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Jacob Schulman AP European History: Key Terms, People, Events, and other Important Facts Unit 2: The Renaissance Communes: Sworn associations of freemen seeking complete independence from local nobles Urban Nobility: Result of sealed business contracts b/w rural nobility and mercantile aristocrats Popolo: People that resented their exclusion from power; Established democratic governments that failed to work (Signori-one man rulers; and Oligarchies-merchant aristocrats succeeded) 5 Main Italian City-States: Venice, Milan, Florence, Papal States, Naples (Monarch rulers) Sforza Family: Milan; Medici Family: Florence Savonarola: Friar, attacked religious/political issues in Florence, incl. Medici, corruption of Popes Became religious leader of France, then was excommunicated Charles VIII: French King, invaded Italy and got power of Florence, Naples, Rome in 1494 League of Cambrai: Louis XII of France, Pope, German Emperor make a pact to try and strip Venice of its mainland possessions Individualism: Disdain Christian humility; Stressed personality, uniqueness, genius, realize full potential Humanism: Emphasized human beings, their achievements, interests, capabilities (By studying the Latin classics) (Coined by Leonardo Bruni) Secularism: Basic concern with the material world instead of with the spiritual world; Fascination with this world and life’s possibilities Lorenzo Valla: On Pleasure, On the False Donation of Constantine- exposed a forged document that gave the papacy jurisdiction over vast territory in Western Europe Giovanni Boccaccio: The Decameron- Portrayed a worldly society Ren. Popes: Didn’t stop it, influenced by wealthy merchant families (Julius II-St. Peter’s Basilica) Petrarch: “Father of Humanism”; Look to the past to understand human nature Leonardo Bruni: Coined “Humanism”; Believed that foundations of learning come from Latin Pico Mirandola: Oration on the Dignity of Man- God created man in his image to admire universe Machiavelli: The Prince- How do rulers keep power? Feared or Loved, Lion or Fox, “Ends justify means”, negative view on human nature “High Renaissance”: Period of art history, individuals and rulers use art to glorify themselves Giotto: Renaissance Painter, use of realism Donatello: sculptor Masaccio: “Father of modern painting”, perspective, light and dark Medieval (Gothic) Style vs RenaissanceLess focused on religious themes, realistic, natural bodies, emotional, no halos, little gold leaf, natural background, light and shading, portraits DaVinci: “Renaissance Man”, science, math, astronomy, art Peter Paul Vergerio: Rhetoric training Castiglione: The Courtier- describes the perfect gentleman Laura Cereta: Women’s inferiority not derived from divine order, but from women themselves Johann Gutenberg (1454): Movable type and printing press (used for propaganda, literacy) Leon Battista Alberti: On the Family- wife’s role restricted to the household Juan Luis Vives: Instruction of the Christian Woman- woman should stay home “The Office of the Night”: Florentine order trying to root out sodomy Northern Renaissance: More Christian in natureWant to develop an ethical way of life Thomas More: Utopia- Idealistic society, citizens live perfect lives because they live by reason Erasmus: Dutch Humanist, The Education of a Christian Prince, The Praise of Folly: Stresses education as key to reform, Bible is core of education, “Philosophy of Christ”- Chris. is an inner attitude or spirit Rabelais: Gargantua and Pantagrue- Residents live for grativication of phycial instincts and curiosity Jan van Eyck: Oil based paints, incredible attention to detail “New Monarchs”: Louis XI, Henry VII, Ferdinand and Isabella 1 France: Charles VII: Revived monarchy in France, gabelle, taille Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges: Charles VII, Superiority of a general council over the papcy, allowed lay investiture for French monarchs + forbid papacy from French $ (Based on Conciliar movement) Louis XI: “Spider King”, Machiavellian, welcomed foreign craftsmen, promoted new industries Concordat of Bologna (1516): B/w French King France I, Pope Leo