Download Handouts 2 - Inside Mines

1/16/2017
Functional Anatomy
Anatomical Position
Standing upright, looking
straight ahead, feet straight
ahead, arms straight and at
your sides, palms forward.
Descriptions of Directions
Medial, Lateral
Proximal, Distal
Palmar (plantar), Dorsal
Ipsilateral, Contralateral.
Descriptions of Directions
Superior (cranial, cephallic), Inferior
(caudal)
Anterior (ventral, frontal), Posterior
(dorsal)
Superficial, Deep.
Anatomical Reference Planes
Sagittal – divides body
into left and right
Frontal – divides body
into front and back
Transverse – divides
body into top and
bottom.
1
1/16/2017
Descriptions of Motion
Flexion, Extension
Abduction, Adduction
Elevation, Depression
Internal rotation,
External rotation
Pronation, Supination
Joint Planes of Action
• Plantarflexion,
Dorsiflexion
• Lateral flexion
• Radial deviation,
ulnar deviation
• Inversion, eversion
• Circumduction.
Types of Tissues
Four tissue classifications
Epithelial
Nervous
Muscle
Connective.
Epithelial Tissue
Basically a covering, or lining, tissue
Can be specialized to absorb, secrete,
transport, excrete, or protect the underlying
organ or tissue
Nourished via tissue fluid from capillaries
from connective tissues
Plays a role in diffusion of fluid and heat.
Epithelial Tissue
Subject to wear - cells are constantly
being lost and regenerated
May exist as one or more layers
Can be arranged in squamous, cuboidal,
or columnar structures
Not strong, typically bound to connective
tissues.
2
1/16/2017
Nervous Tissue
Comprises the main parts of the nervous
system
brain
spinal cord
peripheral nerves
nerve endings
sense organs.
Characteristics of Nervous Tissue
Irritability - capacity to react to chemical or
physical agents
Conductivity - ability to transmit impulses
from one location to another.
Nerve Cells
Nerve Cells
The neuron, or nerve cell, is the basic unit of
nervous tissue.
Cell body
Axon
Dendrites.
The neuron, or nerve cell, is the basic unit of
nervous tissue.
Cell body
Axon
Dendrites
Figure from “Structure and Function of the Musculoskeletal System”, Human
Kinetics
Nerve Cells
Figure from “Structure and Function of the Musculoskeletal System”, Human
Kinetics
Muscle Tissue
Nerve impulses are conducted toward the cell
body by the dendrites and away from the cell
body by the axon.
Three Categories of Muscle
Smooth
Cardiac
Skeletal.
Figure from “Structure and Function of the Musculoskeletal System”, Human
Kinetics
3
1/16/2017
Composition
Aggregate of:
cells
fibres
other macromolecules
matrix
tissue fluid.
Fibres
Fibre Arrangement and Density
Types of Fibres
Collagen
Reticular
Elastic.
Loose Connective Tissues
Four Types
fibroelastic - encapsulates most organs
areolar - saturates most every area of the body
reticular - found near lymph nodes, and in bone
marrow, liver, and spleen
adipose - aggregate of fat cells.
Arrangement and density of fibres
distinguishes
loose connective tissue
dense connective tissue
○ dense irregular connective tissue
fascia
○ dense regular connective tissue
tendon, ligament, bone, etc.
Constituents of Connective Tissues
Resident Cells
Undifferentiated mesenchymal cells
○ can differentiate into many different types of
connective tissue cells
○ form fibres and other components of matrix.
4
1/16/2017
Constituents of Connective Tissues
Extracellular Matrix
Migratory cells
travel to tissue via the bloodstream
associated with tissues reaction to injury
Macrophage - can assimilate foreign material,
part of major defense system of body
Mast Cells - can transport heparin
(anticoagulant), histamine (vasodilator), and
serotonin (vasoconstrictor) to injured tissues.
Proteoglycan Aggregate
Blend of
protein fibres (collagen and elastin)
simple and complex glycoproteins
tissue fluid.
Collagen Fibres
Present in varying amounts in all
connective tissues
Can be arranged randomly or in a highly
oriented fashion
More than 20 different types of collagen
Type I - skin, bone, tendon, ligament, cornea
Type II - cartilage
Type III - loose connective tissues.
Collagen Fibres
Hierarchy
tropocollagen molecule, aligned in rows to form
microfibrils, arranged in bundles to form
collagen fibres
Molecules may be cross-linked which
increases stiffness.
