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Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Subject: Physical Science Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration Learning Targets Vocabulary Course Content Area: Study of Matter Classification of Matter 1st Quarter •Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Heterogeneous and Homogeneous • Properties of Matter Matter can be classified in broad categories such as homogeneous and heterogeneous. Solutions are homogenous mixtures of a solute dissolved in a solvent. • States of matter and its changes The amount of a solid solute that can dissolve in a solvent generally increases as the temperature increases since the particles have more kinetic energy to overcome the attractive forces between them. Water is often used as a solvent since so many substances will dissolve in water. Physical properties can be used to separate the substances in mixtures, including solutions. Properties of Matter Matter can be classified according to its composition Matter can be classified by its chemical (reactivity) and physical properties (e.g., color solubility, odor, hardness, density, melting point and boiling point, viscosity and malleability). Students will be able to… 1. Explain that matter can be classified into pure substance and mixtures. Mixtures are classified as homogeneous and heterogeneous. 2. Explain that a solution is a homogeneous mixture that consists of a solute dissolved into a solvent. 3. Explain that in most cases the solubility of a solute increases as temperature increases because the particles have more kinetic energy to overcome the attractive forces. 4. Explain that water is often used as a solvent because so many substances will dissolve in water. 5. Explain that physical properties can be used to separate substances in mixtures. 6. Matter can be classified by its chemical and physical properties. Pure Substances Mixtures Heterogeneous Homogeneous Solution Solute Solvent Physical properties Chemical properties Kinetic Energy Thermal Energy Potential energy Endothermic Exothermic Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration Learning Targets 7. Analyze a graph showing a phase When thermal energy is added to a solid, liquid or gas, change. most substances increase in volume because the 8. Explain that when the increased kinetic energy of the particles causes an temperature is changing the increased distance between the particles. This results in kinetic energy of the substance is a change in density of the material. changing, except during a phase Generally, solids have greater density than liquids, change. which have greater density than gases due to the 9. Explain that the during a phase spacing between the particles. change the substance is gaining The density of a substance can be calculated from the or loosing potential energy, which slope of a mass vs. volume graph. indicates a change in the position Differences in densities can be determined by of the particles. interpreting mass vs. volume graphs of the substances. 10. Explain that when heating a substance, a phase change will States of Matter and Its Changes occur when the kinetic energy of the particles is great enough to Phase changes can be represented by graphing the overcome the attractive forces temperature of a sample vs. the time it has been between the particles; the heated. substance then melts or boils. Investigations must include collecting data during 11. Explain that when a cooling a heating, cooling and solid-liquid- solid phase changes. substance the kinetic energy is no At times, the temperature will change steadily, longer great enough to overcome indicating a change in the motion of the particles and the attractive forces of the the kinetic energy of the substance. particles. However, during a phase change, the temperature of a 12. Explain the connection between substance does not change, indicating there is no the phase changes and energy change in kinetic energy. being absorbed from the surroundings (endothermic) or Since the substance continues to gain or lose energy being released into the during phase changes, these changes in energy are surroundings (exothermic). potential and indicate a change in the position of the particles. Vocabulary Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration When heating a substance, a phase change will occur when the kinetic energy of the particles is great enough to overcome the attractive forces between the particles; the substance then melts or boils. Conversely, when cooling a substance, a phase change will occur when the kinetic energy of the particles is no longer great enough to overcome the attractive forces between the particles; the substance then condenses or freezes. Phase changes are examples of changes that can occur when energy is absorbed from the surroundings (endothermic) or released into the surroundings (exothermic). Learning Targets Vocabulary Students will be able to… 1. Explain how technology was developed that has enabled us to know more about atoms. 2. Describe different models of atoms have been developed overtime after many discoveries were made about atoms. 3. Discuss Rutherford’s experiment and discuss how it helped indicate that most of an atom is empty space with a very small positively charged nucleus. 4. Match atomic spectra to its element. 5. Identify an element by the number of protons (atomic Atoms 1st Quarter • Models of the atom (components) • Ions (cations and anions) • Isotopes Models of the atom (components) Over time, technology was introduced that allowed the atom to be studied in more detail. When bombarding thin gold foil with atomic-sized, positively charged, high-speed particles, a few of the particles were deflected slightly from their straight-line path. Even fewer bounced back toward the source. This evidence indicates that most of an atom is empty space with a very small positively charged nucleus. This experiment and other evidence indicate the nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons, and electrons that move about in the empty space that surrounds the nucleus. The atom is composed of protons, neutrons and electrons that have measurable properties, including Nucleus Protons Neutrons Electrons Charge Mass Atomic spectrum Anions Cations Atomic number Mass number Atomic mass Isotope Bohr Model Lewis Dot structure Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration mass and, in the case of protons and electrons, a characteristic charge. Each element has a unique atomic spectrum that can be observed and used to identify an element. Ions (cations and anions) Atoms may gain or lose electrons to become anions or cations. Atomic number, mass number, charge and identity of the element can be determined from the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons. Isotopes All atoms of a particular element have the same atomic number; an element may have different isotopes with different mass numbers. Learning Targets Vocabulary number) 6. Determine the number of neutrons in an atom. 7. Determine the number of electrons in a neutral atom. 8. Draw the parts of an atom along with their charge and location. 