of
Augsburg
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 Terms?
 Did
it create religious tolerance?
 Consequences for Lutheranism
Zwinglianism
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New flavors of Protestantism emerged in
Europe. Switzerland was the heart of two other
movements.
Zwinglianism.
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Founded by Ulrich Zwingli. Starting in 1518 he
preached in Zurich.
What was his basic doctrine?
What is key difference with Lutheranism?
Zwingli is killed and Zwinglianism is defeated in Swiss
civil war in 1531 between Catholic and Protestant
states.
Calvinism
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After the death Zwingli, protestant
leadership in Switzerland passed to
John Calvin.
1536 Institutes of Christian Religion
puts him at the forefront of
Protestantism.
Similarities and differences with
Lutheranism?
Predestination
the elect vs. the reprobates
Spread of Calvinism
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Became a relatively militant and unforgiving
doctrine. American Puritans were Calvinists.
1536 Calvin creates a Calvinist theocracy in
Geneva.
Consistory
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What is it?
What are its policies?
Geneva became the center of Protestantism in
Europe and Calvinism becomes the dominant
Protestant faith.
Spread of Calvinism
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John Knox, spreads
Calvinism to Scotland.
Presbyterian Church.
Spreads to France—
Huguenots. Netherlands
and eastern Europe.
By the mid-16th century
Calvinism had replaced
Lutheranism as the
militant form of
Protestantism.
English Reformation
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Henry VIII, the “Defender of
the Faith”.
Wife is Catherine of Aragon
had only one surviving child,
Mary Tudor.
Henry VIII wanted a divorce.
Why?
He applied to the Pope for an
annulment.
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What did the Pope say? Why?
How does Henry respond?
Act of Supremacy
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Act of Supremacy.
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Thomas Cranmer appointed
Archbishop, Annuls Henry’s Marriage
Cranmer’s Goals?
Henry’s Response?
Anglican Church
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What does it say?
What political advantages for Henry?
Differences with Catholicism
Anne Boleyn . Elizabeth
Edward VI
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1547 Henry VIII dies
Succeeded by Edward VI (only
10)
Turmoil swept England.
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Scotland invaded
peasant violence.
Edward dominated by devout
Protestants who pushed for
Calvinist reforms.
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Cranmer --Book of Common Prayer
How does Cranmer change doctrine of
Anglican Church?
Mary Tudor 1553-1558
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Mary Tudor inherits the throne when
Edward dies in his teens
Determined to make England
Catholic again.
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What does she do regarding religious
doctrine?
How does parliament react?
Parliament would not support the
return of church lands to the church.
Called “Bloody Mary”. Why?
What did she do to her half-sister,
Elizabeth?
Mary and Philip II
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Mary married Phillip II of Spain, son of Charles
V and future king of Spain.
This caused an uprising in England. Why?
Led to plot to depose her.
Opposition to Mary made England more
Protestant than it had been before heir reign
1558 Queen Elizabeth takes the throne when
Mary dies.
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She reigns for 45 years
Anabaptists
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Groups in England that favored radical religious reform.
Religious Beliefs?
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Should return to Christianity as it was practiced at time of Christ.
No formal priests—all believers were priests and each church
should select among themselves.
No formalized structured service.
Rejected formalized theology in favor of living in accordance with
the word of Christ and bible.
Rejected infant baptism in favor of adult baptism
Believed in the complete separation of Church and State.
Refused to hold political office or to bear arms.
Both Protestants and Catholics thought they were
dangerous.
Impact of Reformation on Family
End of celibate priests vaults status of
family
 Role of men
 How is position of women reduced?
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Reformation Makes Life More Stern
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Reformation led to radical changes in religious practices
that spilled over into daily life and culture.
Indulgences, veneration of saints, holy days, veneration
of relics all gone
Protestant services where much plainer. Much more
emphasis on scripture, the sermon and prayer.
Some reformers tried to impose harsh restrictions on
social entertainments.
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Calvinists in England (Puritans) tried to close the pubs, theaters
and dance halls.
Dutch Calvinists tried to do away with the giving of gifts at the
feast of St. Nicholas (Christmas).
THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION
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By the middle of the 16th Century the Catholic
church had suffered severe setbacks
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Germany, Scandinavia, Switzerland, France, the
Netherlands and much of eastern Europe had
become Protestant
Church tries to reform itself to compete strongly
against the Protestant tide.
Led to the Catholic Reformation.
Three pillars to the Catholic reformation
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Development of the Jesuits
Reformed and revived Papacy
Council of Trent
Society of Jesus—Jesuits
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Jesuits were a military order founded
by Ignatius of Loyola, a former
Spanish soldier.
Highly disciplined, tightly knit religious
order dedicated to rolling back
Protestantism and spreading the
Catholic faith.
Jesuits took a vow of absolute
obedience to the Pope.
Were the Church’s shock troops.
Were like a military organization in
discipline and organization.
What did Loyola see as the cause of
the reformation?