X; took back Prag. Sanction, allowed pope to receive 1st years’ income of new bishops and abbots (French kings controlled the church policies within France though) England: Edward VI (England, Yorkist): started to build monarchy after 1471 Edward IV (Tudor): Justices of Peace; Kept nobles out with Royal council, Court of Star Chamber Edwards, Richard III, Henry VII (Tudor): Restore royal prestige, crush nobles’ power Edward IV (Tudor): Justices of Peace; Kept nobles out with Royal council, Court of Star Chamber Henry VII: “Royal Council”- center of authority on national level, handled whatever king gave it Court of Star Chamber: Judicial offshoot of royal council; Used Roman law and bad methods Justices of the Peace: Influential landowners that did local gvt’s work Spain: Reconquista: wars to try and convert Muslims and Jews to Christianity Ferdinand and Isabella: Union of two royal houses Hermandades: Popular groups given police power Royal Council: no magnates/aristocrats Church: Spanish crown selected higher clergy, influenced church policy “New Christians”: Converted Jews in Spain (aka converses aka Marranos) Inquisition: Used cruel methods to try and rid Spain of heresy; 1492- expel Jews and Muslims from Sp. Unit 3: The Protestant Reformation Babylonian Captivity: Time period where pope was held in Babylon Clerical Immorality (Drunk, Gamble); Ignorance (Illiteracy); Pluralism (>1 office) Popes lived like secular Renaissance princes Brethren of the Common Life: Holland, lived in simplicity and carried out the Gospel, fed hungry etc. The Imitation of Christ (Thomas A Kempis): Take Christ as your model, seek perfection in simplicity Ecumenical Council (Pope Julius II): (Ecumenical=Universal, wasn’t really)- council to try and reform the church Julius Exclusus (Erasmus): Secular approach to spiritual issues, issues to fix a bad pope Martin Luther: German Friar, very serious, will start the Protestant Movement (Salvation by faith alone) Ninety-Five Theses: Immediate cause- Indulgences; Angry with pluralism, indulgences undermine sacraments, challenges pope’s power Johann Tetzel: Monk who endorsed the sale of indulgences Diet of Worms (Charles V): Luther refuses to take back his ideasOutlawed and excommunicated Ulrich Zwingli: (Swiss)- Disagreed on the Eucharist issue Protestant: Salvation by faith alone, church is every Christian, all occupations have equal merit, 3 sacraments (penance, baptism, Eucharist), Consubstantiation On Christian Liberty: By Luther, used by peasants as a tool in their revolts An Admonition of Peace: By Luther, slammed the nobles and their practices against peasants Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of the Peasants: Took words of Saint Paul’s letters, subordinated the church to the state Catechisms: Contained the basis of the Protestant worship Treaty of Arras (1482): Declared French Burgundy a part of the kingdom of France, not really recognized by the Habsburgs Appeal to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation (1520): Unless princes destroyed papal power in Germany, reform was impossible Charles V: HRE and King of Spain, defender of Catholicism Peace of Aubsburg: Officially recognized Lutheranism, each prince could pick his land’s religion 2 Habsburg-Valois Wars: Advanced cause of Protestantism and promoted political fragmentation of the German Empire (French wanted to keep HRE decentralized) John Calvinism: Based in Geneva, father of Calvinism, wanted a religious political authority The Institutes of Christian Relgion: By Calvin, absolute sovereignty and omnipotence of god, Predestination (elect, reprobate) Genevan Consistory: Goal was to watch over everyone and get rid of those who didn’t lead good life Anabaptism: No baptizing children, non-involvement with the gvt, appeals to peasants William Tyndale (English humanist)- Lollards wanted a scriptural, non-sacramental, lay dominated religionWill be pushed underground Henry: Wanted an annulment; if granted by Pope Clement VII, would expose church corruption Act for Submission of the Clergy (1534): Required churchmen to submit to the law of the king Supremacy Act (1534): Declares King the supreme head of the