Download `2-5-02 Revised PDF Block B request OP9` in a

GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT FACILITY
PROPOSAL FOR PROJECT DEVELOPMENT FUNDS (PDF)
BLOCK B GRANT
Country:
Global
GEF Focal Area:
Project Title:
International Waters, OP 9, Multiple Focal Area
Investigations of the Impacts of Localized Stress and
Compounding Effects of Climate Change on the
Sustainability of Coral Reef Ecosystems, and the
Implications for Management
World Bank
ICLARM
14 M – Phase I
Requesting Agency:
Executing Agencies:
Total Project Cost:
Financing Plan (tentative):
US$ 8.0M - GEF
The balance to be raised by partnering institutions
including the following:
The Great Barrier Reef Research Foundation
The University of Queensland, Australia
The Caribbean Coral Reef Research Institute
The National Oceanographic and Atmospheric
Administration
The International Coral Reef Action Network
CGIAR/The World Fish Center (ICLARM)
Project Duration:
5 years - Phase I
Preparation Costs:
PDF Block B Funds Requested:
PDF Co-Funding:
US$38 K
US$210 K
US$30 K
US$ 20K
US$718 K
US$350 K
US$10 K
US$25 K
The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
The Caribbean Coral Reef Research Institute
The University of Queensland, Australia
The National Oceanographic and Atmospheric
Administration
Australian Institute of Marine Science
ICLARM (in kind)
Block A Grant Awarded:
Yes (US$25 K)
1. Project Objectives
This project proposes to conduct specific, targeted research to fill critically important
information gaps in the fundamental understanding of coral reef ecosystems so that management
and policy interventions can be strengthened globally. The purpose of the targeted research is to
test specific hypotheses related to major human and natural factors threatening coral reef
sustainability and to build capacity to manage these ecosystems to enhance reef resilience and
recovery. The project has five major objectives:
1. target the most important gaps in applied scientific understanding related to the sustainability
of coral reefs: develop and refine rigorous protocols to examine specific factors related to the
resilience and vulnerability of coral reef ecosystems and differentiate climate-related factors
from anthropogenic ones across appropriate scales in space and time
2. establish an effective, scientific framework and knowledge base for the express purpose of
synthesizing and comparing findings between sites across national boundaries, and at
regional and global levels
3. disseminate research results broadly for use by policy-makers, the scientific and marine
resources management community, reef-based industry (e.g., tourism and fisheries), and the
general public,
4. apply findings to management interventions and policy formulation at national and local
levels; integrate relevant findings into strategic frameworks for sustainable development,
e.g., National Development Plans, Country Assistance Strategies, PRSPs, (Poverty Reduction
Strategy Papers), and sectoral strategies, where relevant ;
5. further the capacity and involvement of researchers within developing countries to
participate fully in the global, targeted research framework;
6. in line with the research results, assist the Global Environment Facility and other
stakeholders to prioritize resources for the conservation and sustainable use of coral reefs.
The primary output of this proposed PDF is to develop a full project brief that will describe:
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The formation, convening and activities of each of six specialized international scientific
working groups, organized around specific coral reef themes determined to be most
important in addressing gaps in our understanding of coral reef sustainability, based on
the results of the consultations held during the Block A period;
The formation of a Synthesis Panel composed of chairs from each of the working groups
and other senior scientists with experience in interdisciplinary environmental
investigations to oversee the targeted research program and synthesize research findings;
A detailed and coordinated plan for a series of applied investigations that will form the
basis of the targeted research program;
Details of experimental designs and standard operating procedures for each of the
working groups and institutional arrangements to phase these in across a global network
of study sites;
Pilot studies carried out to demonstrate hypothesis testing and coordination of
investigations in the field, associated with one or more working groups
Methods and plans to disseminate relevant findings and mainstream into GEF-financed
operations and those of other partners in the Targeted Research
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2. Background
By the year 2008, the world population will exceed 6 billion people, with 75% living within sixty
kilometers of the coast. The increase in demographics near coastal and marine resources has farreaching implications concerning impacts to marine ecosystems (e.g. sedimentation and
pollution) and their productivity, as well as materials being extracted from them (e.g. overfishing
and destructive fishing). Moreover, the impacts associated with climate change also have
potentially serious consequences for the coastal zone and its resources.
The importance of coral reef ecosystems to global commons, tropical developing nations, the
environmental services they provide, and their relevance to sustainable development and poverty
alleviation, has been well established in the scientific and conservation literature (e.g. see
Spalding et al, 2001). Over 80 developing countries rely on coral reefs as key natural resources
and economic assets.
One of the most significant challenges facing nations with coral reefs is to clearly understand the
impacts from changes in climate versus local human activities, and to determine the range and
feasibility of options that would be effective in protecting goods and services generated by coral
reefs. The World Bank, with co-financing from GEF and other partners, has current investments
and commitments of nearly $250 million in coral reef projects (Table 1). These investments are
potentially at risk in light of the recent coral reef bleaching events and other global change
phenomena that threaten to undermine the success of management efforts which do not take into
account Climate Change and the cumulative impacts of human disturbance.
Over the past 30 years, the volume and diversity of information about coral reefs has steadily
increased, and efforts are underway to enhance management based upon the knowledge already
gained (for example, see the section on ICRAN below). However, significant gaps in knowledge
of the fundamental structure and function of coral reef ecosystems remain, and “our
understanding of even the basic physical parameters of global change relevant to reefs is
inadequate,”(Knowlton 2001). There is general agreement that management will be limited
without advancement in scientific understanding of the basis for ecosystem resilience or collapse
in the face of cumulative stress (Scheffer et al 2001; Knowlton 2001, Buddemeier and Smith
1999). Coordinated, scientific frameworks are needed to provide timely and reliable information
in support of management and the application of appropriate interventions. This has already been
recognized by the GEF in the area of climate change, through its support of the Assessments of
Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Change in Coordination with the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
The year 1998 was documented as the warmest in 600 years of recorded history, and high sea
surface water temperatures (SST) were exacerbated by the strongest El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) event ever recorded. Elevated SSTs led to an unprecedented bleaching of
coral reefs, a phenomenon in which coral hosts reject their symbiotic algae, leaving the animals
and their communities with a ghostly-white, bleached appearance. In some cases the bleaching
led to mortality on a massive spatial scale, particularly in the Indian Ocean region. Up until this
single event, coastal development, pollution and excessive resource extraction were the most
significant factors threatening these globally important marine ecosystems. Such factors
continue to chronically affect coral reefs. Warming is once again being observed over the
tropical Pacific and predictions of a new El Nino developing by early spring are already
circulating (NOAA, 2002). However, the impacts of climate-related events, in tandem with
human stress, are poorly understood.
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Within the last 10 years, estimates of the decline of coral reefs have ranged between 10% and
30%, with forecasts claiming an additional 25% decline possible by 2025 (Wilkinson, 2000).
However, it is urgent that future investigations go beyond simply documenting the decline of
coral reefs, and address critical information gaps to inform policies and the kinds of management
interventions which must be adopted to reverse this trend and promote conservation of reefs over
time.
Table 1. ActiveWorld Bank projects involving coral reef resources from fiscal years 1993-2004, (including
projects in the pipeline).
Project / Program/ Activity
World Bank Region Fiscal Year Project
of Project Status
Start-up
Egypt, Private Sector Tourism and Environmental Management MNA
1993
Active
Project
OECS Countries (Caribbean) Ship Waste Management
Latin America/
1995
Active
Caribbean
(LAC)
OECS Countries (Caribbean) Waste Management (Coastal)
LAC
1995
Active
Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Action Plan
MNA
1996
Active
Project
Amount (USD
millions)
5.00
12.5
50.5
2.70
Madagascar, Second Environment Program Support Project
Africa
1997
Active
6.60
Mozambique – Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Management
Project
Indonesia - Coral Reef Monitoring and Rehabilitation Program
(COREMAP)
Indonesia: COREMAP, Phase II
Indian Ocean Commission - Coral Reef Monitoring GEF
Medium-Sized Project
World Bank/Netherlands Partnership - Western Indian Ocean
Bleaching: CORDIO (Regional)
MesoAmerican Barrier Reef System Initiative (Regional)
Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
(Regional)
Seychelles – Marine Ecosystem Management Project
Philippines –Mindanao MPA Management
Viet Nam – Han Mun MPA (with IUCN and Danida)
Samoa - Marine Biodiversity Protection and Management
Colombia - Conservation and Sustainable use of the Serrania
del Baudo
Marine Electronic Highway
Caribbean Planning for Adaptation to Climate Change (Phase 1)
MACC - Caribbean Regional: Mainstreaming Adaptation to
Climate Change (Phase 2)
Indonesia Bali Marine Conservation Center
Bay of Bengal - Large Marine Ecosystem
Indonesia - Komodo Tourism
Philippines - Palawan
Colombia – San Andres - CORALINA
Western Indian Ocean Fisheries
TOTAL
Africa
2001
Active
5.00
EAP
1998
Active
33.1
EAP
Africa
2002
2000
Preparation
Active
27.0
1..36
Africa
1999
Active
0..35
LAC
AFR/MNA
2001
1999
Active
Active
24.2
19.50
Africa
EAP
EAP
EAP
LCR
1999
1999
2001
1999
2000
Active
Active
Active
Active
Active
1.40
2.50
2.00
1.61
0.75
EAP (Regional)
LAC Regional
LAC (Regional)
2003
1997
2002`
Preparation
Active
Preparation
6.00
6..5
5.00
East Asia-Pacific
South Asia
EAP
IFC (Regional)
LAC
AFR (Regional)
1999
2002
2002
2002
1999
2004
Preparation
Preparation
Preparation
Preparation
Preparation
Preparation
3.75
12.00
5.00
6.00
1.00
5.00
246.32
In 1998, several coral reef scientists from around the world alerted the World Bank's
Environment Department about the ENSO event and the unprecedented impact and mortality on
coral reefs worldwide. During this period, many World Bank resident missions located in Small
Island Developing States and coral reef-dependent countries voiced concern about the severity of
the ENSO events and the potential impacts to coral reefs and surrounding local communities.
Meetings were held within the World Bank and with the GEF to consider ways in which
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effective responses might be developed to address the environmental consequences. During
these meetings, it became evident that pursuing remedies would be significantly limited due to
the lack of information about the cause, effects and consequences of this global event, and the
compounding variables associated with localized, chronic, anthropogenic stresses. Significant
concern was also raised regarding the effects on local economies, and whether and how quickly
these ecosystems may recover. Gathering significant information on this unprecedented coral
bleaching event was an opportunity lost, largely because metrics were not in place to determine
Before-After/Control-Impact conditions that could be adequately measured.
In February 19991, a concept paper was presented to the GEF Targeted Research Committee, and
Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel (STAP). Under the International Waters OP 9, the
concept proposed use of Targeted Research to address information gaps, such as those associated
with coral bleaching and its consequences, to improve the knowledge base in responding to coral
reef decline. At the direction of the Targeted Research Committee, the development of a Block
B grant proposal was authorized, and was submitted to the Targeted Research Committee in June
of 1999. After review and discussion, the GEF requested that additional information be
developed through two Block A grants: one to be developed by the World Bank, and one by
UNEP.