Jesuits
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Jesuit monks underwent more training
than ordinary priests and pledge to
travel anywhere to serve Christ
Jesuit schools
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Curriculum
Who did they focus education on?
Jesuits gained great power as the
spiritual directors to kings.
Were successful in restoring
Catholicism in parts of Germany and
eastern Europe.
Also active in converting pagans.
Especially active in the new world
Reformed Papacy
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The Renaissance Popes’
undermined the authority or and
respect for the Pope
The Protestant reformation was a
jolt that prompted reform in the
nature of the Papacy.
Pope Paul III became Pope in
1549 and began reform within the
Vatican,
What did he do?
What conclusions did the council
reach
Council of Trent
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Met intermittently between 1545 and 1563 to
determine whether to reform doctrine and
practices.
What did Reform-minded Catholics want? What
was their goal?
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When Protestant leaders insisted that scripture was
the sole source of religious teaching, this was a nonstarter. Hope of reconciliation died.
What did conservatives want?
Which side won out?
Council did make a number of reforms in
practices and procedures
Council of Trent-Doctrinal Statement
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Scripture AND tradition were
affirmed as equal authorities in
religious matters
Only the church could interpret
Scripture (Protestants believed that
laymen should read and interpret
the bible)
Faith AND Good works were
necessary for salvation.
Seven sacraments, doctrine of
transubstantiation and clerical
celibacy were affirmed.
Belief in purgatory and the efficacy
of indulgences affirmed.
Procedural and Administrative changes
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Bishops required to reside in their own dioceses;
suppressed pluralism
Forbade the sale of indulgences
Clerics had to give up concubines
Each diocese required to establish a seminary;
preference given to the sons of the poor.
Seminary professors were to determine whether
candidates for ordination had the vocation
Inquisition
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In 1542 Pope Paul III established the Sacred
Congregation of the Holy Office with jurisdiction
over the Roman Inquisition.
It had judicial authority over all Catholics and the
power to arrest, imprison and execute.
Its mission was to vigorously attack heresy.
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Published an Index of Prohibited Books
Influence was strong within the papal states and
strongly catholic nations such as France and Spain.
Outside the papal territories its influence was more
modest
The French Wars of Religion (1562-1598)
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French Civil Wars had two intertwined causes: Religion
and struggle between crown and nobles.
Fight between the Catholic majority and the Huguenot
(Calvinist) minority.
Battle between the ruling Valois-Bourbon house and
the nobles over how much power the monarchy would
have.
Huguenots came from all layers of society including the
nobility.
Proportion of Huguenots among the nobility was much
higher than in the population as a whole.
House of Bourbon
Why were so many nobles Huguenots?
 House of Bourbon became Huguenots.
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 Next
to the Valois in the royal line of
succession.
 Rules the southern French kingdom of
Navarre.
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The Valois monarchy is staunchly
Catholic.
 Because
it has control of the church, it has
little incentive to give Protestants a break.
Ultra-Catholics
During the period a militantly Catholic
group emerged—ultra-Catholics.
Favored strict opposition to the
Huguenots.
 Ultra-Catholics had loyalty of large
sections of the country,
 Received money and support from the
papacy and the Jesuits.
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French Civil Wars
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St. Bartholomew’s Day
Massacre, 8/24/1572
Civil Wars retarded France’s
development as an
international and colonial
power
Wars lasted for 30 years.
Resolution of French Civil Wars
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Who are the politiques? What do they argue?
Views began to prevail
In 1589 Henry of Navarre succeeds to the crown
How?
He is from House of Bourbon and leader of the
Huguenots
What does he do to get the nation to accept him and
end the Civil War?
Edict of Nantes (1598)—
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Catholicism is the official religion of France
Huguenots guaranteed freedom of worship and right to all
political privileges.
Huguenots have the right to fortify their castles and towns.
Phillip II and the Cause of Militant
Catholicism
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Phillip II --son of Charles V (HRE).
Charles abdicates in 1556. Why?
He divided his empire between his younger
brother Ferdinand, who gets Holy Roman
Empire and Austria and his son Phillip, who gets
Spain, Netherlands and New World
possessions.
Phillip’s goals:
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Strengthen the central monarchy in Spain
Exert stronger authority over his territories.
Strengthen power of Church and beat back
Protestantism..
Phillip II
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Spain is a strongly Catholic nation. See
themselves as nation chosen to protect
Christianity from Protestantism.
Phillip becomes the greatest advocate of
militant Catholicism and ushers in an
age of Spanish greatness and power.
Insists on strict conformity to
Catholicism and adherence to dictates
of monarchy
Holy League and Battle of Lepanto in
1571. Who do they defeat?
Spanish Netherlands
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Spanish Netherlands were very important to
Spain. Why?
Phillip’s attempt to strengthen Spain’s control
over the area led to revolt. Why?
Violence erupts in 1566 when Calvinists destroy
Catholic Churches.
Phillip sends in 10,000 troops under the Duke of
Alva
William of Orange.
English Aid to Netherlands
Netherlands
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1609 truce ends the war
Virtually guarantees the
independence of the
northern provinces,
(United Provinces)
Core of modern Dutch
Netherlands.
