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Lecture Outlines
Chapter 4
Environment:
The Science behind the
Stories
4th Edition
Withgott/Brennan
Modified by Gabrielle Ehinger
for Huntingdon College
• In 1988, Zebra mussels were
accidentally introduced to
Lake St. Clair
- In discharged ballast
water
• By 2010, they had invaded
30 states
- No natural predators,
competitors, or parasites
• They cause millions of
dollars of damage to
property each year
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Species interactions
• Species interactions are the backbone of communities
• Natural species interactions:
- Competition = both species are harmed
- Exploitative = one species benefits and the other is
harmed
- Predation, parasitism, and herbivory
- Mutualism = both species benefit
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Competition
• Competition = multiple organisms seek the same limited
resources
- Food, space, water, shelter, mates, sunlight
• Intraspecific competition = between members of the
same species
- High population density = increased competition
• Interspecific competition = between members of 2 or
more species
- Strongly affects community composition
- Leads to competitive exclusion or species coexistence
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Results of interspecific competition
• Competitive exclusion = one species completely
excludes another species from using the resource
- Zebra mussels displaced native mussels in the Great
Lakes
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Niche: an individual’s ecological role
• Fundamental niche = the full niche of a species
• Realized niche = the portion of the fundamental
niche that is actually filled
- Due to competition or other species’ interactions
• Species coexistence = neither species fully excludes the
other from resources, so both live side by side
- This produces a stable point of equilibrium, with stable
population sizes
- Species minimize competition by using only a part of
the available resource (niche)
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Resource partitioning
Character displacement
• Resource partitioning =
species use different
resources
• Character displacement = competing species diverge in
their physical characteristics
- Or they use shared
resources in different
ways
- Ex: one species is
active at night, another
in the day
- Ex: one species eats
small seeds, another
eats large seeds
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Exploitation: predation
• Exploitation = one member
exploits another for its own
gain (+/- interactions)
- Predation, parasitism,
herbivory
• Predation = process by which individuals of one species
(predators) capture, kill, and consume individuals of
another species (prey)
- Structures food webs
- Due to the evolution of traits best suited to the
resources they use
- Results from resource partitioning
• Birds that eat larger seeds evolve larger bills
- Birds that eat smaller seeds evolve smaller bills
Competition is reduced when two species become more
different
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Zebra mussel predation on phytoplankton
• Zebra mussels eat phytoplankton and zooplankton
- Both populations decrease in lakes with zebra mussels
• Zebra mussels don’t eat cyanobacteria
- Population increases in lakes with zebra mussels
• Zebra mussels are becoming prey for some North
American predators:
- Diving ducks, muskrats, crayfish, flounder, sturgeon,
eels, carp, and freshwater drum
- The number of predators and prey influences
community composition
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Effects of predation on populations
• Increased prey populations increase predators
- Predators survive and reproduce
• Increased predator populations decrease prey
- Predators starve
• Decreased predator populations increase prey populations
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Predation has evolutionary ramifications
• Natural selection leads to evolution of adaptations that
make predators better hunters
• Individuals who are better at catching prey:
- Live longer, healthier lives
- Take better care of offspring
• Prey face strong selection pressures: they are at risk of
immediate death
- Prey develop elaborate defenses against being eaten
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Defenses against being eaten
Exploitation: parasitism
• Parasitism = a relationship in which one organism
(parasite) depends on another (host)
- For nourishment or some other benefit
- The parasite harms, but doesn’t kill, the host
• Some are free-living
- Infrequent contact with
their hosts
- Ticks, sea lampreys
- Brown headed cow bird
• Some live within the host
- Disease, tapeworms
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Parasites evolve in response to each other
• Parasitoids = insects that parasitize other insects
- Killing the host
• Coevolution = hosts and parasites become locked in a
duel of escalating adaptations
- Has been called an evolutionary arms race
- Each evolves new responses to the other
- It may not be beneficial to the parasite to kill its host
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Exploitation: herbivory
• Herbivory = animals feed on the tissues of plants
- Widely seen in insects
• May not kill the plant
- But affects its growth and survival
• Defenses against herbivory include:
- Chemicals: toxic or distasteful
- Thorns, spines, or irritating hairs
- Other animals: protect the plant
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Mutualism
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Pollination
• Two or more species benefit from their interactions
• Symbiosis = mutualism in which the organisms live in
close physical contact
In exchange for the plant nectar, the animals pollinate
plants, which allows them to reproduce
- Each partner provides a service the other needs (food,
protection, housing, etc.)