Although a Block A grant was never pursued by UNEP, a Block A proposal was submitted by the
World Bank and approved in September, 2000. The Grant was used to carry out consultations
with scientists around the world to define the most pressing questions concerning the
vulnerability and resilience of coral reefs under localized stress regimes and the looming threat
of climate change. A gap-analysis/literature review and bibliography (Annex 1) was undertaken.
The literature review addresses information gaps under the categories listed below, and is being
produced as a manuscript to be submitted for peer review and publication in a refereed journal as
an output of the Block A grant.
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multiple stressors
reviews
remediation
bioindicators
destructive fishing practices/overfishing
damage from oil spills
eutrophication/pollution
climate change and coral bleaching
sedimentation
storm damage
site-specific surveys (related to anthropogenic effects)
remote sensing.
The consultations and meetings were held in the following locations over a three-year period2:
1
During this same time period, the Swedish Development Agency (Sida) with financial assistance from the
Netherlands Trust Fund, proceeded separately to establish a regional program in response to the coral reef bleaching
and mortality within the Indian Ocean (CORDIO- Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean). See the discussion of
CORDIO in the section on 'baseline conditions' below.
2
Lists of participating scientists at each of the consultations are on file.
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
Townsville, Australia, The International Tropical Marine Management Symposium,
November, 1998
 International Coral Reef Initiative-Coordination Planning Committee Meeting, Paris,
February, 1999
 Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA, International Conference on the April, 1999
 Honolulu, Hawaii, Remote Sensing of Coral Reef Resources, June, 1999
 International Coral Reef Initiative-Coordination Planning Committee Meeting, Guadeloupe,
October, 1999
 Townsville, Australia, AIMS/UNEP, December, 1999
 Riyadh, Saudia Arabia, February, 2000
 International Coral Reef Initiative-Regional Workshop and Coordination Planning
Committee Meeting Noumea, New Caledonia, April, 2000
 Bali, Indonesia, 9th International Coral Reef Symposium, October, 2000
 Paris, France. Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, Coral Reef Bleaching
Indicator Working Group, April, 2001.
In addition to these consultations, the PDF Block proposal has been circulated for review to a
number of the world’s leading coral reef scientists, to conservation NGOs, and to private
foundations, all of whom have confirmed the importance of the proposed research and expressed
interest in collaborating in this effort.
3. General Findings of the Block A Consultations
The recommendations stemming from the consultations reinforce the view that while significant
changes have been obvious in many coral reef regions, the root causes of these observed changes
remain poorly understood. Furthermore, the sustainability of coral reef ecosystems under various
stress regimes—both chronic and acute, as in ENSO related events—cannot be predicted, given
the non-linear response that has been observed in these and other complex ecosystems subject to
multiple stressors (Scheffer 2001). The consultations consistently identified similar outstanding
questions about coral reefs, and included the following issues:
1. Scientists agreed that specific investigations are needed to improve basic understanding
of the forcing functions that influence coral reef environments, community responses to
disturbance, such as coral bleaching, and resilience capacity. However, current
understanding of these mechanisms is inadequate to ensure their conservation for the
future. For example, coral reef calcification rates depend on the calcium carbonate
saturation state of surface seawater, and elevated CO2 concentrations associated with
global warming are expected to reduce the capability of corals to calcify and accrete reef
structures. The effect on calcification rates in combination with local anthropogenic
stresses are not yet known, and combinations of impacts may lead to significant shifts in
the structure, function or even existence of coral reefs in the future.
2. Coral reefs are influenced by processes over a wide range of time and space scales.
Better understanding is needed concerning population and recruitment dynamics
(especially post-larval survivorship), and the role of fish spawning aggregations in
maintaining connectivity between reefs and sustaining coral reef populations.
Consequently, long-term studies (at least 10 years) are required to better understand the
temporal and spatial variability in population dynamics and recruitment, and how this
information can be applied in management contexts. Use of high resolution tools such as
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remote sensing were repeatedly identified by managers and scientists as a high priority to
assist with these kinds of investigations.
3. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) were consistently identified as a potential focus to
quantify effectiveness in protecting habitat and fisheries. A global network of coral reef
MPAs may promote the long-term survival of coral reef communities, but an increased
emphasis on scientific protocols to site, monitor and enhance management of coral reef
MPAs in relation to climate change is needed.
4. The development of reef restoration into an effective management tool requires
approaches that encompass hypothesis-testing of the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of
interventions.
5. Investigations to address such questions should include a range of screening, monitoring
and experimental design, the testing of specific hypotheses, and the investigation of
multiple variables. Nested experimental designs that examine multiple stressors (such as
sediment, nutrients, chemical pollutants) at a variety of spatial scales, were consistently
recommended.
6. To date, the level of synthesis in assessing the state of coral reefs globally has involved a
range of low-resolution monitoring, qualitative assessments and anecdotal observations.
Many of the participating scientists and managers queried, repeatedly stated the need for
a rigorous and coordinated investigative framework to advance management
interventions targeting specific problems.
4. Project Description and Overall Strategic Approach
From the Block A consultations, a series of major sub-themes emerge that serve as organizing
principles around which the targeted research will revolve. The sub-themes include the
following:
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multiple factors affecting the biophysical, physiological and ecological responses of reefs
which help determine their overall resilience or vulnerability under various stress regimes
the basis and spread of coral diseases, now affecting a large number of reef building corals
recruitment dynamics and survivorship affecting community structure (for corals, coral reef
communities and larval fishes), and the relationship to Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
the need to develop viable remediation techniques and enhance restoration
enhancement and application of specific tools, such as remote sensing and predictive model
development for decision support to managers and policy-makers.
Based on these findings the activities under the targeted research program will be organized
under the following five main components during the initial five-year phase:
1. Formation and operation of thematic working groups under the guidance of a multidisciplinary synthesis panel
2. The testing of specific hypotheses and the implementation of plans and procedures for each
of the working groups
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3. Capacity building through development of the applied, investigative research network for
each working group, which will link developing country institutions with partners in the
developed world.
4. Strategy for dissemination of results and the application of relevant research findings to
strengthen management interventions and enhance policy reforms over the short, medium
and long-term.
5. Project management and coordination with other initiatives linked to the Targeted Research.
Component 1. Formation and convening of thematic working groups and the guiding/Synthesis
Panel
The purpose of this component is to establish the research framework and an oversight body to
guide its implementation and integrate results for public dissemination. As part of their mandate,
the working groups and synthesis panel will promote collaboration between developed and
developing country scientists and institutions. To the extent possible, scientists from developing
countries will form part of the Working Groups, and in regions where the research is carried out,
individuals from developing country institutions will be invited to join the research as full
partners. Six thematic working groups have been defined to address a particular sub-theme of the
targeted research. These are:
A. Coral Bleaching in response to climate-related and local ecological factors
B. Remote Sensing
C.
D.
E.
F.
Coral Diseases
Larval Transport, Connectivity and implications for MPAs
Remediation and Restoration
Modeling
The chairs from each of these working groups will convene with other selected scientists to
form a guiding, Synthesis Panel. This panel will serve to steer the targeted research
framework, review results and modify the study designs as appropriate. The Panel will
also be responsible for synthesizing and reporting findings to the scientific and
management communities. To illustrate the scope and function of the working groups,
detailed examples of two of the six working groups proposed are included below.
1. IOC Working Group on Bleaching and local ecological factors
This working group was formed3 in early 2001 by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission. The working group's first meeting was held in April 2001, and a second field-based
meeting is planned in early March, 2002 to develop standard operating procedures and begin
testing the experimental designs. The group's terms of reference involve the development of
molecular, cellular, physiological and community indicators for coral bleaching under a range of
variables. The group will also examine potential mechanisms of coral reefs for adaptation and
acclimatization to environmental change. Based on consultations with World Bank staff, this
3
The working groups members on coral bleaching and local ecological factors are: Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, Chair, Yossi Loya, William
K. Fitt, Michael Lesser, Barbara Brown, Ruth Gates, Roberto Prieto-Iglesias, John Bythell, Robert van Woesik, Bernard Salvat, and
David Obura. Details of the working group participants are listed in Annex 2 and the working hypotheses in Annex 3.
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Working Group has developed a series of detailed questions followed by specific, testable
hypotheses. These hypotheses (see Annex 3) will be tested through a standardized set of
controlled in-situ experiments, combined with concomitant, in-field measurements immediately
adjacent to the controlled experiments. The experiments will be replicated in at least three
different geographic locations initially, and then expanded as part of investigative infrastructure
to establish a global network of study sites. Details of the experimental design are described in
Component 2.
The actual mechanisms affecting coral stress, bleaching and subsequent mortality may involve a
series of compounding variables (Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999). Thus, hypotheses have been
developed to address three levels of investigation: molecular, cellular and coral polyp-level, and
local ecological responses (see Annex 3 for details).
Outputs
The outputs anticipated from this series of targeted investigations will be:
1. A series of biomarkers such as:
 Molecular markers which will rapidly and easily distinguish heat stress
from other types of stresses (e.g. sedimentation, metal contamination,
nutrient stress) on coral reefs.
 Cellular markers that will enable users to accurately anticipate and monitor
the advent of coral bleaching or recovery.
 Ecological markers that will enable users to monitor impacts of coral
bleaching and to project how the changes are likely to impact on local
ecosystem function.
 Genetic markers that will enable insight into the tolerance and resilience of
communities of reef-building corals.
2. A more complete model of the mechanisms that trigger mass coral bleaching,
forecasting of events and prospects for recovery. This will contribute to adaptive
management techniques to reduce localized stress during anticipated bleaching
events and enable better projections of the impact of climate change on coral reefs,
and impacts on those human communities relying upon them as sustainable
resources.
2. Working Group on Remote Sensing
Recent advancements in remote sensing technology make this area of inquiry highly significant
in the study and monitoring of coral reefs (Mumby et al., 2001). Improved resolution and costeffectiveness make remote sensing an indispensable and increasingly accessible tool for coral
reef managers in mapping abundance and distribution of reefs, reef quality and vulnerability to
stress as part of risk assessment. In June, 1999 the first global workshop on remote sensing of
coral reefs was hosted by NOAA and ICLARM to examine the range of technology and
advancements in application in a variety of ways (http://coral.aoml.noaa.gov/corvil/coral_reefs/).
Figure 1 depicts the range of measurements where remote sensing can be applied to support
targeted investigations specifically for coral reefs.
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During the Block A period a working group4 for this area of targeted research was established,
and its first meeting held in Washington in early December 2001. The Australian Institute of
Marine Science hosted a second planning meeting of this working group on January, 28, 2002 to
review the latest data on Bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef and the developing ENSO in the
southern hemisphere and further refine their mandate.