English church Jane Seymour- 3rd wifeBares a male heir, Edward (will centralize bureaucracy) Thomas Cromwell: Chief minister of Charles, dissolves English monasteries Anglican Church: Keeps some Cath practices (celibacy, transubstantiation), allows Prot literature to circulate and for Prots to tutor his son Edward VI: Strongly Protestant ideas, significant impact Book of Common Prayer (1549): Thomas Cranmer, more Protestant direction Mary Tudor (“Bloody Mary”): Sharp move back to Catholicism (Daughter of Catherine of Aragon, ties to Spain) Elizabeth: More protestant, accepted both Elizabethan Settlement: Required uniformity in all ceremonies, everyone had to attend Thirty-Nine Articles (1563): Summary of the basic practices of the Church of England John Knox: Scotland, inspired by CalvinPresbyterian Church of Scotland- ministers governed it Book of Common Order: Liturgical directory for the church Gustavus Adolphus: Swedish, let a revolt against Denmark and got Swedish independence Olaud Petri: Translated the New Testament into Swedish and organized church on Lutheran lines Christian III of Denmark and Norway: Made a Lutheran Church Counter-Reformation: Tried to convince people to return to the church to prevent society from corruption Pope Clement VII: More interested in material things than theological issues Battle of Pavia: Francis I was captured, Pope switched support (Showed the pope’s polit. Motives) Council of Trent: Pope Paul IIIWanted to reform the church and reconcile with Prots - Very politically influenced (Charles V opposed discussion on anything that would hurt politics) - Reaffirmed 7 sacraments and transubstantiation; forbid indulgences; no reconciliation - Pope justified position as spiritual authority of the church Ursuline Nuns: Education of women to try and fight heresy; re-Christianize society Society of Jesus (Jesuits): Ignatius of Loyola)- wanted to convert people back to Catholicism, simple lives, strict hierarchical order Spiritual Exercises (1548): Training manual for spiritual development emphasizing strengthening human will Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office (Pope Paul III): Had jurisdiction over the Roman inquisition Operated under Roman law, education, missionary work, combat Protestantism Index of Prohibited Books: Catalog of forbidden reading Unit 4: The Age of Religious Wars and European Expansion 1450-1650: “Age of Discovery”/”Age of Reconnaissance”/”Age of Exploration” Prince Henry “The Navigator”: Established school of navigation; got Portugan in gold commerse Diaz: Rounds the Cape of Good Hope Vasco Da Gama: Reached India and came back with Spices and Cloth Cabral: Coast of Brazil and claimed it for Portugal Caravels: Small, light, 3-masted shipSlower, but was more maneuverable, held more cargo Astrolabe: From Muslims; used to determine latitude by altitude of the sun 3 Fernandez de Oviedo: General History of the Indies- spoke of life on other continents Christopher Columbus: deeply religious man; wanted direct route to Asia/India Ferdinand Magellan: Commissioned by Charles V to find a route to Moluccas (Got to Malay Archipelago); Claimed Philippines for Spain Cortes: Captured Aztec emperor Montezuma; gains control of the Aztec empire Pizzaro: Conquered Inca empire in Peru; founded Lima Antwerp: Became major financial capital of the European World Cabot: Claimed Newfoundland for England Cartier: Made voyages to the St. Lawrence region of Canada Viceroyalties: 4 sections made by the Spanish Crown from new world territories Audencia: Board of 12-15 judges that advised a council Intendants: Intro’ed by Spanish King Charles III, royal officials responsible to the crown Quinto: 1/5 of all precious metals that was collected by the Spanish crown Corregidores: Held military/judicial powers (Spanish idea) 1559: Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis (ENDS Habsburg-Valois Wars)Spain wins FRANCE Francis I and Henry II: Govern through a small, efficient council (incl. use of baillis and seneschals) 1539: Francis I issues an ordinance that puts France under royal jurisdiction (Centralizing Effect) “Noblese de Robe”: New class emerging from tax exempt nobles