Spain retains the 10
southern provinces
(modern Belgium)
The England of Elizabeth
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Elizabeth I took the throne of
England in 1558 and ruled for 45
years.
Considered one of the best
British Monarchs.
Under her reign England went
from a relatively poor, second-tier
country to the leader of
Protestant Europe
Powerful maritime power poised
to create a vast empire.
Religious Reforms
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Elizabeth’s first problem was to try to heal he
wounds in her country over religion.
What is Elizabeth’s approach?
What does she do to pursue this approach?
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Repeals the anti-Protestant laws of Mary
Passed a new Act of Supremacy making the monarch
the only supreme governor of both the Church and
State.
Modified the church service to meet some of the
objections of Catholics—made less “Protestant”
Elizabeth and Foreign Policy
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Elizabeth had to steer a careful course in foreign policy.
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Why?
Elizabeth was pressed by her advisors to make a
political marriage. Why?
She rejected these calls. Why?
How did she use her unmarried status as a diplomatic
weapon?
Using this and other diplomatic maneuvers, she kept
England neutral and unencumbered by alliances that
would force England into war.
“Virgin Queen”.
Elizabeth Tweaks France and Spain
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Golden Hinde
Elizabeth provided
clandestine help to both the
Dutch Calvinists and French
Huguenots. Why?
Commissioned privateers to
raid Spanish treasure ships
returning from the New
World. Why?
Conflict with Spain
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Phillip II ultimately decided to invade England
Reasons:
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Believed that revolt in Netherlands would never be
put down while England was aiding them.
 Irritated by privateering
 Wanted to claim England back for the Pope.
 Believed that if Spanish troops appeared in England
the people would rise up in support of Catholic
liberators.
Spanish Armada
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Phillip’s Plan
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Create a powerful armada of 150 ships
to destroy and dominate England in the
North Atlantic
 Invade with troops from Netherlands.
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On paper, England appears to be in
serious trouble.
What advantage to the English have?
What is the key to Spanish naval
strategy?
How does the weather aid England?
Armada suffers severe defeat and is
forced to sail home.
England Ascendant
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Huge psychological impact.
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Brits see this as God’s divine will stepping in to protect them.
Makes them feel powerful.
Beginning of English view that destined to be a major power.
Is the beginning of long decline for Spanish.
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While they quickly rebuild their fleet domination of the Atlantic is
at an end.
English now able to begin to try to colonize New World.
Strong negative psychological impact on Spanish. Why?
Phillip II has depleted the Spanish treasury in battles against
Turks, Dutch and English.
Spain is spread very thinly with its many over-seas possessions.
Social Upheaval in Europe
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Between 1560 and 1650 Europe suffered economic and
social crises as well as political upheaval. In addition to
the religious turmoil and wars, other factors contributed.
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Economy began to retract.
Italy, which had been an economic hot-bed of trade during the
renaissance period was eclipsed by Atlantic powers.
Spain’s fortunes declined.
Mini-ice age after middle of 1500s hurt agriculture, leading to
dislocation of farmers and intermittent food shortages.
Results in leveling and even slight decline in the
population of Europe after 150 years of grow following
the period of the Black Death.
Witchcraft Craze
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Economic and Social
upheaval results in social
tensions that manifest
themselves in witchcraft
craze.
Causes?
As many as 100,000
trials
Who was most frequently
accused? Why?
The Thirty Years War (1618-1648)
Last of the religious wars, but also dynasty
rivalry and balance of power.
 King of Bohemia and the big pile of dung
 Started in the Holy Roman Empire
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 Causes?
 Protestant
Union
 Catholic League
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Austrian and Catholic Hapsburgs v.
French Burbons
Four Phases of War
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First phase–
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Second Phase—Danish Phase
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civil war in Bohemia as Bohemians fought for
independence from Austrian Hapsburg rule.
Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand II totally defeated
Protestant forces.
Denmark intervenes to support Protestant forces.
Catholics role up victories.
Third Phase—Swedish Phase
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Swedish King intervened to support the Protestant
cause.
Decisive for the Protestants and ended Hapsburg
ambition of uniting all the German states under
imperial authority.
Four Phases of War
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Fourth Phase—French/International phase
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Death of Swedish King prompts French to enter the
war to ensure that HRE does not remain strong.
France declares war on Spain and sends assistance
to protestant forces in Germany.
War drags on with French, Dutch and Swedes,
supported by Scots, Finns and German mercenaries
burning, looting and destroying German agriculture
and commerce.
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War devastates
Germany.
1/3 of urban and
40% of rural
population
destroyed.
Economy ravaged.
Peace of Westphalia—1648
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Terms
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End of HRE as real political entity. Each of the
German princes recognized as sovereign,
independent authority
Independence of United Provinces of the Netherlands
acknowledged.
France gets Alsace, increasing its size and prestige.
France allowed to intervene at will in German affairs.
Pope denied the right to intervene in German affairs.
Portugal recognized as independent of Spain.
France emerges as the dominant nation in
Europe.