It was agreed that during the Block B phase, the working group would:
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Develop an agreed-upon assessment of the state of remote sensing of coral reefs
Confirm research priorities that address specific gaps in understanding and application
Establish objectives, identify sites, data requirements
Identify partners in developing countries and their infrastructure and information needs to
effectively use remote sensing
The Working Group has already identified three priority areas of investigation. These are:
1. Assessment and Reef conditions and health
2. Provision of ecological data for spatial decision making (such as, MPA design)
3. Describing the external physical processes affecting coral reef health (e.g. coral bleaching or
other event)
The locations of investigations of this Working Group will overlap to the extent possible with
those of the Bleaching and other working groups, to create synergies during the Block B phase
and to capitalize on the experimental infrastructure developed by the various working groups and
their developing country associations (see section on Working Group field logistics below).
4
The members of this working group are: Peter J. Mumby, Chair, Serge Andrefouet, Jack Hardy, Eric Hochberg, William Skirving,
Alan Strong, Ellsworth LeDrew, and Rick Stumpf,. Details of the working group participants are listed in Annex 2.
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Remote sensing for the science and management of coral reefs
Reef science
application
Measurement
Physical
environment &
climate effects
(e.g. coral
bleaching)
Effect of acute
disturbance (e.g.
hurricanes &
floods)
Sea surface
temperature
Reef connectivity
(interaction with
oceanic circulation
models)
Chlorophyll &
sediment
concentration
Stratification of
reef sampling (e.g.
monitoring, stock
assessment)
Location of coral
reefs
Biodiversity
planning &
Marine Protected
Areas
Reef functions
Reef
geomorphology
Community
structure of reef
satellite sensors
Monitoring
damage and
recovery of reef
health
Health of reef
(coral & algal cover)
airborne sensors
increasing requirement for high spatial resolution
Other Working Groups
3.
Working Group on Coral Diseases
In 1974, only two coral diseases were known to science. Today there are over 20 coral
diseases and lesions that have been classified, even though the disease etiology has only
been clearly established for about three or four. Disease frequencies have increased the
most significantly within the Caribbean Basin. For example, Dustan et al. (1999) showed
an increase in diseased coral species of over 215% from 1996-1998 in the Florida Keys,
USA. However, coral diseases appear to be emerging within other regions as well, and an
increasing number of researchers are now focused on elucidating disease origins, causes
and impacts.
The purpose of the coral disease working group will be to examine the state of the
science, prioritize and target those investigations that are critical to understanding coral
disease, and how this information can assist managers in minimizing disease frequency
and transmission. This working group will also consider developing studies that utilize
the investigative infrastructure that will be piloted by the Bleaching Working group.
This working group has also been formed during the Block A period, with a coordinating
chair identified and working group participants nominated.
Establishment of other working groups
The formation of the other working groups and their composition will occur during the Block
B period; however, the focus of their investigations is briefly discussed below.
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4.
Working Group on Larval transport, connectivity and coral reef MPA relevance
This working group will convene to examine the role that larval transport, recruitment, postrecruitment survival, and connectivity play in networking coral reef environments, particularly as
they relate to the siting and management of marine protected areas. Genetic studies in addition to
behavioral, ecological and broad scale oceanographic features will be integrated into models of
reef connectivity. As such, the working group will collaborate with other working groups, (i.e.
remote sensing and modeling), to apply technologies to this area of inquiry. The results of reef
connectivity models will serve as powerful tools for managers seeking to build in resilience and
recovery from ecosystem disturbance into the design of effective MPA networks.
5.
Working Group on Remediationand Restoration
Given the degree of decline within some coral reef regions, the role of remediation and
restoration could have an increasingly important role in the future. Encouraging news from the
Caribbean evidencing signs of recovery of the sea urchin Diadema antillarum, nearly two
decades after its collapse (Knowlton 2001), open the door for enhancing restoration. However,
viable approaches and technologies are still in early stages of development, and in most cases are
currently difficult to implement on large spatial scales. This working group will convene to
examine the state of remediation techniques and develop investigations that can test the efficacy
of a range of potential applications. This will include the following considerations:
1.
2.
3.
4.
6.
the scientific protocols necessary to design and implement restoration strategies
baseline data for developing effective criteria
the efficacy and feasibility of restoration and remediation techniques.
prospects for enhancing natural recovery
Working Group on Modeling
One of the major objectives in developing a coordinated information and knowledge base
through targeted research is so that coordinated data sets can improve the accuracy and reliability
of forecasting and predictive modeling. Such models have the potential to alert managers to
specific conditions, events or probabilities of events, so that appropriate and timely responses
may occur. Questions on the functioning and responses of coral reef systems necessarily are
multi-scalar and multi-disciplinary. They all include aspects of community dynamics, physical
oceanography, climate dynamics and climate change. Many also include sociological and
economic components from fisheries, tourism, coastal development, inland agriculture and
industry. These questions are necessarily explored at relatively large spatial, and long time
scales. They will only be answered with extensive data sets requiring substantial computational
and data storage capacity. To be successful, this project must develop modeling tools to handle
these kinds of data. This will be the task of the Modeling Working Group. This working group
will convene during the Block B period to examine the state-of-the-science and, in collaboration
with other working groups, determine the current and potential applications of integrated data
modeling for management.
Field Sites and Logistics
Part of the power of a global research infrastructure will be to relate investigations to information
at different scales. To create synergies between working groups, build comprehensive databases
and strengthen capacity in the field, efforts will be made to target investigations of the different
working groups at many of the same field locations. At least initially, the Bleaching Working
Group will work in three coral reef regions of the world—the Indo-Pacific, the Western
Caribbean, and the Western Indian Ocean. Field sites within these regions will depend on the
12
location of existing institutions or centers of excellence that can host the type of research
proposed by the Working Groups. Ideally, these centers would serve as nodes or focal points for
the research to be carried out within each region, while building capacity elsewhere in the region.
Where possible, twinning arrangements would be designed whereby the nodal institution would
host visiting investigators from other facilities to take part in the research. This will be
particularly important where baseline information, controlled experimental conditions and
communications infrastructure will be essential to carry out rigorous research design (see Figure
2, below).5 Following the initial phase, investigators would return to their home institutions to set
up replicates and carry out sequential or comparative studies. (see Figure 4). A network of field
sites and research institutions would be linked in this process. The University of Queensland on
the Great Barrier Reef and a site in Thailand or the Philippines in the Indo-Pacific; the University
of Mexico in Puerto Morelos, in the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System; and the Tanzanian
Institute of Marine Research, in Zanzibar, will be the initial nodal institutions for the Bleaching
Working Group.
In the establishment of subsequent working groups, designated member(s) of the group would
visit existing research sites in order to determine the suitability of these sites for their research.
This would allow them to discuss logistics and verify the types of coral reef present (depths,
habitat types), and to undertake ground-truth activities, such as the measurement of water
turbidity / attenuation coefficients and the identification of local data sources. Ideally, there
would be three field locations in each region, comprising a suite of varying water quality,
biophysical parameters and reef systems within each region. However, to ensure the necessary
flexibility required by each Working Group to pursue its agreed lines of inquiry, the numbers and
locations of sites would not be limited to those identified above, and would likely be expanded in
concert with the global network infrastructure over the life of the Targeted Research Program.
Establishment of the Synthesis Panel
Without clear vision at the beginning, it is difficult to establish any program that will provide
useful data for a range of applications. This is why the program must have a strong conceptual
foundation and be hypothesis-driven. As stated earlier, the Chairs from each of the six working
groups, and selected senior scientists, managers and policy specialists will form a Synthesis
Panel for the Targeted Research Program. The role of the Synthesis Panel will be to review the
priorities and activities of each of the working groups, and provide guidance in establishing the
global framework. The panel will also discuss the findings of each of the working groups over
time, and in combination with reviews of the scientific literature, synthesize and publish findings
that can relate to practical applications for management and policy development. An objective of
this panel will also be to serve as a collective voice and in collaboration with the International
Society for Reef Studies, serve to coordinate scientific knowledge of coral reefs at a global level.
During year 4 of the project, the Synthesis Panel, in conjunction with the working groups will
agree on research priorities for phase two of the program, and the research framework to support
its implementation.
Component 2. Implementation of studies to test specific hypotheses
Under the GEF guidelines for Targeted Research, activities should be highly focused in their
effort to address specific questions. This program aims to establish a foundation of study sites
5
Arrangements are already underway for formal collaboration between the University of Miami (RSMAS) and the
Bank/GEF MBRS Project to undertake reef connectivity studies, analysis of reef resilience and model building for
decision support as additional resources become available.
13
and controlled experiments that can be replicated and built upon over time. The Bleaching
Working Group will provide an initial series of experiments to test the hypotheses outlined in
Component 1. The infrastructure will provide a basis for other studies.
The experiments will employ a set of controlled mesocosms where variables, such as water
temperature, photosynthetically active and ultraviolet radiation, can be controlled against other
variables, such as water turbidity and oxygen concentration, nutrients and pollutants (see Figure
2). These experiments will not only test these selected hypotheses, but they will also serve as
standards, or benchmarks for field measurements, so that results can be compared and subsequent
models developed to help predict where vulnerabilities lie and when reef responses to various
stresses may occur.
Figure 2. Schematic depicting the basic experimental design for the Bleaching Working Group.
Another foundation for the targeted research program will rest with the use of complementary
approaches and operating procedures with the other coral reef sub-themes and working groups.
By coordinating investigations, the working groups have the potential to build an information
base that can directly relate findings across space and time (Figure 3). Building common data
sets over extended periods of time is a powerful approach to targeted research because it will
help guide the overall framework in developing a core set of measurements that can be closely
related to one another.
14
Working Group Collaboration
•Connectivity
•Impacts &
Trends
•Regional
Distributions
& Zones
•Local
Ecological Dist.
& Responses
•Community
Structure
•Individual
samples
Figure 3. Example of how the various targeted research working groups can collaborate in
their investigations and coordinate information through use of complementary study
designs and locations. Such complementary data collection not only strengthens findings
but also enhances correlation between different scales.
Component 3. Identification and Development of the Applied, Investigative Network among
developing countries.
This component will work with developing country institutions to expand the network of study
sites globally. Each of the members of the working groups, and the Synthesis Panel will
participate in using their professional networks to identify locations and institutions that either
have existing interest and capacity, or that can have their capacity enhanced to become part of
the active network.
Component 4. Development and implementation of Guidelines for the application of relevant
findings for management and policy intervention.
In concert with the Synthesis Panel, working group members and supporting staff will design,
plan and implement guidelines for the application of relevant findings into management and
policy operations. Part of this initiative will be working with on-going management programs,
such as the such as the suite of GEF and other co-financed projects referred to in part in Table 1,
the International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN), the Nature Conservancy/Conservation
International’s Global Marine Program, WRI’s analysis of Reefs at Risk, ICLARM’s work on
coral reefs and that of other institutions, to improve effectiveness of, to ensure that the results of
the research are practically applied where they will have the greatest impact on the conservation
of the world’s coral reefs.