that held hereditary offices Concordat of Bologna: Treaty w/ papacy; Crown appoints bishops, Pope has supremacy over council Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre 1572: Intended religious ceremony of Margaret of Valouis to Prot Henry of Navarre; Coligni (head of Huguenots) is attacked; 12,000 Huguenots die War of Three Henrys: Cath Henry of Guise; Prot Henry of Navarre; Cath King Henry III Guise-wants “Holy League” to destroy Calvinism; Prot Henry of Navarre will win Holy League: Catholic nobles against the king (wanted to replace with a member) Politiques: Small groups of people who believed in compromisingPut politics over religion Henry IV: Willingness to sacrifice religious principles to political necessity saves France (converted) Edict of Nantes (1598): Granted Huguenots liberty of conscience and liberty of public worship NETHERLANDS 1556: Charles V abdicates and divides land among bro Ferdinand (Austria and HRE) and son Philip (Spain, low countries, Italy, Americas, Netherlands) 1559: Philip appointed Margaret as regent of Netherlandsstarts Inquisition, pushed Tridentine Decrees; Raised taxes to support the Spanish interests Duke of Alva: Sent to pacify Neth; Starts “Council of Blood” “Council of Blood”: Too HarshBrings out civil war, it is counter productive 1568-1578: Civil War in Netherlands b/w Cath and Prots William of Orange “The Silent”- 17 provinces unite under himMakes Pacification of Ghent Pacification of Ghent (1576): Unify under William, respect religious differences, get rid of Spanish Fails- Caths were worried about Prot ideas being infused Alexander Farnese: Got the southern cities to fall by way of “patient sieges” (militarily) Union of Utrecht (1581): 7 Calvinist Northern Provinces led by William of Orange declare indep. From Spain”United Provinces of the Netherlands” Elizabeth of England: Had to send money for fear of Spain invading England Escorial: Royal palace of Philip and his family, Monastery; Very devout Catholic Philip II: Had trouble crushing heresy (Preoccupied with Ottoman Turks in West, death of son, revolt of Muslims in Granada) Mary Queen of Scots: Catholic: Got involved with a plot to kill ElizabethWill be killed Spanish Armada: Huge Spanish Navy; will lose to a better prepared England Peace of Aubsburg: Didn’t apply to Calvinists Protestant Union (1608): Formed by Lutheran Princes Catholic League (1609): Formed in responsed, used Jesuits 1617: Ferdinand of Styria- closes Protestant churches 4 Defenestration of Prague (1618): Prots throw 2 officials out a 70 foot high window THIRTY YEARS’ WAR: 1618-1648 Bohemian Phase: Civil war in Bohemia b/w Cath League and Prot Union; Frederick defeated by Cath forces at Battle of White Mountain; Ferdinand becomes King of Bohemia and HRE Danish Phase: King Christian IV of Denmark (wants N. Germany for ports)More Cath victories Wallenstein- leads Cath army, made it loyal to himself (Divides the Cath cause) 1629: Edict of Restitution: All Cath properties lost to Prot were restored, only Luth. and Cath allowed Swedish Phase: Gustavus Adolphus in Germany (wanted to help oppressed Prots)Cardinal Richelieu subsidized Swedes trying to weaking Habsburg power Swedish victories end dreams of uniting all German states under 1 Habsburg authority French Phase: Not based on religious issuesRichelieu decared war on Spain and helped Swedes and German Prots (destroyed agriculture and commerce) 1648: Peace of Westphalia: Turning point in European social/political history End of the HRE as we know it; Failure for Catholic goals; Restricted role of church in Euro politics Unit 5: Absolutism in Eastern Europe Sovereignty: One person possesses a monopoly over the instruments of justice and use of force Absolutist State: Sovereignty is embodied in the person or ruler (Kings use divine right) Totalitarianism: Seeks to direct all facets of a state’s culture FRANCE: 1589: Henry IV gets a huge mess Edict of Nantes: Makes it easier for Henry to rule if everyone is peaceful Duke of Sully: Chief minister of Henry IV; intro’ed paulette, managed taxes, revived trade, highways Paulette: Annual fee for nobles to keep their hereditary offices Marie de’Medici: Ruled