9. I can find the atomic mass of an element. 10. Draw a Bohr diagram for the elements in the Periodic Table. 11. Make a Lewis Dot diagram for the elements in the Periodic Table. 12. Explain that isotopes are atoms with different mass numbers due to different number of neutrons. 13. Explain that the average atomic mass number of an atom is the result of a weighted average of all isotopes of the element – commonly found isotopes have a greater effect on the average. 14. Give an example of how radioactive isotopes can be used in medicine. Periodic Trends of the Elements 2nd Quarter • Periodic Law • Representative Periodic Law Students will be able to… 1. Explain the periodic law. 2. Locate metals, nonmetals and Periodic law Metals Nonmetals Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration Groups Learning Targets When elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number, the same sequence of properties appears over and over again; this is the periodic law. The periodic table is arranged so that elements with similar chemical and physical properties are in the same group or family. Representative Groups Metalloids are elements that have some properties of metals and some properties of nonmetals. Metals, nonmetals, metalloids, periods and groups or families including the alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens and noble gases can be identified by their position on the periodic table. Elements in Groups 1, 2 and 17 have characteristic ionic charges that will be used in this course to predict the formulas of compounds. metalloids on the periodic table. Predict metals, metalloids and nonmetals given a list of properties. 4. Identify periods, groups, and families including alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens, and noble gases. 5. Determine the charges of elements in groups 1,2, and 17. 3. Vocabulary Metalloids Alkali metals Halogens Alkaline earth metals Noble gases Charge Bonding and Compounds 2nd Quarter • Bonding (Ionic and Covalent) • Nomenclature Bonding (Ionic and Covalent) Atoms may be bonded together by losing, gaining or sharing electrons to form molecules or threedimensional lattices. The bonds in most compounds fall on a continuum between the two extreme models of bonding: ionic and covalent. An ionic bond involves the attraction of two oppositely charged ions, typically a metal cation and a nonmetal anion formed by transferring electrons between the Students will be able to… 1. Identify two types of bonding ionic and covalent. 2. Describe ionic bonds as formed by electrons being transferred between cations and anions. 3. Describe how ions form threedimensional lattices by attracting oppositely charged ions from all directions. Ionic Covalent Cations Anions Ions Threedimensional lattices Ionic charge Chemical formula Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration atoms. An ion attracts oppositely charged ions from every direction, resulting in the formation of a threedimensional lattice. Covalent bonds result from the sharing of electrons between two atoms, usually nonmetals. Covalent bonding can result in the formation of structures ranging from small individual molecules to three-dimensional lattices (e.g., diamond). Using the periodic table to determine ionic charge, formulas of ionic compounds containing elements from groups 1, 2, 17, hydrogen and oxygen can be predicted. Nomenclature Given a chemical formula, a compound can be named using conventional systems that include Greek prefixes where appropriate. Prefixes will be limited to represent values from one to 10. Given the name of an ionic or covalent substance, formulas can be written. Learning Targets 4. Describe how covalent bonds are usually formed by two nonmetals that share electrons. 5. I can diagram a covalent bond and ionic bond using Lewis structures. 6. Describe how covalent bonding can result in the formation of structures ranging from the small individual molecules to three dimensional lattices. 7. Use the periodic table to determine ionic charge of groups 1,2, and 17. 8. I can predict formulas for groups 1,2, 17 hydrogen and oxygen. 9. Name a compound or molecule, when given a chemical formula, using conventional systems that include Greek prefixes 1-10. 10. I can identify if a bond is covalent or ionic by how electrons are lost, gained or shared. Vocabulary Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration Learning Targets Vocabulary Reactions of Matter 2nd Quarter • Chemical Reactions • Nuclear Reactions Chemical Reactions At this level, reactants and products can be identified from an equation and simple equations can be written and balanced given either the formulas of the reactants and products or a word description of the reaction. During chemical reactions, thermal energy is either transferred from the system to the surroundings (exothermic) or transferred from the surroundings to the system (endothermic). Since the environment surrounding the system can be large, temperature changes in the surroundings may not be detectable. Students will be able to… 1. Identify reactants and products when given an equation. 2. Balance equations when given the reactants and products. 3. Use endothermic and exothermic to describe a chemical reaction. 4. Describe a nuclear reaction as a change in the nucleus and involve much larger energies than chemical reactions. 5. Describe the strong nuclear force that binds protons and neutrons together in the nucleus, which is While chemical changes involve changes in the extremely weak at most distances electrons, nuclear reactions involve changes to the but greater than the repulsive nucleus and involve much larger energies than chemical electrical forces in the nucleus. reactions. Nuclear Reactions The strong nuclear force is the attractive force that binds protons and neutrons together in the nucleus. While the nuclear force is extremely weak at most distances, over the very short distances present in the nucleus the force is greater than the repulsive electrical forces among protons. When the attractive nuclear forces and repulsive electrical forces in the nucleus are not balanced, the nucleus is unstable. 6. Explain that when the attractive nuclear forces and repulsive forces in the nucleus are not equal, it becomes unstable. 