15
Figure 4. Illustration of the institutional linkages involved in designing, implementing and disseminating the
results of the investigations in the field. Institutional Nodes, or Centers of Excellence, provide the quality
control and research rigor required to carry out the experimental design formulated by the working groups
and endorsed by the Synthesis Panel. Capacity building is the result of collaboration between a Node and
other research facilities in selected locations with coral reef ecosystems. Research results are channeled to
management projects and activities to inform decision making, and to policymakers to introduce needed
reforms. Similar clusters of node and satellite institutions are envisioned in each region and some of the
working groups may overlap in their use of field sites and clusters to carry out investigations.
Component 5. Project Management and Coordination
This component will support the technical assistance, financial services, training, logistical and
operational requirements necessary to ensure the appropriate and efficient administration of
project activities and resources. It will also pursue institutional and financial arrangements to
ensure the long-term sustainability of the targeted research in subsequent phases of the program.
A number of partner institutions are already committed to working with ICLARM and the World
Bank during the Block B Phase, and several private foundations have signaled their interest in
collaborating in the Targeted Research once it is launched. A key task of the implementing
institution and associated executing entities will be the consolidation of such emerging
partnerships during the initial phase, and creation of a blueprint for implementing the next phase
of research priorities, which will be identified by the Working Groups and Synthesis Panel.
Justification for PDF Grant
As this is a global project potentially involving all coral reef regions of the world, this PDF grant
is needed to finalize the experimental design for the full Project and the institutional
arrangements required to implement the research framework under Phase 1. Preparation funds
will be used to convene the working groups (and reconvene those working groups that have
already been established), develop and convene the guiding Synthesis Panel, and implement pilot
activities associated with testing several of the initial hypotheses.
Block B resources will also be used to define the geographic network where targeted
investigations will occur, and the various institutions on the ground that will be carrying out the
research and capacity building during Project implementation. The Working Groups and the
Synthesis Panel will each meet at least twice during the PDF Block B period, and then convene
regularly over the course of Project implementation to review the research program, interpret
results and publish official reports about the global implications of the targeted research.
Description of PDF Activities and Expected Outputs
Activity 1. Formation and convening of the Working Groups and the Synthesis Panel
The working groups identified as part of the Block A period will be reconvened to continue
development of their targeted priorities and plans. The remaining working group will be defined
and convened for their first meetings. Once each of the working groups have met and Chairs
selected, the Synthesis Panel will convene toward the middle of the Block B period.
Activity 2. Implementation of pilot activities to test the specific hypotheses of the 1 st two
working groups
Pilot studies at the four locations Mexico, Australia, Zanzibar and The Philippines (or
Thailand)will be supported with Block B resources. The intent is to test the experimental
designs to ensure that they can be implemented and function as planned. Experiments to test the
specific hypotheses described in component 1 would be conducted and any preliminary findings
reported as part of the full Project proposal.
There is a sense of urgency in establishing these study sites during the Block B period. Recent
meteorological models have forecasted another El Niño/Southern Oscillation event beginning
around June/July, 2002. Having the experimental mesocosms and field stations in place and
operating in advance of this predicted event would allow for critical information to be collected
17
before and after potential elevations in SSTs, and other conditions conducive to stress and coral
bleaching.
Activity 3. Finalization of the Full Project Proposal
During the course of the working groups and Synthesis Panel meetings, the full Project proposal
and Budget will be completed. This proposal will identify the complete set of investigative
priorities and collaborations from each of the working groups, reviewed and endorsed by the
Synthesis Panel, and the complete network of study sites identified with participating countries'
letters of support for the Phase I project period. The full proposal will also develop the initial
guidelines for the application of relevant findings to management.
Activity 4. Implementing Arrangements
ICLARM, The World Fish Center, has been identified to serve as the Executing Agency for the
PDF Block B preparation grant. ICLARM is one of the 16 Centers of the Consultative Group on
International Agricultural Research, with a secretariat in the World Bank, and has been selected
because of its global scope, its research orientation, and established networks in developing
countries.
Figure 5 ICLARM ‘s Outreach Capability
18
ICLARM’s mission is to help poor people in developing countries through research into the
sustainable development and conservation of fish and other living aquatic resources. Coral reefs
have been identified as one of the focus fisheries resource and ecosystems for the Center's work
because of the important ecosystem goods and services they provide to millions of people. The
Center's work on coral reefs includes the creation of ReefBase, the global database of the world's
reefs, their resources, status and ecology, assessing reef fisheries resources and the valuation of
all reef resources, studies of better governance policies, genetic diversity of indicator species and
the development of environmental friendly culture and stock enhancement technologies for
conservation and aquaculture of reef species. The Targeted Research program also needs a major
administrative commitment to data management, including mechanisms and standard operating
procedures to ensure data quality and good archiving over time and to make data available to the
resource managers, policy makers and the public, and to researchers. ReefBase, centered at
ICLARM, the global repository for coral reef information, will be capable of serving the working
groups in this regard.
The institutional arrangements for the operation of the full Targeted Research project will be
developed in detail during project preparation. Galvanized by the bleaching events of 1997-98
and by earlier consultations with the World Bank in the development of the TR concept, a
number of NGOs and marine research institutions have already begun to focus attention on the
impacts of climate change on coral reef ecosystems. As described earlier, the initial geographic
focus will be in East-Asia/Pacific, the Western Caribbean and the Western Indian Ocean, where
GEF/Bank investments are heaviest, and where existing marine research institutions may be
tapped more readily to become involved in a networked program of targeted research for coral
reefs. Along these lines, The Nature Conservancy (TNC) and Conservation International (CI)
have recently joined forces to mount a new initiative in the Asia/Pacific Region to improve the
effectiveness of MPAs in counteracting the impacts of climate change. This will rely on field
based observations of: (1) differential survival of corals/reefs to bleaching linked to Climate
Change, (ii) the importance of connectivity and larval dispersal between reef to recovery from
bleaching and other disturbance events, and (iii) the importance of fish spawning aggregation
sites to reef connectivity and sources of replenishment to damaged/overfished reefs. Applying
these science-based principles to the design of more effective/resilient coral reef MPA networks
will depend on the kind of rigorous research and hypothesis testing envisioned under the
proposed Targeted Research Project. TNC is eager to collaborate with the GEF Project in linking
the results of its investigations to management and in building capacity locally for more effective
conservation. TNC proposes to create a Coastal Marine Conservation Center in Indonesia which
will provide TA and training in marine conservation to MPA managers, coastal resources
managers and other NGOS, and will be linked through a series of strategic partnerships to
learning centers and project sites throughout the Asia Pacific region. This learning center may be
linked to the Center of Excellence referred to under Component 4 of the Targeted Research (see
Figure 4), as a dissemination node. Further collaboration in Capacity Building for Adaptation to
Climate Change is envisioned under a partnership involving TNC, the World Wildlife Fund,
IUCN, the USEPA and the World Bank to develop a series of good practice guidelines for MPA
managers around the world. These would outline mitigation measures to reduce vulnerability to
the impacts of climate change by enhancing the resilience of marine coastal communities to
bleaching, storm damage and other climate change-related impacts.
Eligibility
The Project will be submitted under OP 9, Integrated Land and Water Multiple Focal Area for
International Waters, but has relevance to OP 2 and OP (X for Climate Change). Coral reefs
provide an excellent model for understanding the relationship between three of the four major
19
GEF focal areas: Climate Change, International Waters and Biodiversity. Coral reefs house the
most diverse forms of life on earth and are among the most species rich habitats in the world.
Recent El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, which ushered in dramatic changes in
global precipitation, circulation patterns and increases in Seas Surface Temperature (SST), have
shed new light on the relationship between Global Warming and the world’s coral reefs. The
widespread bleaching and mortality of reefs which occurred in association with the most severe
ENSO event in history in 1997/98, suggests a strong correlation between changes in the earth’s
atmosphere and dramatic and pervasive change in these fragile marine ecosystems. Current
models suggest that the exchange of CO2 through the atmosphere and the sea surface has a
regulatory effect on coral reefs by affecting calcification rates of corals through changes in the
concentration of carbonate ions and the saturation state of calcium carbonate in the water
column. The greater the CO2 concentration, the lower the carbonate and CaCO3 saturation rates,
leading, in turn, to a decrease in reef accretion and a predominance of bio-eroding processes.
Clearly more field measurements and experimental work are needed to determine the long-term
effects of increased atmospheric CO2 on coral reefs. However, it is clear that reefs, as shallow
water systems at the margins of continents, are at risk not only from land based sources of
pollution, but are vulnerable to changes occurring at the interface of the sea surface and the
earth’s atmosphere. Understanding the nature of these interactions between air, land, and sea in
the context of coral reefs will be critical to their conservation and to the design of appropriate
management interventions. The proposed Targeted Research also has the potential to advance
our conceptual thinking on integrated ecosystem management and the additional challenges
imposed by climate change.
Coordination with other Implementing Agencies
The proposed Targeted Research is linked with a number of initiatives of other GEF
Implementing Agencies and potential partners in the implementation of a collaborative, longterm program which links science to management. Emphasis will be placed during the Block B
phase on identifying synergies and building on efforts which offer opportunities for technical
collaboration, institutional networking, economies of scale and co-financing.
Examples include the following:


The Millennial Ecosystem Assessment, which involves a partnership between the UNEP,
UNDP and The World Bank, among others, seeks to produce assessments of five major
ecosystems: coastal/fisheries, agriculture, forests, grasslands/drylands, and water. At this
stage, the Millennium Assessment is seeking to develop indicators of ecosystem health as a
first step in conducting the assessment. The proposed coral reef targeted research has the
potential to serve as the first sustainable investigative framework for a major ecosystem, and
could provide important inputs on methodology and data for assessment of the world’s
tropical coastal and marine environments. ICLARM, which will serve as the executing
agency for the PDF Block B, is also the executing agency for the Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment, thus ensuring synergies between the two initiatives.
ICRAN, is a collaborative partnership for coral reef conservation involving UNEP,
ICLARM, and five other founding partners has been endorsed by the International Coral
Reef Initiative, of which both the World Bank and UNEP are members. The proposed
Targeted Research for Coral Reefs has also been endorsed by ICRI and discussed with
UNEP as a complementary initiative that provides the investigative framework for the
management interventions that will be promoted under ICRAN. Work on larval dispersal
and coral reef connectivity in Southeast Asia currently being carried out by ICLARM; will
20
be complemented by similar work in the Caribbean to be carried out under the TR. Research
results may feed directly into pilots for improved siting and management of MPAs in ICRAN
demonstration sites in the Caribbean and Southeast Asia.
Baseline Situation and Developing Efforts
ICRI (www.icriforum.org) Launched in 1995, the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI)
seeks to implement Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 as well as other international conventions and
agreements for the benefit of coral reefs and related ecosystems, and has served as the main
supporting forum for over 85 member countries since 1995. The US served as the initial
Secretariat from 1995-96. The Secretariat was then hosted by Australia from 1997 through 1998.