- Microbes within digestive tracts
- Mycorrhizae: plant roots and fungi
- Coral and algae (zooxanthellae)
• Pollination = bees, bats, birds and others transfer pollen
from one flower to another, fertilizing its eggs
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Relationships with no effect on one member
• Amensalism = a relationship in which one organism is
harmed while the other is unaffected
- Difficult to confirm, because usually one organism
benefits from harming another
- Allelopathy = certain plants release harmful chemicals
- Or, is this a way to outcompete another for space?
• Commensalism = a relationship in which one organism
benefits, while the other remains unaffected
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Ecological communities
• Community = an assemblage of populations of
organisms living in the same place at the same time
- Members interact with each other
- Interactions determine the structure, function, and
species composition of the community
• Community ecologists are people interested in how:
- Species coexist and relate to one another
- Communities change, and why patterns exist
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Energy passes through trophic levels
• One of the most important species interactions
- Who eats whom?
• Matter and energy move through the community
• Trophic levels = rank in the feeding hierarchy
- Producers (autotrophs)
- Consumers
- Detritivores and
decomposers
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Producers: the first trophic level
• Producers, or autotrophs (“self-feeders”) = organisms
capture solar energy for photosynthesis to produce sugars
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Consumers: consume producers
• Primary consumers = second trophic
level
- Green plants
- Organisms that consume producers
- Cyanobacteria
- Herbivores consume plants
- Algae
- Deer, grasshoppers and other insects
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Secondary Consumers consume primary
consumers
• Secondary consumers = third trophic level
• Organisms that prey on primary consumers
• Carnivores consume meat
• Wolves, rodents
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Consumers occur at higher trophic levels
• Tertiary Consumers = fourth trophic level
- Predators at the highest trophic level
- Consume secondary consumers
- Are also carnivores
- Hawks, owls
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Detritivores and decomposers
• Organisms that consume nonliving organic matter
- Enrich soils and/or recycle nutrients found in dead
organisms
• Detritivores = scavenge waste products or dead bodies
- Millipedes, soil insects
• Decomposers = break down leaf litter and other nonliving material
• Omnivores = consumers that eat both plants and animals
- Fungi, bacteria
- Enhance topsoil and recycle nutrients
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Energy, biomass, and numbers decrease
• Most energy organisms use is lost as waste heat
through cellular respiration
- Less and less energy is available in each
successive trophic level
- Each level contains only 10% of the energy of the
trophic level below it
• There are also far fewer organisms and less biomass
(mass of living matter) at the higher trophic levels
A human vegetarian’s ecological footprint is smaller
than a meat-eater’s footprint
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Pyramids of energy, biomass, and numbers
Food webs show relationships and energy
flow
• Food chain = a series of feeding relationships
• Food web = a visual map of feeding relationships and
energy flow
- Includes many different
organisms at all various
levels
- Greatly simplified; leaves
out most species
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Some organisms play big roles
• Community dynamics are
complex
- Species interactions differ in
strength and over time
• Keystone species = has a
strong or wide-reaching impact
- Far out of proportion to its
abundance
• Removal of a keystone species
has substantial ripple effects
- Alters the food chain
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Example: Wolf Re-Introduction to Yellowstone
• In the absence of wolves in Rocky Mountain and Yellowstone
National Parks, elk browsed willows in river and creek bottoms
excessively.