7. Explain that radioactive nuclei, which are unstable, emit radiation in the form of very fast moving particles and energy, thus Reactants Products Endothermic Exothermic Chemical reaction Nuclear force Electrical force Attractive force Repulsive force Unstable Radioactive Half life Radiation Nuclear fusion Nuclear fission Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration Through radioactive decay, the unstable nucleus emits radiation in the form of very fast-moving particles and energy to produce a new nucleus, thus changing the identity of the element. Nuclei that undergo this process are said to be radioactive. Radioactive isotopes have several medical applications. The radiation they release can be used to kill undesired cells (e.g., cancer cells). Radioisotopes can be introduced into the body to show the flow of materials in biological processes. For any radioisotope, the half-life is unique and constant. Graphs can be constructed that show the amount of a radioisotope that remains as a function of time and can be interpreted to determine the value of the half-life. Half-life values are used in radioactive dating. Other examples of nuclear processes include nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. Nuclear fission involves splitting a large nucleus into smaller nuclei, releasing large quantities of energy. Nuclear fusion is the joining of smaller nuclei into a larger nucleus accompanied by the release of large quantities of energy. Nuclear fusion is the process responsible for formation of all the elements in the universe beyond helium and the energy of the sun and the stars. Learning Targets changing the nucleus into a different element. 8. Explain that radioactive nuclei have many medical applications including killing undesired cancer cells and to show the flow of materials in biological processes. 9. Explain that the half-life of a radioisotope is unique. 10. Explain that half life values are used in radioactive dating. 11. Use a graph to explain that the half life of a radioisotope can be shown as a function of time. 12. Describe nuclear fusion as the joining of smaller nuclei into a larger nucleus and accompanied by a large release of energy. 13. Describe nuclear fission as the splitting of a large nucleus into two smaller nuclei and releasing a large amount of energy. 14. Explain that fusion in stars is responsible for the formation of all elements beyond helium and hydrogen. Vocabulary Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration Learning Targets Vocabulary Course Content Area: Energy and Waves Conservation of Energy 3rd Quarter • Quantifying kinetic energy • Quantifying gravitational potential energy • Energy is relative Quantifying kinetic energy Energy has no direction and has units of Joules (J). Kinetic energy, Ek, can be mathematically represented by Ek = ½mv2, where m =mass and v= velocity Sometimes written KE= ½ mv2. Quantifying gravitational potential energy Gravitational potential energy, Eg, can be mathematically represented by Eg = mgh, where m=mass, g= free-fall acceleration (9.8m/s2), and h=height Potential energy is sometimes called energy of position because it results from the relative positions of objects in a system. PE is sometimes used in place of Eg to represent Potential Energy. PEg expresses potential energy due to gravity. PEe expresses elastic potential energy. Energy is relative The amount of energy of an object is measured relative to a reference that is considered to be at a point of zero energy. Only the change in the amount of energy can be measured absolutely. Students will be able to… 1. Explain how to mathematically quantify the kinetic energy using the equation KE = ½ mv2. 2. Explain that energy has no direction and the units of measure are measured in Joules (J). 3. Quantify, mathematically, the gravitational potential energy using the equation PEg = mgh. 4. Describe the law of conservation of energy and use the equations for Ek and PEg to calculate values associated with energy for situations involving energy transfer and transformation. 5. Quantify energy from data collection in experimental situations. 6. Explain that the amount of energy of an object is measured relative to a reference that is considered to be at a point of zero energy and the reference may be changed to help Conservation of energy Kinetic Energy Potential Energy Joule Free-fall acceleration Gravitational Potential Energy Elastic Potential Energy Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration The conservation of energy and equations for kinetic and gravitational potential energy can be used to calculate values associated with energy (i.e., height, mass, speed) for situations involving energy transfer and transformation. Opportunities to quantify energy from data collected in experimental situations (e.g., a swinging pendulum, a car travelling down an incline) must be provided. Learning Targets Vocabulary understand different situations. Transfer and Transformation of Energy 3rd Quarter Transfer of Energy Transformation of energy As long as the force, F, and displacement, Δx, are in the same direction, work, W, can be calculated from the equation W = FΔx. Work = force x distance (W=Fxd) Energy transformations for a phenomenon can be represented through a series of pie graphs or bar graphs. Equations for work, kinetic energy and potential energy can be combined with the law of conservation of energy to solve problems. When energy is transferred from one system to another, some of the energy is transformed to thermal energy. Since thermal energy involves the random movement of many trillions of subatomic particles, it is less able to be organized to bring about further change. Therefore, even though the total amount of energy remains constant, less energy is available for doing useful work. Work Students will be able to… 1. Calculate work, W, when force, F, and displacement, d, are in the same direction using the equation W = Fxd 2. Interpret energy transformation graphs (bar or pie) to explain how PE and KE add up to the total mechanical energy in a system due to Conservation of Energy. 3. Solve problems using the equations for work, kinetic energy and potential energy in conjunction with the idea of the Law of Conservation of Energy. 4. Explain how some energy transferred from one system to another is transformed to thermal energy (heat). Mechanical work System Law of Conservation of Energy Work Thermal Energy Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration Learning Targets Vocabulary 5. Explain how thermal energy’s random movement of subatomic particles is less able to be organized for further changes, like for doing useful work. Waves 3rd Quarter • Wave Characteristics • Wave Interactions: Refraction, reflection, diffraction, absorption, superposition Wave Characteristics (pre-requisite information needed in order to understand standards which follow) • Radiant energy and the electromagnetic spectrum • Doppler shift Wave characteristics can be described. Amplitude and wavelength are measurements of distance. Period and frequency are measurements based on time. Wavelength is the distance between two equivalent parts of a wave. Amplitude and wavelength tell you about energy. The larger the amplitude of a wave, the more energy it carries. The shorter the wavelength of a wave, the more energy it carries. The period of the wave is the time required for one full wavelength of a wave to pass a certain point. It is represented by the symbol T and is expressed in terms of seconds (s). Frequency is a measure of the number of wavelengths that pass a point in a given time interval and how rapidly vibrations occur in the medium. Frequency ,f, is measured in terms of (Hertz), Hz. Students should be able to… 1. Define a wave as a disturbance that carries energy through matter or space. 