Immediately following the first International Tropical Marine Ecosystems Management
Symposium (ITMEMS) and ICRI review this past November, 1998, the ICRI Coordination
Planning Committee (CPC) met and officially transferred the ICRI Secretariat to France,
beginning January 1, 1999 until 2001.
ICRI has identified four cornerstones of operation:

integrated management (to incorporate human activities affecting coastal/marine and related
terrestrial ecosystems, both within and outside marine protected areas);

capacity building (to involve all stakeholders ensuring equity, empowerment, and
transparency in resource management processes);

research and monitoring (to provide the information base required to help informed decisionmaking); and

review (of progress to make adjustments in actions and goals where necessary)
The success of the Initiative in its future phases will require concrete action at the regional,
national and local levels. ICRI's focus is shifting to regional levels, where national governments,
with the help of the private sector and local and community groups can shape policies and
measures to their particular circumstances. The goal is for ICRI to be comprised of a series of
self-sufficient regional programs based on existing organizations and requiring a minimum of
international secretariat support. Designated regional coordinating units will take on the
responsibility for coordination between regions and representation of ICRI at the international
level. Ultimately, results from the targeted research can be integrated within ICRI's policy and
management objectives.
GCRMN (www.gcrmn.org) The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) is an
operational program of ICRI and global network of people, governments, institutes and NGOs
monitoring coral reefs and their user communities in over 80 countries or states. GCRMN is
guided by a Strategic Plan that focuses on building capacity to monitor coral reefs worldwide.
Monitoring includes biophysical and socio-economic factors. To date, the GCRMN has also
produced two global reports assessing the state of the world coral reefs (see Wilkinson, 2000).
The GCRMN has four co-sponsors (IOC/UNESCO, IUCN, the World Bank and UNEP), and is
guided by a scientific and technical advisory committee (STAC).
The GCRMN identifies three levels of monitoring: i) Community-based, or Volunteer
monitoring, which is considered a low-level form on monitoring, ii) government-level
monitoring--which considered a moderate in precision, and iii) research-level monitoring. In a
recent five-year review of the GCRMN the higher precision, research level monitoring remains
21
under represented compared to the other categories. This targeted research program has the
potential to--over time--provide the GCRMN with higher-precision status and trends of the
network of research sites.
The International Society for Reef Studies. Founded in 1980, The International Society for
Reef Studies (ISRS) is a membership organization with over 800 members from over 50
countries worldwide. The principal objective of the Society is to promote for the benefit of the
public, the production and dissemination of scientific knowledge and understanding of coral
reefs, both living and fossil. ISRS produces the quarterly scientific journal Coral Reefs, which
focuses on quantitative and theoretical coral reef studies, including experimental and laboratory
work, and modeling. ISRS in not a funding body; it relies on individual researchers to contribute
findings to its peer-reviewed journal. However, ISRS endorses existing government and private
funding of multidisciplinary programs to promote research on the changing nature of coral reefs,
and recognizes the need for an increased level of support if the many threats to reefs worldwide
are to be understood and mitigated. The current president of the ISRS has written a letter of
endorsement for this proposed targeted research initiative6.
CORDIO (www.cordio.org)- is an acronym for Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean.
CORDIO is supported by Swedish Sida and the World Bank, through Dutch Trust Funds,
beginning in 1999. Coral reefs are key ecosystems within this region supporting large sectors of
the countries' populations and economies (e.g. through artisanal fisheries, tourism and large-scale
investments). Activities within CORDIO have focused on a) determining the bio-physical
impacts of coral degradation as a result of bleaching and other disturbances, and monitoring the
long term prospects for recovery, b) the socio-economic impacts of coral mortality and options
for mitigation through management and development of alternative livelihoods and c) the
prospects of restoration and rehabilitation of reefs to accelerate ecological and economic
recovery. CORDIO's programs are conducted in Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Madagascar,
Seychelles, Reunion, Comoros, Mauritius, Maldives, India and Sri Lanka and are coordinated
from subregional secretariats in Kenya, Sri Lanka and Reunion. CORDIO has been operating and
has received additional cosponsors over its two-year history. CORDIO's program currently does
not conduct targeted research; however, one of its representatives has become a member of the
coral bleaching working group.
ICRAN - The International Coral Reef Action Network. (www.icran.org). The
International Coral Reef Action Network is a global partnership of coral reef experts who are
working to reverse the decline of the world's coral reefs. Through the adoption of a strategic
plan, ICRAN is designed to act on an international, regional and local scale while building on
existing coral reef conservation and management programs already underway. ICRAN provides
a strategic and central network to support existing coral reef conservation and management by
enabling the partners to streamline their efforts through communication and shared resources.
There are three main interlinked components of ICRAN: Management Action, Assessment, and
Communication and knowledge dissemination. A major goal of ICRAN is to assist local
communities to continue building on successful management efforts and to share those
experiences in hopes that good practices will be replicated. ICRAN also provides a forum to
extend experience and knowledge to other interested coral reef managers and
Policy-makers worldwide. ICRAN's Management Action component involves specific activities
within four coral reef regions (the Caribbean, Eastern Africa, East Asia and the South Pacific).
6
This endorsement letter is on file and available upon request.
22
As part of the Regional Seas development of ICRAN, inventories have been developed for each
of the participating countries within the Regional Seas, and the level of monitoring or baseline
environmental assessment has been determined in many areas. In the majority of cases, there are
no coordinated, research-level, scientific investigations underway. Rather, investigations are
generally fragmented and independent among institutions. This information can be viewed
within ICRAN's Strategic Plan (http://www.unep.ch/coral/icranpln.htm).
ICRAN has received support from the United Nations Foundation to begin its four-year action
phase. ICRAN partners have been in contact with the GEF to look for ways to leverage coral reef
management and conservation initiatives. Once the investigative infrastructure is in place, this
proposed targeted research program could eventually serve as a crucial information base for the
ICRAN framework, by providing improved recommendations for management, and policy.
National Center for Caribbean Coral Reef Research (NCORE). This is a 10 yr initiative
based at the University of Miami, with seed funding from the USEPA and NSF, to improve the
scientific basis for coral reef management. NCORE’s objective is to unravel the complex
interactions--bio-physical, ecological and socio-economic--which affect the resilience of coral
reefs to stress, and to supply decision support tools to facilitate knowledge-based management.
NCORE intends to develop a series of models of coral reef ecosystem structure and behavior,
and to determine the connectivity between major reef ecosystems in Belize, the Florida Keys and
the Bahamas as a determinant of resilience as well as transboundary impacts. A Memorandum
of Understanding between NCORE and the GEF/World Bank regional Project for the
Conservation and Sustainable Use of the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System is in the process of
being finalized, outlining the basis for collaboration in this research and capacity building effort.
The Integrated Global Observing Strategy (IGOS). The IGOS is a cooperative strategy
that, through partnership, seeks to provide a comprehensive framework for the major space-based
and in-situ systems for global observation of the Earth. Its aim is to provide an over-arching
strategy for conducting observations relating to climate and atmosphere, oceans and coasts, the
land surface and the Earth's interior. The Partners, through IGOS, intend to build upon the
strategies of existing international global observing programs, and upon current achievements, in
seeking to improve observing capacity and deliver observations in a cost-effective and timely
fashion. Efforts will be directed to those areas where satisfactory international arrangements and
structures do not currently exist.
As a result of the ICRAN program, UNEP has formed a Coral Reef unit to assist in coordinating
ICRAN, and to address other aspects of coral reef information, conservation and management.
Through the Coral Reef Unit, an IGOS Coral Reef theme is currently under development. This
theme is to be linked to ICRAN, and will be designed to address improved observations of coral
reefs and associated ecosystems through the following actions:
 quantify the global extent and distribution of coral reefs and associated ecosystems and their
spatial relationships;
 quantify the loss of coral reefs and associated ecosystems over time;
 document the health of coral reef ecosystems to the extent possible with remote sensing and
in situ approaches and their combination;
 monitor changes in coral reef ecosystems over time, both to determine natural variability and
anthropogenic degradation, and to identify the effects of global change;
 provide early warning of, and monitor the extent of, major stressful events such as raised
water temperature and associated coral bleaching;
23





supply improved data on stresses on and risks to coral reefs, such as adjacent land use and
runoff changes, coastal construction and dredging, human pressures on fringing reefs and the
coastline, etc.;
document large scale and long term phenomena and characteristics important to the
productivity and maintenance of coral reefs;
develop a geomorphological unit classification of habitats and seascapes in coral reef and
associated ecosystems and its map representation;
generate observational products of immediate use to coral reef and coastal zone managers
and planners, and to different resource user communities (fishing, tourism, biodiversity
protection, etc.);
provide evidence if possible of the effectiveness of marine protected areas.
This IGOS theme is currently developing a working draft document and proposal to
determine the ways and means to support and implement this initiative.
US-based Integrated Ocean Observing System.
In a more recent development, the US government has announced plans to establish an integrated
ocean observing system that would routinely gather ocean information similar to the information
gathered for atmospheric weather forecasting. It purpose would be to provide a range of
background data to assist in supporting an integrated ocean observing system that would move
ocean observations from a research-focused activity towards an operational system for routine
use. The system would provide information services such as detecting and forecasting the ocean's
role in climate, facilitating safe and efficient marine operations, ensuring healthy marine
ecosystems, restoring degraded ones, and mitigating natural hazards, and ensuring public health.
However, this system remains in a planning stage, and may join effort with the IGOS coral reef
theme.
U.S. Coral Reef Task Force. In June 1998, President Bill Clinton signed an Executive Order
for enhancing the protection of coral reefs and related ecosystems. The Order established the
formation of a U.S. Task Force, whose purpose is to improve intergovernmental and U.S.
international coordination in working toward the conservation of coral reefs. To date, the Task
Force has held two meetings. The initial meeting was held in Key Biscayne, Florida in October
1998. The second meeting was held in Maui, Hawaii, in March 1999, in which the Task Force
adopted a resolution on coral bleaching and climate change. As a result of the Executive Order
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) has announced its commitment
to improve its capability in tracking global elevated sea surface temperatures and other remote
sensing capabilities to examine coral reefs in greater detail.
Under the Bush administration the USCRTF continues to operate and will hold its second
meeting in the Fall of 2001.While there is significant interest by the Task Force's international
working group, there are currently no plans to directly link this targeted research project with the
Executive Order. NOAA, a member of the USCRTF continues to remain heavily involved in
remote sensing operations for coral reefs, and is providing some co-financing support for a
remote sensing workshop to be convened during the Block B period.