for her son Louis XII, appoints Richelieu to council of ministers in 1642 Richelieu: Used strong influence to exalt the monarchy and laid foundation for absolutism Total subordination of all groups and institutions to the monarchy, tore down castles, administrative system (intendants), 32 generalites, baillis and seneschals Intendants: Royal officials from the nobility of the robe loyal to the king 1598: Law of Concord: (published as Edict of Nantes)allows for religious and civil concord La Rochelle: 4th largest French portLouis cut off English aid and the city fell 1631: Treaty with Gustavus Adolphus promising French support against Catholic Habsburgs in the Swedish phase (goes along with FP of weaking the HRE) Raison d’etat: “Reason of state”Allows sins if they benefit the state 1648-1653: The FrondeNobility resented the power of Louis XIII + major financial issues New taxes led to rebellions with led to civil war Louis XIV: “Sun King”; Significant government innovations- “complete domestication of the nobility”, Versailles, French language is better, court ceremonials, intendants, centralized administration Versailles: Court of Louis XIV; incredibly ornate and fancy, used as a tool of government to undermine the power of the nobility Jean- Baptiste Colbert: Controller of finances- mercantilism, favorable balance of trade, selfsufficiency, system of state inspection and regulation, tax breaks 1685: Louis XIV revoked Edict of Nantes (Abs. state wanted to control religion)eliminate division Classicism: Art and literature of the age of Louis- imitated antiquity, had some classical elements Poussin: Classicist painterHighest aim of painting was to represent noble actions in a logical way The Rape of Savine Women Jean-Baptise Lully- Music, ballets, opera Couperin: Harpsichord and organ player Charpentier: Religious music Poquelin: Entered theatre, playwright, director, actor, comedies Jean Racine: Power of love, plays and tragic dramas based on Greek/Roman legends Louvois: Secretary of state for WarMakes a professional army; recruits by dragooning, draft, lottery Martinet: Strict training of foreign born soldiers into a tough military machine 5 Army: Commissariat to feed troops, hospitals and ambulance corps, standardized weapons/uniforms 1667: Invaded FlandersAcquires 12 towns (Flanders was previously French) 1672: Louis leads 100k men into Holland and DutchDutch won by flooding dikes Treaty of Nijmegan: Louis gained add’l Flemish towns and French-Comte (Burgundy) 1681: Seized Strasbourg (good economic city)More victories Claude Le Peletier: Colbert’s successor; devaluated currency, sold offices, tax exemptions 1689: Louis ordered all silver to be sent to the mint War of Spanish Succession (1701-1713): Charles II (King of Spain) was mentally slow 1698: European powers agree to split the Spanish possessions b/w King of France and HRE Charles actually left the empire to Philip of Anjou (Louis’ grandson)Union of French and Spanish crowns would upset the balance of power) League of Aubsburg: Alliance of Dutch and HRE against France 1701: English, Dutch, Austrians, Prussians form Grand Alliance against FranceCheck power War concludes at Utrecht in 1713 Peace of Utrecht: Philip is 1st Bourbon king of Spain as long as French/Spanish crowns never unite; England gains territory in new world; represented balance of power; decline of Spain as a great power; end of French expansionist policy ENGLAND: Constitutionalsim: Gvt doesn’t have the ability to do whatever they want to you Constitutional Republic: Sovereign power resides in the electorate and is exercised by reps Elizabeth I: Stability in the nation based on her own strengths King James I: Not as for the people, was a Scot, not English Trew Law of Free Monarchy: Monarch is divine and only responsible to god House of Commons managed finances that James needed, they were Calvinist and didn’t support his lavish/extravagant lifestyle, Commons wanted sovereignty James I was Calvinist, but appeared to be helping Roman CatholicismWants to make it more Cath. William Laud: Wanted to impose elaborate ritual in all churches, uniformity, Court of High Commission Scotland: New prayer book