2. Distinguish between waves that travel through a medium (most waves- mechanical) and waves that do not require a medium (electromagnetic waves). 3. Describe waves as able to transfer energy, and therefore, able do work (F/d). 4. Understand that as a wave travels through a medium and encounters a new material, the new material may absorb the energy of the wave by transforming it to another form of energy, usually thermal energy. 5. Propose a model using kinetic theory to explain why waves travel at different speeds (i.e. organization at the particle level arrangement of particles in a Medium Mechanical wave Electromagnetic wave Electromagnetic spectrum Radiant energy Doppler shift Transverse wave Longitudinal wave Crest Trough Amplitude Wavelength Period Frequency Refraction Reflection Diffraction Absorption Superposition Constructive interference Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration Learning Targets Vocabulary solid, liquid, and gas and thus, the ease with which energy can be transferred). 6. Use wave equations in order to compare characteristics of waves. Frequency and period are related. The more vibrations that are made in one second, the less time each vibration takes. The frequency of a wave is the inverse of the period and can be represented mathematically as, f=1/T. The speed of a wave equals wavelength divided by period, mathematically represented as, Wave speed =wavelength/period or v=λ/T. Wave speed can also be calculated in terms of frequency and wavelength, Wave speed = frequency X wavelength or v=f X λ. Wave Interactions: Refraction, reflection, diffraction, absorption, superposition When a wave encounters a new material (medium), the new material may absorb the energy of the wave by transforming it to another form of energy, usually thermal energy. Waves can be reflected off solid barriers or refracted when a wave travels form one medium into another medium. Waves may undergo diffraction around small obstacles or openings. When two waves traveling through the same medium meet, they pass through each other then continue traveling through the medium as before. When the waves meet, they undergo superposition, demonstrating constructive and destructive 7. Describe what may happen when ripples on a pond encounter a large rock in the water (waves can be reflected off solid barriers or refracted when a wave travels from one medium to another medium). 8. Describe what can happen when two waves are in the same location. Include superposition (constructive and destructive interference) in your description and an illustration to clarify your description. 9. Understand that sound travels in Destructive interference radiant Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration interference. Sound travels in waves and undergoes reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction. For rough objects, the reflection in all directions forms a diffuse reflection and for smooth shiny objects, reflections can result in clear images. Transparent materials transmit most of the energy through the material but smaller amounts of energy may be absorbed or reflected. Doppler shift Changes in the observed frequency and wavelength of a wave can occur if the wave source and the observer are moving relative to each other. When the source and the observer are moving toward each other, the wavelength is shorter and the observed frequency is higher; when the source and the observer are moving away from each other, the wavelength is longer and the observed frequency is lower. This phenomenon is called the Doppler shift and can be explained using diagrams. This phenomenon is important to current Learning Targets waves and undergoes reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction. 10. Give examples of sound refraction (Echo, ultrasound, sonar) and sound interference (destructive - dead spots in auditoriums/concert halls and constructive – many instruments playing the same note results in louder sound due to increased amplitude and, thus, increased energy). 11. Explain why you can hear two people talking even after they walk around a corner (Understand that waves may undergo diffraction around small obstacles or openings). 12. Describe the Doppler Effect and Explain why it occurs. Give an example using sound waves and light waves. (The Doppler Effect in regards to sound waves, results in a change in pitch – an ambulance siren moving toward an observer produces waves that are closer together – higher frequency (pitch). An ambulance siren moving away from an observer produces waves that are Vocabulary Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration understanding of how the universe was formed and will be applied in later sections of this course. Learning Targets farther apart – lower frequency (pitch). With light waves – waves that are moving toward an observer result in waves that are closer together – higher frequency colors. Waves that are moving away result in lower frequency colors). Radiant energy and the electromagnetic spectrum Two models are required to describe the nature of electromagnetic waves and radiant energy they produce. Electromagnetic radiation acts like a stream of photons so radiant energy can be viewed as the energy carried by these photons. EM radiation can also be viewed as an electromagnetic wave, which carries energy in its oscillating electric and magnetic fields. Radiant energy travels in electromagnetic waves and does not require a medium. The energy of electromagnetic waves is proportional to frequency (i.e. radio waves are lower frequency EM waves and have less energy than ultraviolet EM waves with their higher frequencies). The brightness of light (ex. from stars) depends on intensity which depends on the number of photons per second passing a point. Intensity decreases as distance increases. A more direct ray is more intense than light that hits at an angle – this explains why on Earth, the 13. Differentiate between sound and light (EM) waves with regards to the medium through which they travel and the method by which they travel. Describe the sounds and sights you would encounter if you were able to float freely in the universe. 14. Explain how sources of light energy radiate energy continually in all directions. 