Sustainability
The Targeted Research Program is envisioned as a long-term, collaborative effort, involving a
suite of institutions, research networks and funding sources over a period of 10 – 15 years. If
conservation and management of the world’s remaining coral reefs is to be effective in the face
of continuous human pressures and environmental change, extended time-series data over large
24
spatial scales will be needed to unravel the system behavior and resilience of coral reefs. To fill
the critical information gaps identified by the Working Groups and Synthesis Panel, scientific
partnerships between the developed and developing world, and a long-term commitment of effort
and resources, will be required. GEF support is seen as catalytic to this process. While a number
of institutions have expressed interest in collaborating, an initial infusion of resources from the
GEF to jump start the process will be critical to mobilizing the necessary institutional and
financial support to launch and sustain this effort over the long term. Based on discussions with
interested foundations and research institutions in the developed world, GEF funds are expected
to leverage resources on a nearly 1:1 basis during the first phase. GEF resources would be used
to support developing country participation in the Targeted Research, while contributions from
research institutions in the developed world, would be targeted to support participation of e.g.,
U.S. and Australian investigators. Private foundation support would also be tapped to help
finance the work of the Working Groups and Synthesis Panel. The Bank will seek to consolidate
this support during preparation, and to expand the network of financing partners during
implementation of Phase 1. The Project will also reinforce the sustainability of the research
effort by building capacity locally within developing country institutions to carry out the
research, to link it closely to the needs of management and decision-makers, and to integrate the
program into other regional and global initiatives addressing marine conservation and ecosystem
management.
A series of performance and process indicators to assess knowledge output and its application to
management as a measure of capacity building, will be developed for Phase 1. Phase 2 follow on
activities will depend on the extent to which Project benchmarks have been achieved in the first
phase and will focus on strengthening the linkages between research, management and policy.
Indicators will be fleshed out during the Block B phase and tied to OP indicators for International
Waters, as these emerge in the coming months. Development of criteria for scale up or phase out
of particular lines of research at the end of Phase 1 will be the responsibility of the Working
Groups. These will be reviewed by the Synthesis Panel in the design of the research framework
to be carried out under Phase 2. While it is anticipated that resources for implementation of the
follow-on phase will also be sought from the GEF, the ratio of GEF financing to other sources is
expected to decline significantly in the follow on phase.
Participation and Consultation
In addition to the detailed consultations that form the basis of this proposal, both
government and institutional representatives from Belize, Mexico, Thailand and the
Philippines have verbally endorsed the concept. Belize provided an endorsement letter as
part of the Block A process7. Endorsement letters from those other countries where
pilot/trial studies are to be implemented, and where the network will be expanded, will be
submitted with the full project document.
7
This endorsement letter is on file and available upon request.
25
Incremental Cost Analysis. This will be developed under the PDF Block B Grant. The baseline
activities being carried out in various coral reef regions of the world are outlined above. The
incremental costs of the proposed Targeted Research Project are primarily associated with the
establishment of long-term time series and spatially robust data sets, the need for experimental
work directly linked to management, capacity building of in-country research scientists, and the
synoptic analysis of results within and across regions to allow for predictive modeling as a
decision-support tool for managers and policy- makers.
Expected Date of Project Preparation Completion
The completion of the project preparation would be fourteen months from the date of initiation
of the PDF Block B.
Implementing Agency
The World Bank intends to serve as the implementing agency for this Project for Targeted
Research. As a founding member of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) and with
projects under implementation or in the pipeline totaling nearly $250 million (Table 1), the
World Bank is committed to advancing the objectives of coral reef conservation and sustainable
use. In light of the continued decline of coral reef ecosystems and impacts on the livelihoods of
hundreds of millions of people who depend on the goods and services provided by coral reefs,
the Bank has both a mandate, through its commitment to poverty reduction, and an interest, in
line with its work on conserving global public goods, to support this global initiative. Sector
work is now underway within the Bank to link poverty alleviation in coastal communities with
improved environmental management and payment for ecosystem services. This work along
with new data and policy recommendations derived from the Targeted Research will strengthen
the basis for policy dialogue between the Bank and client countries to promote the reforms
necessary to relieve major sources of localized stress on coral reef ecosystems as well as reforms
under the Climate Change agenda. The Bank will also work with the other GEF implementing
agencies to promote the partnerships and scientific networks needed for this initiative to take root
and to channel the information where it can be used most effectively to ensure the success of
investments on the ground.
Implementing Agency Task Manager
Marea Hatziolos (Telephone 202-473-1061; email [email protected]) is the World
Bank's task manager for the project.
26
Preparation Costs
Items to be financed using PDF Block B funds would include the following activities:
Preparation Activity
Activity 1. Convening of Working Groups
and Synthesis Panel
IOC Bleaching Working Group
Remote Sensing Working Group
Coral Disease Working Group
Larval and Fisheries Recruitment, Connectivity
and Genetics
Coral Modeling Working Group
Coral Reef Remediation Working Group
Convening of Synthesis Panel
Activity 2 Pilot of Experimental Designs
Australia
Mexico
Zanzibar
Philippines (or Thailand) - TBD
Activity 3 Finalization of the full project
proposal
Activity 4 Identification of Institutional
arrangements
Project Preparation Activities
USD$x1,000
GEF/PDF B IOC
U of
ICLARM
(In-Kind)
Queensland
$30
$30
$35
$30
$38
$20
$15
NCORE
TOTAL
$30
$78
$65
$35
$60
$210
$30
$20
AIMS
$10
$30
$35
$20
$40
$40
(TBD)
$10
NOAA
$60
$35
$30
$20
$40
$40
$40
$10
$25
$45
$350
$38
$30
$25
$20
$15
$240
$718
TOTAL
Note: The totals above do not include World Bank internal resources or trust fund resources which are still being sought to complement the
project preparation activities.
References
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Annex 1
Biliography
1. Multiple Stressors
Aronson, R.B. and W.F. Precht, 2001. Evolutionary paleoecology of Caribbean coral reefs. Pages 171-233 in
W.D. Allmon and D.J. Bottjer, editors. Evolutionary Paleoecology: The Ecological Context of Macroevolutionary
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Zoologist (39): 1-9.
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Reef, southern Great Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs 17:71-81.
Edinger, Evan N.; Jompa, Jamaluddin; Limmon, Gino V.; Widjatmoko, Wisnu; Risk, Michael J. Reef degradation and
coral biodiversity in Indonesia: Effects of land-based pollution, destructive fishing
practices and changes over time. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin
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abundance of juvenile corals on a Caribbean reef. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98:
5067-5071.
Greenstein, B.J., H.A. Curran, and J.M. Pandolfi. 1998. Shifting ecological baselines and the demise of Acropora
cervicornis in the western North Atlantic and Caribbean Province: a Pleistocene perspective.
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Remote Sensing 38 : 257-270
Hughes, T.P. and J.H. Connell. 1999. Multiple stressors on coral reefs: a long-term perspective. Limnology and
Oceanography 44: 932-940.
Lafferty, K.D., and A.M. Kuris. 1999. How environmental stress affects the impacts of parasites. Limnology and
Oceanography 44: 925-931.
McClanahan, T.R., and A.M. Muthiga. 1998. An ecological shift in a remote coral atoll of Belize over 25 years.
Environmental Conservation 25: 122-130.
Porter, James W.; Lewis, Sarah K.; Porter, Karen G.. The effect ofmultiple stressors on the Florida Keys coral reef
ecosystem: A landscape hypothesis and a physiological test. In: Limnology and Oceanography May, 1999. 44 (3 PART
2): 941-949.
Scheffer, M.; Carpenter, S.; Foley, J.; Folkes,C. and Walker, B. 2001. Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Nature. Vol.
413: 591-596.
Wellington GW, Glynn PW, Strong AE, Navarrete SA, Wieters E, Hubbard D (2001) Crisis on coral reefs linked to climate
change. EOS Trans. AGU 82 : 1,5
Yamano, H., Kayanne, H., Yonekura, N. and Kudo, K., 2000. 21-year changes of backreef coral distribution: causes and
significances. J. Coastal Research, 16(1): 99-110.
2. Reviews
Abrams M (2000) The Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER): data products
for the high spatial resolution imager on NASA's Terra platform. Int. J. Remote Sensing 21 : 847-859
Brown, Barbara E.. Disturbances to reefs in recent times. Birkeland, C., Ed. In: Life and death of coral reefs.Chapman
and Hall, Inc; Chapman and Hall Ltd. 29 West 35th Street, New York, New York, USA; 2-6 Boundary Row,
London SE1 8HN, England, 1997. 354-385. pp.
29
Done, Terrence and David Lloyd, Eds. 1999. Information, management and decision support for marine biodiversity
protection and human welfare: coral reefs. Proceedings from a workshop, Townsville, Queensland, Australia, December
6-10, 1999. UNEP/DEIA&EW/MR.2000-2.
Hinrichsen, Don. Coral reefs in crisis: An overview of these vanishing ecosystems, the problems that plague them, and
the means for saving them. In: Bioscience 1997. 47 (9): 554-558.
Holden H, LeDrew E (1998) The scientific issue surrounding remote detection of submerged coral ecosystems. Progress
in Physical Geography 22 : 190-221
Kinzie, Robert A.,. Sex, symbiosis and coral reef communities. In:American Zoologist Feb., 1999. 39 (1): 80-91.
Markham, Adam. Potential impacts of climate change on ecosystems:A review of implications for policymakers and
conservation biologists. In: Climate Research 1996. 6 (2): 179-191.
Pennings, Steven C.. Indirect interactions on coral reefs. Birkeland, C.,Ed. In: Life and death of coral reefs.Chapman
and Hall, Inc.; Chapman and Hall Ltd. 29 West 35th Street, New York, New York, USA; 2-6
Boundary Row, London SE1 8HN, England, 1997. 249-272. pp.
Peters, Esther C.; Gassman, Nancy J.; Firman, Julie C.; Richmond, Robert H.; Power, Elizabeth A.. Ecotoxicology of
tropical marine ecosystems. In: Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 1997. 16 (1): 12-40.
Pittock, A. Barrie. Coral reefs and environmental change: Adaptation to what? In: American Zoologist Feb., 1999. 39 (1):
10-29.
Risk, Michael J.. Paradise lost: How marine science failed the world's coral reefs. In: Marine and Freshwater Research
Van Woesik, R.. Modelling processes that generate and maintain coral community diversity. In: Biodiversity and
Conservation September, 2000. 9 (9): 1219-1233.
Wilkinson, Clive R.. Global and local threats to coral reef functioning and existence: Review and predictions. In: Marine
and Freshwater Research 1999. 50 (8): 867-878.
Spalding, M.D. C. Ravilious and E. P. Green. (2001). World Atlas of Coral Reefs. Prepared at the UNEP World
Conservation Monitoring Centre. University of California Press. Berkeley, USA 302 pp.
Stehman SV (1997) Selecting and interpreting measures of thematic classification accuracy. Remote Sensing of
Environment 62 : 77-89
Stehman SV (1999) Basic probability sampling designs for thematic map accuracy assessment. Int. J. Remote Sensing
20 : 2423-2441
Cao C, Lam NS (1997) Understanding the scale and resolution effects in remote sensing and GIS. In Quattrochi DA,
Goodchild MF (ed) Scale in remote sensing and GIS. Lewis Publishers, New-York, pp 57-72
Fargion GS, Mueller JL, 2000.- Ocean optics protocols for satellite ocean color sensor validation, Revision 2.- In .