• Wolves were re-introduced in 1995
• Now that wolves are back in Yellowstone, riparian areas have come
alive as long-suppressed cottonwoods and willows are growing,
providing vital habitat for songbirds. Beaver have also returned,
influencing water quality.
• Wolves also play an important role in regulating other predators:
-With fewer coyotes, antelope fawn survival has increased
dramatically;
-Red fox populations have also increased.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Species can change communities
• Trophic Cascade = predators at high trophic levels
indirectly affect populations at low trophic levels
- By keeping species at intermediate trophic levels in
check
- Extermination of wolves led to increased deer
populations, which overgrazed vegetation and changed
forest structure
• Ecosystem engineers = physically modify the
environment
- Beaver dams, prairie dogs, ants, zebra mussels
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Communities respond to disturbances
Primary succession
• Communities experience many types of disturbance
• Succession = the predictable series
of changes in a community
- Removal of keystone species, spread of invasive
species, natural disturbances
- Human impacts cause major community changes
• Resistance = community of organisms resists change and
remains stable despite the disturbance
• Resilience = a community changes in response to a
disturbance, but later returns to its original state
• A disturbed community may never return to its original
state
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- Following a disturbance
• Primary succession = disturbance
removes all vegetation and/or soil
life
- Glaciers, drying lakes, volcanic
lava
• Pioneer species = the first species
to arrive in a primary succession
area (i.e. lichens)
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Secondary succession
• Secondary succession = a disturbance dramatically
alters, but does not destroy, all local organisms
- The remaining organisms form “building blocks”
which help shape the process of succession
- Fires, hurricanes, farming, logging
• Climax community = remains in place with few
changes
- Until another
disturbance restarts
succession
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Community cohesion
• Frederick Clements = viewed communities as cohesive
entities, with integrated parts
- Its members remain associated over space and time
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Invasive species threaten stability
• Invasive species = non-native (exotic) organisms that
spread widely and become dominant in a community
- The community shared similar limiting factors and
evolutionary histories
- Introduced deliberately or accidentally from
elsewhere
• Henry Gleason = maintained that each species responds
independently to its own limiting factors
- Growth-limiting factors (predators, disease,
competitors, etc.) are removed or absent
- Species join or leave communities without greatly
altering the community’s composition
- “a fortuitous juxtaposition of individuals”
- The most widely accepted view of ecologists today
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- They have major ecological effects
- Chestnut blight from Asia wiped out American
chestnut trees
• Some species help people (i.e., European honeybees)
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Two invasive mussels
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Examples of Invasive Plants
• Chinese privet
• Kudzu
• Eurasian milfoil
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Controlling invasive species
• Techniques to control invasive species
- Removing them manually
- Applying toxic chemicals
- Drying them out
- Depriving them of oxygen
- Stressing them with heat, sound, electricity,
carbon dioxide, or ultraviolet light
• Control and eradication are hard and expensive
Prevention, rather than control, is the best policy
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Altered communities can be restored
• Humans have dramatically changed ecological systems
- Severely degraded systems cease to function
• Ecological restoration = efforts to restore communities
• Restoration is informed by restoration ecology = the
science of restoring an area to an earlier condition
- To restore the system’s functionality (i.e. filtering of
water by a wetland)
- It is difficult, time-consuming, and expensive
• It is best to protect natural systems from degradation in
the first place
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Restoration efforts
• Prairie restoration = replanting native species,
controlling invasive species
• The world’s largest project = Florida Everglades
- Flood control and irrigation removed water
- Populations of wading birds dropped 90-95%
Widely separated regions share similarities
• Biome = major regional complex of similar