15. Arrange the regions of the electromagnetic spectrum from the shortest wavelengths to the longest wavelengths. Relate the wavelength and frequency to the energy carried by the bands of Vocabulary Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration equator is warmer than the poles – more energy per square area is being experienced at the equator. Sources of light energy (e.g., the sun, a light bulb) radiate energy continually in all directions. Radiant energy has a wide range of frequencies, wavelengths and energies arranged into the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into bands: radio (lowest energy), microwaves, infrared, visible light, X-rays and gamma rays (highest energy) that have different applications in everyday life. Radiant energy of the entire electromagnetic spectrum travels at the same speed in a vacuum. However, the relative positions of the different bands, including the colors of visible light, are important (e.g., ultraviolet has more energy than microwaves). Radiant energy exhibits wave behaviors including reflection, refraction, absorption, superposition and diffraction, depending in part on the nature of the medium. For opaque objects (e.g., paper, a chair, an apple), little if any radiant energy is transmitted into the new material. However the radiant energy can be absorbed, usually increasing the thermal energy of the object and/or the radiant energy can be reflected. Learning Targets the EM spectrum. 16. Give examples of uses for various bands of the Electromagnetic Spectrum. 17. Explain why EM waves of 400nm to 700nm are the only waves we can see. 18. Describe how radiant energy exhibits wave behaviors including reflection, refraction, absorption, superposition and diffraction, depending in part on the nature of the medium. Vocabulary Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration Learning Targets Vocabulary Thermal Energy Thermal Energy 3rd Quarter Thermal Energy Temperature Conductivity Thermal conductivity depends on the rate at which thermal energy is transferred from one end of a material to another. Thermal conductors have a high rate of thermal energy transfer and thermal insulators have a slow rate of thermal energy transfer. The rate at which thermal radiation is absorbed or emitted by a system depends on its temperature, color, texture and exposed surface area. All other things being equal, in a given amount of time, black rough surfaces absorb more thermal energy than smooth white surfaces. An object or system is continually absorbing and emitting thermal radiation. If the object or system absorbs more thermal energy than it emits and there is no change in phase, the temperature increases. If the object or system emits more thermal energy than is absorbed and there is no change in phase, the temperature decreases. For an object or system in thermal equilibrium, the amount of thermal energy absorbed is equal to the amount of thermal energy emitted; therefore, the temperature remains constant. Students should be able to… 1. Explain in words and through illustration, why a metal wire with one end placed in a fire, gets hot on the other end. Include the terms, “conduction and kinetic energy” along with a description of what is happening to the particles in the metal wire. 2. Describe that thermal conductivity depends on the rate at which thermal energy is transferred from one end of a material to another. 3. Differentiate between conductors and insulators in terms of how well (rate) energy is transferred through particle collisions. 4. List variables that affect the rate at which thermal radiation is absorbed or emitted by a system, (i.e., temperature, color, texture, and area of exposed surface). 5. Explain how these variables affect the rate at which thermal Thermal conduction Thermal conductivity Conductors Insulators Thermal radiation Temperature Thermometer heat Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration Learning Targets Vocabulary radiation is absorbed (i.e., black rough surfaces absorb more thermal energy than smooth white surfaces). 6. Define, “temperature” in terms of average kinetic energy of subatomic particles. 7. Define, in terms of thermal energy and energy transfer, why temperature of an object increases, decreases, or remains constant. Electricity 4th Quarter • Movement of electrons • Current • Electric potential (voltage) • Resistors and transfer of energy Movement of electrons The differences between electrical conductors and insulators can be explained by how freely the electrons flow throughout the material due to how firmly electrons are held by the nucleus. By convention, electric current is the rate at which positive charge flows in a circuit. In reality, it is the negatively charged electrons that are actually moving, so the direction of current is opposite to the direction that electrons move. Current Current is measured in amperes (A), which is equal to one coulomb of charge per second (C/s). Students should be able to… 1. Give examples of electrical conductors and insulators. 2. Explain, in terms of bonding, why conductors allow charges to flow and insulators do not. 3. Define electric current as the rate at which positive charge flows in a circuit. 4. Describe the motion of charges from one terminal of a battery to the other through an electrical device such as a flashlight. 5. Compare electrical potential energy to gravitational potential energy of a ball (i.e. a ball rolls downhill from a position of Charged particle Electric conductor Electric insulator Coulomb (C) Amperes (A) Current Electric field Electric potential energy Potential difference Electric current (Voltage) Resistance Resistors Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration Learning Targets Electric Potential (voltage) In an electric circuit, the power source supplies the electrons already in the circuit with electric potential energy by doing work to separate opposite charges. The potential difference or voltage across an energy source is a measure of potential energy in Joules supplied to each coulomb of charge. 6. The volt (V) is the unit of potential difference and is equal to one Joule of energy per coulomb of charge (J/C). 7. For a battery, the energy is provided by a chemical reaction that separates charges on the positive and negative sides of the battery. 8. This separation of charge is what causes the electrons to flow in the circuit. Potential difference across the circuit is a property of the energy source and does not depend upon the devices in the circuit. Resistors and Transfer of Energy These electrons then transfer energy to other objects and transform electrical energy into other forms (e.g., light, sound, heat) in the resistors. Current continues to flow, even after the electrons transfer their energy. Resistors oppose the rate of charge flow in the circuit. These concepts can be used to explain why current will increase as the potential difference increases and as the resistance decreases. Experiments, investigations and testing (3-D or virtual) 9. 10. 11. higher gravitational energy to a position of lower potential energy just as electrical charges move from a region of higher to lower potential electrical energy. Use a voltmeter to determine the potential difference which exists in sample circuits. Explain how resistors (devices supplying resistance to circuits) can be helpful and harmful. Relate resistance to effectiveness of insulators and conductors. Wire a series circuit and a parallel circuit using 3 flashlight bulbs with bases, wires, and a 9 V battery. Draw the schematic of the circuit. Build a single circuit that has bulbs in series and in parallel. Draw the schematic. Predict what would happen to the brightness of the bulbs in the circuits created above if a resistor were added to the circuits. Test your prediction. Describe and give examples of how transfer of energy in a current can transform electrical energy into other forms (ex. light, sound, heat). Vocabulary Circuit Series and parallel circuits Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration Learning Targets Vocabulary Students should be able to… 1. Explain how a frame of reference is used to describe motion. 