NASA/GSFC.
3. Remediation
Done, Terry. Remediation of degraded coral reefs: The need For broad focus. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin 1995. 30 (11):
686-688.
Edwards, Alasdair J.; Clark, Susan. Coral transplantation: A useful management tool or misguided meddling? In: Marine
Pollution Bulletin Aug.-Dec., 1998. 37 (8-12): 474-487.
4. Bioindicators
Alcolado, Pedro M.; Herrera-Moreno, Alejandro; Martinez-Estalella, Nereida (Symposium Miami, Florida, USA June 1011, 1993). Sessile communities as environmental bio-monitors in Cuban coral reefs. Ginsburg, R. N., In:Proceedings of
the Colloquium on Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health, Hazards and History. Rosenstiel School of Marine and
Atmospheric Science, University of Miami ; Miami, Florida, USA, 1994. 27-33.
Edinger, Evan N.; Limmon, Gino V.; Jompa, Jamaluddin; Widjatmoko, Wisnu; Heikoop, Jeffrey M.; Risk, Michael J..
Normal coral growth rates on dying reefs: Are coral growth rates good indicators of reef health?. In: Marine Pollution
Bulletin May, 2000. 40 (5): 404-425.
Hill, Richard W.; Dacey, John W. H.; Krupp, David A.. Dimethylsulfoniopropionate in reef corals. In: Bulletin of Marine
Science 1995. 57 (2): 489-494.
Molis, M. Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology. (AnnualMeeting of the Society for Integrative and Comparative
Biology Boston, Massachusetts, USA January 3-7, 1998). Bioindicators in coral reefs. In:American Zoologist 1997. 37
(5): 39A.
30
Richmond, R. H.; Leota, S.; Romano, S.; Mackenna, S. (Annual Meeting of the Society for Integrative and Comparative
Biology Chicago, Illinois, USA January 6-10, 1999). The use of coral planula larvae as ecological indicators of pollution
effects on coral reefs. In: American Zoologist 1998. 38 (5): 173A.
Risk, Michael J.; Erdmann, Mark V.. Isotopic composition of nitrogen in stomatopod (Crustacea) tissues as an indicator
of human sewage impacts on Indonesian coral reefs. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin Jan., 2000.40 (1): 50-58.
5. Destructive Fishing Practices
Bohnsack, James A. (Symposium Miami, Florida, USA June 10-11, 1993). The impacts of fishing on coral reefs.
Ginsburg, R. N., In: Proceedings of the Colloquium on Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health,Hazards and History.
Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami ; Miami, Florida, USA, 1994. 196-200.
Fox, Helen E.; Erdmann, Mark V.. Fish yields from blast fishing in
Indonesia. In: Coral Reefs July, 2000. 19 (2): 114.
Jones, R. J.; Kildea, T.; Hoegh-Guldberg, O.. PAM chlorophyll fluorometry: A new in situ technique for stress
assessment in scleractinian corals, used to examine the effects of cyanide from cyanide fishing. In: Marine Pollution
Bulletin Oct., 1999. 38 (10): 864-874.
Jones, Ross J.; Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove. Effects of cyanide on coral photosynthesis: Implications for identifying the cause
of coral bleaching and for assessing the environmental effects of cyanide fishing. In: Marine Ecology Progress Series
Feb. 11, 1999. 177 (0): 83-91.
Jones, Ross J.; Steven, Andrew L.. Effects of cyanide on corals in relation to cyanide fishing on reefs. In: Marine and
Freshwater Research 1997. 48 (6): 517-522.
McClanahan, T. R.. A coral reef ecosystem-fisheries model:Impacts of fishing intensity and catch selection on reef
structure and processes. In: Ecological Modelling 1995. 80 (1): 1-19.
McManus, John W.; Menez, Lambert A. B.; Kesner-Reyes, Kathleen N.; Vergara, Sheila G.; Ablan, M. C.. Coral reef
fishing and coral-algal phase shifts: Implications for global reef status. In: ICES Journal of Marine Science June, 2000. 57
(3): 572-578.
McManus, John W.; Reyes., Rodolfo B.,; Nanola, Cleto L.,.Effects of some destructive fishing methods on coral cover
and potential rates of recovery. In: Environmental Management 1997. 21 (1): 69-78.
Pet-Soede, C.; Cesar, H. S. J.; Pet, J. S.. An economic analysis of blast fishing on Indonesian coral reefs. In:
Environmental Conservation June, 1999. 26 (2): 83-93.
Riegel, B. Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology. (Annual Meeting of the Society for Integrative and
Comparative Biology Boston, Massachusetts, USA January 3-7, 1998). Developers, divers, dynamite: Man-made
Environmental change and an uncertain future for Northern Red Sea coral reefs.
Riegl, B.; Luke, K. E.. Ecological parameters of dynamited reefs in the northern Red Sea and their relevance to reef
rehabilitation. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin Aug.-Dec., 1998. 37 (8-12): 488-498. In: American Zoologist 1997. 37 (5):
12A.
Saila, S. B.; Kocic, V. L.; W.Mcmanus, J.. Modelling the effect of destructive fishing practices on tropical coral reefs. In:
Marine Ecology Progress Series 1993. 94 (1): 51-60.
6. Damage from Oil Spills
Abdel-Kader, A. F.; Nasr, S. M.; El-Gamily, H. I.; El-Raey, M.. Environmental sensitivity analysis of potential oil spill for
Ras-Mohammed Coastal Zone, Egypt. In: Journal of Coastal Research Spring, 1998. 14 (2): 502-510.
Guzman, Hector M.; Holst, Irene. Effects of chronic oil-sediment pollution on the reproduction of the Caribbean reef coral
Siderastrea siderea. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin 1993. 26 (5): 276-282.
Guzman, Hector M.; Burns, Kathryn A.; Jackson, Jeremy B.C.. Injury, regeneration and growth of Caribbean reef corals
after a major oil spill in Panama. In: Marine Ecology Progress Series 1994. 105 (3): 231-241.
Roberts, Callum M.; Downing, Nigel; Price, Andrew R. G. (Symposium Miami, Florida, USA June 10-11, 1993). Oil on
troubled waters: Impacts of the Gulf War on coral reefs. Ginsburg, R. N., In: Proceedings of the Colloquium on Global
Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health, Hazards and History. Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University
of Miami ; Miami, Florida, USA, 1994. 132-133.
Negri, A.P., and A.J. Heyward. 2000. Inhibition of fertilization and larval metamorphosis of the coral Acropora millepora
(Ehrenberg, 1834) by petroleum products. Marine Pollution Bulletin (41): 420-427.
Guzman, H.M. and K.E. Jarvis, 1996. Vanadium century record from Caribbean reef corals: a tracer of oil pollution in
Panama. Ambio Vol. 25 No. 8, Dec. 1996.
7. Eutrophication/Pollution
31
Abelson, Avigdor; Steinman, Boris; Fine, Maoz; Kaganovsky, Semion. Mass transport from pollution sources to remote
coral reefs in Eilat (Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea). In: Marine Pollution Bulletin Jan., 1999. 38 (1): 25-29. Online Access
Bell, Peter R. F.; Tomascik, Tom (Symposium Miami, Florida, USA June 10-11, 1993). The demise of the fringing coral
reefs of Barbados and of regions in the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) lagoon: Impacts of eutrophication.
Ginsburg, R. N., In: Proceedings of the Colloquium on Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health, Hazards and History.
Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami ; Miami, Florida, USA, 1994. 319-325.
Carpenter, S. R.; Caraco, N. F.; Correll, D. L.; Howarth, R. W.; Sharpley, A. N.; Smith, V. H.. Nonpoint pollution of
surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen. In: Ecological Applications Aug., 1998. 8 (3): 559-568.
Chabanet, P.; Dufour, V.; Galzin, R.. Disturbance impact on reef fish communities in Reunion Island (Indian Ocean). In:
Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 1995. 188 (1): 29-48.
Fiege, Dieter; Neumann, Volker; Li, Jinhe. Observations on coral reefs of Hainan Island, South China Sea. In: Marine
Pollution Bulletin 1994.29 (1-3): 84-89.
Gast, G. J.; Jonkers, P. J.; van Duyl, F. C.; Bak, R.P.M.. Bacteria, flagellates and nutrients in island fringing coral reef
waters: Influence of the ocean, the reef and eutrophication. In: Bulletin of Marine Science Sept., 1999. 65 (2): 523-538.
Holmes, Katherine E.. Effects of eutrophication on bioeroding sponge communities with the description of new West
Indian sponges, Cliona spp. (Porifera: Hadromerida: Clionidae). In: Invertebrate Biology 2000. 119
Huber, Michael E.. An assessment of the status of the coral reefs of Papua New Guinea. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin
1994. 29 (1-3): 69-73.
McCook, L. J.. Macroalgae, nutrients and phase shifts on coral reefs: Scientific issues and management consequences
for the Great Barrier Reef. In: Coral Reefs Dec., 1999. 18 (4): 357-367.
Nickerson-Tietze, Donna J.. Scientific characterization and monitoring: Its application to integrated coastal management
in Malaysia. In: Ecological Applications April, 2000. 10 (2): 386-396.
Schaffelke, Britta. Short-term nutrient pulses as tools to assess responses of coral reef macroalgae to enhanced nutrient
availability. In: Marine Ecology Progress Series June 11, 1999. (182): 305-310.
Schaffelke, Britta; Klumpp, David W.. Short-term nutrient pulses enhance growth and photosynthesis of the coral reef
macroalga Sargassum baccularia. In: Marine Ecology Progress Series Sept. 3, 1998. 170 (0): 95-105.
Shimoda, Toru; Ichikawa, Tadafumi; Matsukawa, Yasuo. Nutrient conditions and their effects on coral growth in reefs
around Ryukyu Islands. In: Bulletin of the National Research Institute of Fisheries Science Dec.,1998. 0 (12): 71-80.
Vargas-Angel, Bernardo. Distribution and community structure of the reef corals of Ensenada de Utria, Pacific coast of
Colombia. In: Revista de Biologia Tropical 1996. 44 (2 PART A): 643-651.
Zann, Leon .. The status of coral reefs in south western PacificIslands. In: Marine Pollution Bulletin 1994. 29 (1-3): 5261.
8. Climate Change/Coral Bleaching
Berkelmans R, Oliver J (1999) Large scale bleaching of corals on the Great Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs 18 : 55-60
Buddemeier, Robert W. (Workshop held during the IVth World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas
Caracas, Venezuela February 10-21, 1992). Potential impacts of rapid climate change on coral reefs: Implications
for marine parks.
Pernetta, J. Leemans, R. Elder, D. Humphrey, S., In: Impacts of climate change on ecosystems and species:
Implications for protected areas. IUCN ; Rue Mauverney 28, CH-1196 Gland, Switzerland, 1994. 95-103.