communities recognized by
- Plant type
- Vegetation
structure
- It will take 30 years
and billions of dollars
to restore natural
water flow
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Multiple factors determine a biome
Aquatic systems have biome-like patterns
• The type of biome depends on
abiotic factors
• Various aquatic systems comprise distinct communities
- Temperature, precipitation,
soil type, atmospheric
circulation
• Climatographs = a climate
diagram showing
- An area’s mean monthly
temperature and
precipitation
- Similar biomes occupy
similar latitudes
- Coastlines, continental shelves
- Open ocean, deep sea
- Coral reefs, kelp forests
• Some coastal systems (estuaries, marshes, etc.) have both
aquatic and terrestrial components
• Aquatic systems are shaped by
- Water temperature, salinity, and dissolved nutrients
- Wave action, currents, depth, light levels
- Substrate type, and animal and plant life
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Temperate deciduous forest
Temperate grasslands
• Deciduous trees lose their
leaves each fall
• More extreme temperature
difference
- They remain dormant
during winter
• Mid-latitude forests in Europe,
East China, Eastern North
America
• Even, year-round precipitation
• Fertile soils
• Forests = oak, beech, maple
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- Between winter and summer
• Less precipitation
• Also called steppe or prairie
- Once widespread, but has
been converted to agriculture
- Bison, prairie dogs, groundnesting birds, pronghorn
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Temperate rainforest
Tropical rainforest
• Coastal Pacific Northwest
• Southeast Asia, west Africa
Central and South America
• Great deal of precipitation
• Coniferous trees: cedar,
spruce, hemlock, fir
• Moisture-loving animals
- Banana slug
• Erosion and landslides
affect the fertile soil
• Year-round rain and warm
temperatures
• Dark and damp
• Lush vegetation
• Diverse species
- But in low densities
• Very poor, acidic soils
• Lumber and paper
• Most old-growth is gone
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Tropical dry forest
• Also called tropical
deciduous forest
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Savanna
• Grassland interspersed
with trees
- Plants drop leaves
during the dry season
• Africa, South America,
Australia, India
• India, Africa, South
America, north Australia
• Precipitation is only
during the rainy season
• Wet and dry seasons
• Animals gather near water
holes
• Warm, but less rainfall
• Converted to agriculture
- Severe soil erosion
• Zebras, gazelles, giraffes,
lions, hyenas
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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Desert
Tundra
• Minimal precipitation
• Russia, Canada, Scandinavia
• Some are bare, with sand
dunes (Sahara)
• Minimal precipitation
• Some are heavily vegetated
(Sonoran)
• They are not always hot
- Temperatures vary widely
• Saline soils
• Animals = nocturnal, nomadic
• Plants = thick skins, spines
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• Extremely cold winters
• Permafrost = permanently
frozen soil
- Melting due to climate
change
• Few animals: polar bears, musk
oxen, caribou, migratory birds
• Lichens, low vegetation, few
trees
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Boreal forest (taiga)
• Canada, Alaska, Russia,
Scandinavia
• A few evergreen tree species
• Cool and dry climate
- Long, cold winters
- Short, cool summers
• Nutrient poor, acidic soil
• Moose, wolves, bears, lynx,
migratory birds
Chaparral
• Occurs in small patches
around the globe
• Mediterranean Sea, Chile,
California, south Australia
• High seasonal biome
- Mild, wet winters
- Warm, dry summers
• Frequent fires
• Densely thicketed,
evergreen shrubs
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Altitudes create “latitudinal patterns”
• Vegetative communities rapidly change along mountain
slopes
• The climate varies with altitude
• A mountain climber in the Andes
- Begins in the tropics and ends
on a glacier
• Rainshadow effect = air going
over a mountain releases
moisture
- Creating an arid region
on the other side
Hiking up a mountain in the southwest U.S. is like
walking from Mexico to Canada
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Conclusion
• Biomes and communities help us understand how the
world functions
• Species interactions affect communities
- Predation, parasitism, competition, mutualism
- Causing weak and strong, direct and indirect effects
• Feeding relationships are represented by trophic levels
and food webs
• Humans have altered many communities
• Ecological restoration attempts to undo the negative
changes that we have caused
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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