2. Explain how position, displacement, velocity and acceleration are all vector properties while distance, speed, and time are scalar quantities. must be used to construct a variety of circuits, and measure and compare the potential difference (voltage) and current. Electricity concepts are dealt with conceptually in this course. Course Content Area: Forces and Motion Motion 3rd Quarter • Introduction to one-dimensional vectors • Displacement, velocity (constant, average and instantaneous) and acceleration • Interpreting position vs. time and velocity vs. time graphs Introduction to one-dimensional vectors The motion of an object depends on the observer’s frame of reference and is described in terms of distance, position, displacement, speed, velocity, acceleration and time. Position, displacement, velocity and acceleration are all vector properties (magnitude and direction). All motion is relative to whatever frame of reference is chosen, for there is no motionless frame from which to judge all motion. The relative nature of motion will be addressed conceptually, not mathematically. Non- inertial reference frames are excluded. Motion diagrams can be drawn and interpreted to represent the position and velocity of an object. The displacement or change in position of an object is a vector quantity that can be calculated by subtracting the initial position from the final position (Δx = xf – xi). Displacement can be positive or negative depending upon the direction of motion. 3. Compare and contrast speed and velocity. 4. Describe what you need to know in order to find the speed of an object. 5. Explain how you can study speed by using graphs. 6. State what changes when an Frame of reference Displacement Vector and scalar quantities Speed Velocity acceleration average acceleration friction Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration Displacement is not always equal to the distance travelled. Examples should be given where the distance is not the same as the displacement. Velocity is a vector property that represents the rate at which position changes. Displacement, velocity (constant, average and instantaneous) and acceleration Average velocity can be calculated by dividing displacement (change in position) by the elapsed time (vavg = (xf – xi)/(tf – ti)). Velocity may be positive or negative depending upon the direction of motion and is not always equal to the speed. Provide examples of when the average speed is not the same as the average velocity. Objects that move with constant velocity have the same displacement for each successive time interval. While speeding up or slowing down and/or changing direction, the velocity of an object changes continuously, from instant to instant. The speed of an object at any instant (clock reading) is called instantaneous speed. An object may not travel at this instantaneous speed for any period of time or cover any distance with that particular speed, especially if the speed is continually changing. Acceleration is a vector property that represents the Learning Targets object accelerates. 7. Describe how you would calculate the acceleration of an object moving in a straight line. 8. Explain how a graph can be used to find acceleration. 9. Calculate speed, velocity, acceleration using mathematical equations. Vocabulary Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration Learning Targets rate at which velocity changes. Average acceleration can be calculated by dividing the change in velocity divided by elapsed time (aavg = (vf – vi)/(tf – ti)). At this grade level, it should be noted that acceleration can be positive or negative, but specifics about what kind of motions produce positive or negative accelerations will be addressed in the physics syllabus. The word “deceleration” should not be used because students tend to associate a negative sign of acceleration only with slowing down. Objects that have no acceleration can either be standing still or be moving with constant velocity (speed and direction). Constant acceleration occurs when the change in an object’s instantaneous velocity is the same for equal successive time intervals. Interpreting Position vs. Time and Velocity vs. Time Graphs Motion can be represented by position vs. time and velocity vs. time graphs. Specifics about the speed, direction and change in motion can be determined by interpreting such graphs. For physical science, graphs will be limited to positive xvalues and show only uniform motion involving constant velocity or constant acceleration. Motion must be investigated by collecting and analyzing data in the laboratory. Technology can enhance motion exploration and 10. Interpret Position vs. Time and Velocity vs. Time Graphs (see content elaboration under this section for details on questions that should be included as part of the graph analysis) 11. Describe what happens when there is net force acting on an object. Vocabulary Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration investigation through video analysis, the use of motion detectors and graphing data for analysis. Objects that move with constant velocity and have no acceleration form a straight line (not necessarily horizontal) on a position vs. time graph. Objects that are at rest will form a straight horizontal line on a position vs. time graph. Objects that are accelerating will show a curved line on a position vs. time graph. Velocity can be calculated by determining the slope of a position vs. time graph. Positive slopes on position vs. time graphs indicate motion in a positive direction. Negative slopes on position vs. time graphs indicate motion in a negative direction. While it is important that students can construct graphs by hand, computer graphing programs or graphing calculators also can be used so more time can be spent on graph interpretation and analysis. Constant acceleration is represented by a straight line (not necessarily horizontal) on a velocity vs. time graph. Objects that have no acceleration (at rest or moving at constant velocity) will have a straight horizontal line for a velocity vs. time graph. Average acceleration can be by determining the slope of a velocity vs. time graph. The details about motion graphs should not be taught as rules to memorize, but rather as generalizations that can be developed from interpreting the graphs. Learning Targets 12. State what force always opposes motion. 