Book of Common Prayer- rejected; bishoprics- rejected Charles I: Crowned 1625; attempt to govern without Parliament caused severe crisis Used illegal practices to get money (“Ship money”) Trennial Act (1641): King calls Parl every 3 years, impeached Laud and ended Court of High Commission, Charles had to accept (needed the money) English Civil War (1642-1649): Where does sovereignty in England reside? Cavaliers (King) versus Roundheads (Parliament) Ended in 1649 with execution of Charles on charge of treason Cromwell takes over Interregnum (1649-1660): Separated 2 monarchical periods; time of military dictatorship Oliver Cromwell: The Protectorate; “Instrument of Government” (Executive power lies with a lord protector); Favored religious toleration (but he controlled it); Navigation act Navigation Act (1651): English goods must be transported on English ships Restoration: Established monarchy under Charles IIRestored 2 houses of Parl too Charles II: Wasn’t interested in doctrinal issues, Parl wanted religious uniformity though Test Act of 1673: Forbids Catholics in all publish offices (Incl. King)Afraid that the king was involved with the French king Secret Treaty of Dover: Agreement with Louis XIV; in exchange for support of Catholics in England, Louis paid Charles II 200k a year Leaked and led to anti-Catholic fear that James would start a Catholic dynasty James II: Violated the Test Act and appointed RCCs to army, schools, gvt Caused a split in ParliamentWanted to drive James Out; suspending law and reviving Abs. Declaration of Indulgence: Tried to gain support by allowing religious freedom to all Second Wife had a male heirFear of an ensured Cath dynasty sparked change Parliament offers English Throne to Mary and William of Orange (*Parl has more power) 6 1688-1689: Glorious Revolution- Replaced 1 king with another with minimal fighting William and Mary recognize the supremacy of Parliament; Sovereignty is divided though Didn’t make a democracyPlaced sovereignty in Parliament (masses had not say in gvt) Bill of Rights: Cornerstone of British constitutionConstitutionalism, limitation of government John Locke: Second Treatise on Civil Government- life liberty, property, rebel against a tyrannical government, spokesman of the English revolution Sir Robert Walpole: Cabinet was responsible to commons (Cabinet System in 18th century) Thomas Hobbes: Leviathan- State of Nature, social contract, absolutist king but no divine right DUTCH: 17th Century: “Golden Age of the Netherlands” States General: Federal assembly of the provinces; Stadholder (rep); Regents (wealthy merchants) Holland: Largest navy and welathied, dominated republic and States General Bank of Amsterdam: insured, Europe’s best source of cheap credit Dutch East India Company: Joint stock company formed in 1602; cut into Portuguese trading SPAIN: 16th Cent Monarchy: Permanent bureaucracy, standing army, national taxes, servicios (taxes) 1610-1650: Spanish trade with colonies fell 60% (Dutch and English started trading with them) Weak Kings: Philip III gave gvt to lazy Duke of Lerma- used it to advance his own wealth Philip IV left management to Gaspar de Guzman, duke of Olivares Olivares: Able administrator but believed that Spain needed to return to imperial tradition to better Led to revival of war with the Dutch and France and the 30 Years War Treaty of Pyrenees (1659): Ended French-Spanish Wars; Spain had to give up land and was no longer a great power in Europe th 17 Century Spain: Couldn’t forget 16th century grandeur and move forward Philip IV: Royal council was appointed to make a canal to link the Tagus and Manzanares RiversCancelled because of overall feelings of pessimism Miguel de Cervantes: Don Quixote- “idealistic but impractical”, delineated Spanish 16th cent society Unit 6: Absolutism in Eastern Europe Opposite development of Western Europe: No middle class rose due to seriousness of serfdom; Kings ally with nobles against the peasantry Poland: 1574- lords have complete control; Lack of central ruler is not good for security, will be taken over (Other EE nations will learn from their mistake) AUSTRIA: After Thirty Years’ War, Austrian Habsburgs