Elastic Fibres
More slender and extensible than collagen
Can be stretched to 150% of their original
length
Composed of microfibrils and elastin.
5
1/16/2017
Glycoproteins
Occupy spaces between fibres
Constitute the so-called “ground substance”
of connective tissues
Negatively charged and hydrophilic.
Bone
One of the hardest and strongest tissues of
the body
Protects organs, stores minerals, houses
bone marrow, provides levers for muscles
Dynamic structure, constantly remodeling
itself in response to alterations in loading.
Tissue Fluid
A filtrate of the blood
Resides in the intercellular (interstitial)
spaces
Aids in transport between cells and
capillaries.
Components of Bone
Osteoblasts - responsible for bone
formation on surface of bone
Osteocytes - formed when osteoblast
surrounds itself with mineralized matrix,
responsible for bone formation
Osteoclasts - resorb bone
Extracellular bone matrix.
Bone
Cortical (also called compact) forms the
hard, outer shell of bones
Trabecular (also called cancellous or
spongy).
6
1/16/2017
Development of Bone
Development of Bone
Can be influenced by movement and related
forces during skeletal development
Normal growth can be interrupted by trauma
or fracture.
Bone with damaged growth plate
Fig 2.7
Bone Macrostructure
7
1/16/2017
Bone Microstructure
Cartilage
Hyaline - covers the surface of most joints
Elastic - found in external ear, larynx,
epiglottis, eustachian tube
Fibrocartilage - found at stress points where
friction could be a problem.
Cartilage
Hyaline Cartilage
Has no intrinsic blood vessels, nerves, or
lymph vessels
Nutrients and wastes transported by
diffusion.
Articular Cartilage
Tendons and Ligaments
Made up of organized bundles of collagen
fibres
parallel in tendon
parallel, oblique, or spiral in ligament
Have great tensile strength
Resist stretching in one direction.
8
1/16/2017
Tendons and Ligaments
Tendon Hierarchy
Can contain sensory receptors
Ruffini corpuscles
Pacinian corpuscles
Golgi tendon organs
free-nerve endings.
Skeletal Muscle
Muscle Structure
Contain contractile proteins and connective
tissue
Serve as prime executors (movers) of the
nervous system.
Muscle Structure
Muscle Structure
9
1/16/2017
Sliding Filament Theory
Cross-Bridge Cycle
Characteristics of Muscle Fibres
Fibre Orientation
Pennation effects the
force that a muscle can
develop as well as the
amount that it can
shorten.
10
1/16/2017
Motor Unit
Length vs. Tension
A motor unit is
the basic of the
neuromuscular
system.
Force vs. Velocity
Case Study: Knee and Ankle
Sprains
Sprains are injuries to ligaments, usually
due to sudden overstretching
Typically associates with pain,
inflammation, and loss of function
Other impacts are not fully appreciated.
Case Study: Knee and Ankle
Sprains
Many (all?) ligaments have nerve fibers
in them
These sensory receptors provide
feedback that can trigger reflex muscle
contraction to dynamically stabilize joints
Loss of this feedback can lead to further
instability and alterations in movement
patterns.
Case Study: Knee and Ankle
Sprains
Ankle Orthotics and Sprains
Inversion sprains are common
Previous sprains make subsequent ones more likely
Commonly use taping or bracing to enhance stability
and attempt to prevent reinjury
Taping is costly, time and skill intensive, and has
decreasing utility
11
1/16/2017
Case Study: Knee and Ankle
Sprains
Ankle Bracing
Bracing is not fully evaluated
Study examined soccer players,
some of whom had previously
suffered an ankle sprain and
some who hadn’t
Bracing was beneficial to those
with previous injury but not those
without
Why?
Case Study: Knee and Ankle
Sprains
ACL Sprains
Receptors in ACL have been
shown to provide feedback to the
hamstrings
Both the ACL and hamstrings
serve to prevent anterior
translation of the tibia relative to
the femur
Loss of ACL leads to instability, but
also alterations in gait patterns.
Classification of Joints
Arthrology
Classifications
With a joint cavity
○ Diarthrodial
Freely moveable
Without a joint cavity
○ Synarthrodial
Immovable
○ Amphiarthodial
Slightly moveable.
12
1/16/2017
Knee Cross-Section
13