13. Explain why friction is sometimes necessary. Vocabulary Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration Learning Targets Vocabulary Students will be able to… 1. Explain that force is a vector quantity that has both magnitude and direction. Forces • Force Diagrams Force Diagrams • Types of forces (gravity, friction, normal, tension) • Field model for forces at a distance Force is a vector quantity, having both magnitude and direction. The (SI) unit of force is a Newton. One Newton of net force will cause a 1 kg object to experience an acceleration of 1 m/s2. A Newton also can be represented as kg·m/s . The opportunity to measure force in the lab must be provided (e.g., with a spring scale or a force probe). 2 Types of Forces (Gravity, Friction, Normal, Tension) Normal forces and tension forces are introduced conceptually at this level. These forces and other forces are introduced in prior grades (friction, drag, contact, gravitational, electric and magnetic) and can be used as examples of forces that affect motion. Gravitational force (weight) can be calculated from mass, but all other forces will only be quantified from force diagrams that were introduced in middle school. In physical science, only forces in one dimension (positive and negative) will be addressed. The net force can be determined by one-dimensional vector addition. More quantitative study of friction forces, universal gravitational forces, elastic forces and electrical forces will be addressed in the physics syllabus. Friction is a force that opposes sliding between two 2. Demonstrate that the (SI) unit of force is a Newton and that one Newton of net force will cause a 1 kg object to experience an acceleration of 1 m/s2. This Newton can also be represented as kg•m/s2. 3. Measure force using a spring scale or force probe. 4. Calculate gravitational force (weight) from mass. 5. Determine net force by onedimensional vector addition. 6. Explain that friction is a force that opposes sliding between two surfaces. 7. Describe surfaces that are sliding relative to each other, the force on an object always points in a direction opposite to the relative motion of the object. 8. Calculate frictional forces from Newton Frictional force Force diagram Field model Normal force Gravitational force Static Weight Tension force Net force Kinetic Acceleration due to gravity Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration surfaces. For surfaces that are sliding relative to each other, the force on an object always points in a direction opposite to the relative motion of the object. In physical science, friction will only be calculated from force diagrams. Equations for static and kinetic friction are found in the physics syllabus. A normal force exists between two solid objects when their surfaces are pressed together due to other forces acting on one or both objects (e.g., a solid sitting on or sliding across a table, a magnet attached to a refrigerator). A normal force is always a push directed at right angles from the surfaces of the interacting objects. A tension force occurs when a non-slack rope, wire, cord or similar device pulls on another object. The tension force always points in the direction of the pull. Field Model for Forces at a Distance The stronger the field, the greater the force exerted on objects placed in the field. The field of an object is always there, even if the object is not interacting with anything else. The gravitational force (weight) of an object is proportional to its mass. Weight, Fg, can be calculated from the equation Fg Learning Targets force diagrams. 9. Explain that a normal force exists between two solid objects when their surfaces are pressed together due to other forces acting on one or both objects. 10. Demonstrate that a normal force is always a push directed at right angles from the surfaces of the interacting objects. 11. Understand that a tension force occurs when a non-slack rope, wire, cord or similar device pulls on another object. 12. Explain that the tension force always points in the direction of the pull. 13. Understand that the stronger the field, the greater the force exerted on objects placed in the field. 14. Explain that the field of an object is always there, even if the object is not interacting with anything else. 15. Understand that the gravitational force (weight) of an object is Vocabulary Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration = m g, where g is the gravitational field strength of an object which is equal to 9.8 N/kg (m/s2) on the surface of Earth. Learning Targets Vocabulary proportional to its mass. 16. I can calculate weight, Fg, from the equation Fg=mg where g is the gravitational field strength of an object which is equal to 9.8N/kg or m/s2 on the surface of the Earth. Dynamics (how forces affect motion) • Objects at rest • Objects moving with constant velocity • Acceleration objects Student will be able to… 1. I can understand that when the vector sum of the forces (net force) acting on an object is zero, The rate at which an object changes its speed or the object does not accelerate. direction (acceleration) is proportional to the vector 2. I can explain that for an object sum of the applied forces (net force, Fnet) and inversely that is moving, this means the proportional to the mass (a = Fnet/m). object will remain moving When the vector sum of the forces (net force) acting on without changing its speed or an object is zero, the object does not accelerate. direction. For an object that is moving, this means the object will 3. I can explain that for an object remain moving without changing its speed or direction. that is not moving, the object will continue to remain stationary. For an object that is not moving, the object will 4. I can apply these laws to systems continue to remain stationary. consisting of a single object upon These laws will be applied to systems consisting of a which multiple forces act. single object upon which multiple forces act. 5. I can understand that both Vector addition will be limited to one dimension. objects in a force interaction While both horizontal and vertical forces can be acting experience an equal amount of on an object simultaneously, one of the dimensions force, but in opposite directions. must have a net force of zero. 6. I can explain that interacting force pairs are often confused A force is an interaction between two objects. An object does not accelerate (remains at rest or maintains a constant speed and direction of motion) unless an unbalanced net force acts on it. Vector sum(vector addition) Balanced forces Newton’s laws of motion Unbalanced forces Force pairs Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration Learning Targets Both objects in the interaction experience an equal amount of force, but in opposite directions. Interacting force pairs are often confused with balanced forces. Interacting force pairs can never cancel each other out because they always act on different objects. Naming the force (e.g., gravity, friction) does not identify the two objects involved in the interacting force pair. Objects involved in an interacting force pair can be easily identified by using the format “A acts on B so B acts on A.” For example, the truck hits the sign therefore the sign hits the truck with an equal force in the opposite direction. Earth pulls the book down so the book pulls Earth up with an equal force. with balanced forces. 