Eakin, C. Mark (1996 AAAS Annual Meeting and Science Innovation Exposition: The 162nd National Meeting of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science Baltimore, Maryland, USA February 8-13, 1996). Climate
impacts on reefs: Hungry sea urchins and shifting budgets. In: AAAS Annual Meeting and Science Innovation Exposition
1996. 162 (0): A148-A149.
Hoegh-Guldberg, O. 1999. Climate Change, coral bleaching and the future of the world's coral reefs. Greenpeace
International (www.greenpeace.org). ISBN 90-73361-52-4.
Meehan, William J.; Ostrander, Gary K.. Coral bleaching: A potential biomarker of environmental stress. In: Journal of
Toxicology and Environmental Health 1997. 50 (6): 529-552.
Pernetta, John; Leemans, Rik; Elder, Danny; Humphrey, Sarah 1994.(UNEP-IOC-WMO-IUCN Meeting of Experts on a
Long-Term Global Monitoring System of Coastal and Near-Shore Phenomena Related to Climate Change: Pilot Projects
on Mangroves and Coral Reefs Monaco, Monaco December 9-13, 1991). Impacts of climate change on ecosystems and
species: Marine and coastal ecosystems; UNEP-IOC-WMO-IUCN Meeting of Experts on a Long-Term Global Monitoring
System of Coastal and Near-Shore Phenomena Related To Climate Change: Pilot Projects on Mangroves and Coral
32
Reefs, Monaco, Monaco, December 9-13, 1991.
Ware, J. R. Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology. (Annual Meeting of the Society for Integrative and
Comparative Biology Boston, Massachusetts, USA January 3-7, 1998). Coral reefs in the greenhouse: The adaptive
bleaching hypothesis and global climate change. In: American Zoologist 1997. 37 (5): 72A.
Wilkinson, Clive; Linden, Olof; Cesar, Herman; Hodgson, Gregor; Rubens, Jason; Strong, Alan E.. Ecological and
socioeconomic impacts of 1998 coral mortality in the Indian Ocean: An ENSO impact and a warning of future change? In:
Ambio March, 1999. 28 (2): 188-196.
9. Sedimentation
Anthony, K.R.N. 1999. A tank system for studying benthic aquatic organisms at predicatable levels of turbidity and
sedimentation: Case study examining coral growth. Limnology and Oceanography 44: 1415-1422.
McClanahan, T. R.; Obura, D.. Sedimentation effects on shallow coral communities in Kenya. In: Journal of Experimental
Marine Biology and Ecology 1997. 209 (1-2): 103-122.
Gilmour, J. 1999. Experimental investigation into the effects of suspended sediment on fertilization, larval survival and
settlement in a scleractinian coral. Marine Biology 135: 451-462.
Wesseling, I., Uychiaoco, A.J., Porfirio, M.A., Aurin, T., and J.E. Vermaat. 1999. Damage and recovery of four Phillippine
corals from short-term sediment burial. Marine Ecology Progress Series (176): 11-15.
Bastidas, C., D. Bone, and E.M. Garcia. 1999. Sedimentation rates and metal content of sediments in a Venezuelan
coral reef. Marine Pollution Bulletin 38: 16-24.
Hodgson, G. 1990. Tetracycline reduces sedimentation damage to corals. Marine biology 104: 493-496.
Meesters, E.H., Bak, R.P.M., Westmacott, S., Ridgley, M., and S. Dollar. 1998. A fuzzy logic model to predict coral reef
development under nutrient and sediment stress. Conservation Biology 12: 957-965.
Lopez, E.O., Bonilla, H.R., and J.K. Mejia. 1998. Effects of sedimentation on coral communities of southern Socorro
Island, Revillagigedo Archipelago, Mexico. Ciencias Marinas (24): 233-240.
vanKatwijk, M.M., Meier, N.F., van Loon, R., van Hove, E.M., Giesen, W.B.J.T., van der Velde, G., and C. den Hartog.
993. Sabaki River sediment load and coral stress: correlation between sediments and condition of the Malindi-Watamu
reefs in Kenya (Indian Ocean). Marine Biology 117: 675-683.
Ross, P., and M.E. DeLorenzo. 1997. Sediment contamination problems in the Caribbean islands: research and
regulations. Envrironmental Toxicology and Chemistry (16): 52-58.
Pandolfi, J.M. 1999. Response of Pleistocene coral reefs to environmental change over long temporal scales. American
Zoologist (39): 113-130.
Lidz, B.H., and P. Hallock. 2000. Sedimentary petrology of a declining reef ecosystem, Florida Reef Tract (U.S.A.).
Journal of Coastal Research (16):: 675-697.
Larcombe, P., and K.J. Woolfe. 1999. Increased sediment supply to the Great Barrier Reef will not increase sediment
accumulation at most coral reefs. Coral Reefs (18): 163-169.
Abelson, A., Shteinman,B., Fine, M., and S. Kaganovsky. 1999. Mass transport from pollution sources to remote coral
reefs in Eilat (Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea). Marine Pollution Bulletin (38): 25-29.
10. Storm Damage
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36
Annex II
List & Credentials of Members for the Bleaching and Remote Sensing Working Group
IOC working group on bleaching and local ecological factors
NAME
EMAIL
EXPERT FOCUS
COUNTRY
UNESCO COMMITTEE
Bill Fitt
Helen T Yap
[email protected]
[email protected]
Cellular responses
Local ecological responses
USA
Phillipines
John Bythel
Mauro Maida
Ole Vestergaard
Ove Hoegh-Guldberg
Rob van Woesik
Roberto Iglesias-Preito
Ruth Gates
Barbara Brown
Bernard Salvat
David Obura
Michael Lesser
Yossi Loya
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
Local ecological responses
Regional ecological responses
Coastal processes, management and implementation
Molecular mechanism/markers
Local ecological responses
Molecular mechanism/markers
Cellular responses
Cellular responses
Regional ecological responses
Regional ecological responses
Cellular responses
Local ecological responses
UK
Brazil
Denmark
Australia
Japan
Mexico
USA
UK
France
Kenya
USA
Israel
INVITEES
Carolyn Smith
Bill Leggat
Tyrone Ridgway
Ron Johnstone
Julius Francis
Ross Jones
Andy Hooten
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
Molecular mechanism/markers
Molecular mechanism/markers
Regional ecological responses
Coastal processes, management and implementation
Coastal processes, management and implementation
Molecular mechanism/markers
Coastal processes, management and implementation
Australia
Australia
South Africa
Australia
Tanzania
Australia
USA
Annex II con't.
Remote Sensing Working Group
Name
Institution
Abbrevs. for Technical areas
Geographic
regions
Technical areas
Applications
Serge
Andrefouet
University of South
Florida
Caribbean,
Indo-Pacific
Sat, Air, Hyp,
Spectra, RTM
Monitor, Biodiv,
Bleach, Storm,
Connect
Jack Hardy
Western Washington
University
Caribbean,
Indo-Pacific
Sat, Spectra,
Fluor
Bleach, Monitor
Eric
Hochberg
University of Hawaii
Caribbean,
Indo-Pacific
Spectra, RTM,
Hyp, Air, Sat
Nut, Monitor
Peter Mumby
University of
Newcastle
Caribbean,
Indo-Pacific
Sat, Air, Hyp,
Spectra, RTM
Bleach, Storm,
Connect, Biodiv,
MPA, Man,
Monitor
William
Skirving
Australian Institute of
Marine Science
Indo-Pacific
Sat, Air, Hyp
Bleach, SST, Nut,
Connect, Man,
Monitor
Al Strong
National Oceanic &
Atmospheric
Administration
Caribbean,
Indo-Pacific
Sat
SST, Bleach,
Connect, Nut
Rick Stumpf
National Oceanic &
Atmospheric
Administration
Caribbean,
Indo-Pacific
Sat, RTM
Bleach, Man,
Monitor
38
Sat = satellite sensors
Air = airborne sensors
Hyp = hyperspectral data
Spectra = analysis of reef spectra
Fluor = analysis of fluorescent
spectra
RTM = radiative transfer modelling
Abbrevs. for Applications
Bleach = coral bleaching
SST = sea surface temperature
Nut = chlorophyll and sediments
Storm = effects of tropical storms,
floods
Connect = reef connectivity
Biodiv = biodiversity studies
MPA = marine protected areas
Man = general reef management
Monitor = monitoring reef health
Annex 3
Working Hypotheses of WG 1 on Coral Bleaching
Molecular-level Hypotheses:
1. The first step of coral bleaching begins with a failure of the dark reactions of
photosynthesis. ALTERNATIVE: The first step involves damage to other
components of the photosynthetic machinery (such as proteins)
2. Failure of the primary steps of photosynthesis leads to a build-up of oxygen
radicals, which then cause cellular damage. ALTERNATIVE: Oxygen radicals
do not build up because of bleaching stress.
3. Light is an important secondary factor. ALTERNATIVE: Light does not play a
role in coral bleaching.
4. Molecular mechanisms that result in reduced light stress (such as specific
pigments) play a role in reducing damage during thermal stress.
ALTERNATIVE: These mechanisms do not play a role in reducing either light
or heat stress.
5. The basis of heat stress tolerance in corals rests in the molecular mechanisms
that reduce photoinhibition. ALTERNATIVE: photoinhibitory strategies are
irrelevant to heat tolerance in corals and zooxanthellae.
6. Both host and zooxanthellae have a series of coral bleaching specific markers
that will be useful as bio-markers ALTERNATIVE: There are no specific
markers for the stresses that underpin mass coral bleaching.
Cellular and Physiological Hypotheses
1. Cell detachment versus expulsion are both important mechanisms underlying the
advent of coral bleaching.
2. Seasonal fluctuations in the density and quality of zooxanthellae are important to
understanding coral bleaching.
3. Corals and zooxanthellae vary in their environmental tolerance - this is
genetically based.
4. Coral bleaching and mortality is driven by the primary variable elevated
temperature but is influenced by light, flow and other factors.
5. Thermal stress will reduce growth rates, coral metabolism, regenerative capacity
and colony integration
6. Thermal stress will reduce reproductive output (gametogenesis, spawning)
(N.B. In each statement, the alternative hypothesis (H1) negates the stated null (H0)
Within-Reef Ecological-level Hypotheses:
Climate change will reduce reef resilience by:
1. Increasing whole colony mortality on coral reefs.
2. changing differential mortality patterns (species, size) reducing recruitment (loss
during larval phase failure of settlement).
3. having a greater effect on larval survival compared to the adult phase.
4. causing a change in relative abundance of populations within the community
causing changes in coral abundance and in size frequency distributions.
5. causing a functional shift.
6. causing net erosion (balance between accretion and bio- and chemo-physical
erosion).
7. altering foundation nutrient pathways & dynamics.
8. Other stressors (natural and/or anthropogenic) will have a compounding effect
on the tolerance of corals and zooxanthellae to thermal stress.
9. Reef complexity (e.g. physical, biological, chemical, structural) will affect the
response to environmental stress.
10. Refugia (patchiness) will exist within reefs such that corals within these subhabitats will act as important sources of re-colonization for affected reefs.
40