exhausted, attempts to remove Prot failed terribly Peace of Westphalia: Created 300 independent jurisdictions 1618: Bohemian Estates rise to defend Prot, revolt crushed at 1620 Battle of White Mountain Ferdinand II- reduced power of Behmian estates Nobility helps habsburgs establish strong rule over Bohemia Robot: 3 days of unpaid labor per weel Ferdinand III: Centralized government; permanent standing army Ottoman Turks: all land belonged to Sultan; tried to invade Vienna in 1683- city was relieved by German forces and ottomans were forced to retreat 1713: Charles VI- Pragmatic Sanction- Habsburg possessions were never to be divided and always passed to a single heir (may be female) PRUSSIA: Hohenzollern Family: had little real power (dukes of Prussia, elector of Brandenburg) 1618: Junior branch died out and Prussia was given to Elector of Brandenburg Brandenburg: In the North, Protestand and Lutheran, reason for Habsburgs to fight there Frederick William “Great Elector”Came to power in 1640 Junkers: Landowners that ran the estates 1660: Established standing army paid by estates who were forced to accept permanent taxation 7 Elector Frederick III “The Ostentation”- Wanted to emulate Louis XIV, less militant Crowned King Frederick I in 1701 Frederick William I “The Soldiers’ King”: Emotional attachment to the military, lived a soldier’s life, believed that Prussians had to sacrifice things for the well being of the nation Built a first rate army with skill, precision, discipline Frederick William “Great Elector”Elector Frederick II (aka King Frederick I)King Frederick William I RUSSIA: Mongols: Inhabited the land that was RussiaUsed princes as servants and tax collectors Alexander Nevsky: collected taxes, became hereditary prince Ivan I “Moneybags”- Became commander of large Russian-Mongol Army Muscovite Princes: Will overcome the other princes and eventually the Khan Ivan III: Will get rid of the Khan, Mongols were weakening Ivan II: Stopped acknowledging Khan as supreme ruler Prince of Moscow was the tsar (more intense than absolutism) Ivan IV: First Czar- “Ivan the Terrible”- married Anastasia Romanov; gained land Boyars: Russian Nobility Cossacks: Free groups of rebellious people Time of Troubles: 1598-1613- Boyar nobility realize they need a central rulerMichael Romanov Michael Romanov: elected by the nobles Late 17th Century: Orthodox Christ church split (Moscow=3rd Rome) Cossacks: Territorial expansion is their primary goal Peter the Great: Monarchical Absolutism Westernizes Russia- goes on a tour of Europe with entourage to try and gain military technology Army: Use to compete with western powers Charles XII: Defeated Denmark, turned on RussiaBeginning of the Great Northern War (1700-1721) Embryonic Meritocracy: 14 rank military system; everyone must work their way up Baroque: Came from revitalized RCC; emotional art appealing to senses St. Petersburg: “Window on Europe”; similar to Versailles Bartolomeo Tastrellia- Chief Architect of St. Petersburg Unit 7: The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment Aristotelian View: Motionless earth fixed at center of universe; 10 crystalline spheres move around it - “Light” elements (air and fire); “heavy” elements (water, earth), declared false by the RCC Nicolaus Copernicus: Disproved the crystalline spheres, disproved Ptolemy, Heliocentric model, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres: (Copernicus) put the stars at rest, huge or infinite universe Brahe: Funded by King of Denmark, all planets revolve around the sun, collected HUGE amt. of data Kepler: 3 Laws of planetary motion- elliptical orbits, didn’t move at uniform speed, time to make a revolution is related to the distance from sun (mathematically proven); basis of gravity Galileo: Showed that a uniform force (gravity) produced a uniform acceleration, Law of Inertia, 4 moons of Jupiter, will be put on trial and charged for heresy Newton: Alchemist (wanted to convert metals to gold/silver); Very religious (thought god made science for man to explore) Principia: Single explanatory system combining astronomy of Copernicus (+Kepler), physics of Galileo, Law of Universal Gravitation