7. I can demonstrate that interacting force pairs can never cancel each other out because they always act on different objects. 8. I can understand that naming the force (e.g., gravity, friction) does not identify the two objects involved in the interacting force pair. 9. I can explain that Earth pulls the book down so the book pulls Earth up with an equal force. 10. I can use the laws of motion to explain and predict changes in motion The focus of the content is to develop a conceptual understanding of the laws of motion to explain and predict changes in motion, not to name or recite a memorized definition. Vocabulary Course Content Area: The Universe History of the Universe 4th Quarter The Big Bang Theory Evidence to support the Big The Big Bang Model is a broadly accepted theory for the origin and evolution of our universe. It postulates that 12 to 14 billion years ago, the portion of the universe seen today was only a few millimeters across (NASA). Students will be able to… 1. Explain the Big Bang Model that is a broadly accepted theory for the origin and evolution of our universe. Big bang Gravity Gas clouds Stars Universe Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration Bang Theory Technology used to study the Universe Learning Targets According to the “big bang” theory, the contents of the known universe expanded explosively into existence from a hot, dense state 13.7 billion years ago (NAEP 2009). After the big bang, the universe expanded quickly (and continues to expand) and then cooled down enough for atoms to form. Gravity pulled the atoms together into gas clouds that eventually became stars, which comprise young galaxies. Evidence to Support the Big Bang Theory Foundations for the big bang model can be included to introduce the supporting evidence for the expansion of the known universe (e.g., Hubble’s law and red shift or cosmic microwave background radiation). Technology provides the basis for many new discoveries related to space and the universe. Technology Used to Study the Universe Visual, radio and x-ray telescopes collect information from across the entire electromagnetic spectrum; computers are used to manage data and complicated computations; space probes send back data and materials from remote parts of the solar system; and accelerators provide subatomic particle energies that simulate conditions in the stars and in the early history of the universe before stars formed. A galaxy is a group of billions of individual stars, star systems, star clusters, dust and gas bound together by 4th Quarter 2. Components of the Big Bang Model that students should include in their explanation are: a. When it occurred and from what. b. Cooling that occurred afterwards c. Formation of atoms d. Gravities role in creating stars and galaxies 3. Describe evidence that is available to support the Big Bang Theory (e.g. Hubble’s law, red shift stars, cosmic background radiation). 4. Explain and give examples of how technology, such as telescopes, computers, and space probes, has enabled us to make new discoveries related to space and the universe. Vocabulary Cosmic background radiation Red-shift stars Hubble’s law Technology Galaxy Formation Galaxies The Milky Way Students will be able to… 1. Define a galaxy as a group of Galaxy Star systems Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Galaxy Doppler Shift (Red Shift) and determining distance 4th Quarter Content Elaboration Learning Targets gravity. There are billions of galaxies in the universe, and they are classified by size and shape. The Milky Way is a spiral galaxy. It has more than 100 billion stars and a diameter of more than 100,000 light years. At the center of the Milky Way is a bulge of stars, from which are spiral arms of gas, dust and most of the young stars. The solar system is part of the Milky Way galaxy. Hubble’s law states that galaxies that are farther away have a greater red shift, so the speed at which a galaxy is moving away is proportional to its distance from the Earth. Red shift is a phenomenon due to Doppler shifting, so the shift of light from a galaxy to the red end of the spectrum indicates that the galaxy and the observer are 5. moving farther away from one another. Doppler shifting also is found in the Energy and Waves section of this course. Early in the formation of the universe, stars coalesced out of clouds of hydrogen and helium and clumped together by gravitational attraction into galaxies. When heated to a sufficiently high temperature by gravitational attraction, stars begin nuclear reactions, 2. 3. 4. Vocabulary billions of individual stars, star systems, star clusters, dust and gas bound together by gravity. Explain there are billions of galaxies classified by size and shape. Define the Milky Way, the galaxy where the solar system is located, as a spiral galaxy that has more than 100 billion stars and a diameter of more than 100,000 light years. Explain that Hubble's Law states that galaxies that are farther away have a greater red shift, so the speed at which a galaxy is moving away is proportional to its distance from Earth. Explain that red shift is a phenomenon due to Doppler shifting and is related to energy and waves. Star clusters Dust and Gas Milky way Solar system Spiral galaxy Light year Hubble’s law Red shift Doppler shift Stars • Formation; stages of evolution • Fusion in stars Students will be able to… 1. Explain that early in the formation of the universe, stars coalesced out of clouds of hydrogen and helium and clumped together by gravitational attraction into Universe Nuclear reactions Matter Energy Nuclear fusion Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Timeline Focus Standards Content Elaboration which convert matter to energy and fuse the lighter elements into heavier ones. These and other fusion processes in stars have led to the formation of all the other elements. (NAEP 2009). All of the elements, except for hydrogen and helium, originated from the nuclear fusion reactions of stars (College Board Standards for College Success, 2009). Stars are classified by their color, size, luminosity and mass. A Hertzprung-Russell diagram must be used to estimate the sizes of stars and predict how stars will evolve. Most stars fall on the main sequence of the H-R diagram, a diagonal band running from the bright hot stars on the upper left to the dim cool stars on the lower right. Learning Targets Vocabulary galaxies. 2. Explain that stars became nuclear reactions at high temperatures to convert matter to energy and fuse the light elements into heavier ones. 3. Explain that all natural forming elements, except hydrogen and helium, originated from nuclear fusion in stars. 4. Classify stars by their color, size, luminosity and mass. 5. Use a H-R to classify stars. Luminosity H-R diagram