Francis Bacon: ExperimentationDon’t just believe what you think, observe and conclude, empiricism Descartes: Hypothesis- essence of science; “I think therefore I am” (Cartesian Dualism) Scientific Method: Combined the ideas of Bacon and Descartes Protestantism: More “Pro-science” England: Most successful in scienceNo clear religious leader, creates confusionScience can advance (vs Italy- very close to the pope, not advanced) 8 Enlightenment: Methods of natural science could be used to examine life (reason), don’t accept on faith, discover laws of people through science, Progress- better people, Intellect over instinct Fontenelle: Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds- human mind is capable of progress Bayle: Religious toleration is necessaryLack of a clear truth prevents progress; gathered dataassumes that we don’t know what’s true, let it emerge with time Essay Concerning Human Understanding: (Locke)- Tabula Rasa- born equal, undermines nobility, monarchy, those who think should have say in government Second Treatise on Government: Man should govern, social contract, etc Philosophe: French philosopher Deism: God is the clockmaker- made the universe, not lets it run on its own D’Alembert: distinction b/w the “truly enlightened public” and the “multitude” Montesquieu: The Persian Letters- social satire, uses literary device to poke fun at French institutions The Spirit of the Laws: Complex study of different types of governments- removes freedom of speech; separation of powers (avoid despotism if there is more than 1 voice) Voltaire: On Religion- witty, criticized the church without being upfront (would be censored), good is good, bad is bad; religion has made unnecessary divisions - A good monarch was the best hope for a nation; no equality; Deism Marquise du Chatelet: woman with a passion for science, spread ideas of others Encyclopedia: Diderot & D’Alembert- compendium of knowledge, neutral presentation, Free speech, unbiased, summed up the new world view of Enlightenment D’Holbach: System of Nature- human beings are machines determined by outside forces; hostility towards Christianity Hume: Human mind is nothing more than a bundle of impressions (extreme take on Tabula Rasa); there is no clarity among issues and we can never find absolute truth Condorce: Progress of the Human Mind- 9 stages of human progress leading to the 10th step of Utopia Rousseau: Basic goodness of the individual had to be protected from civilization; influenced the romantic movement The Social Contract: General will- reflects common interests of the people; Popular Sovereignty The best government is one that taps the general will of the people, Thinks Enl focuses too much on religion Reading Revolution: increased literacy, individual silent reading Immanuel Kant: If serious thinkers than reason publicly in print, then Enlightenment would surely come Salons: Locations where intellectuals met to discuss important topics Rococo: Style of the 18th century Madame Geoffrin: God mother of the Encyclopedia- developed a famous salon “Enlightened Absolutism”: Monarchs attempt to be enlightened to maintain power Frederick the Great of Prussia: Embraced culture and literature Got Silesia in the War of Austrian Succession (thought Maria Theresa was weak) - Austria made an alliance with France and Russia for a balance of power - England was at war against France in NA and India for colonial reasons Seven Years’ War: Aim- to conquer Prussia and divide up the territory (want to check power) AKA: French and Indian war in NA (Prussia allies with England who was at war with France over colonies) - Saved when Peter III came to throne in Russia in 1762 and called off attacks Frederick: Became committed to Enlightenment ideas- religious freedom, improved schools, simplified laws, no torture, non-arbitrary judges, clear legal code “First Servant of the State” (Locke)- practical role, ruler has power to maintain order in society - Condemned serfdom but allowed it, accepted privileges of nobility (biggest ally) Catherine the Great of Russia: German princess; plotted against her husband Peter III with Gregory Orlov (army guy/lover) Wanted to bring sophisticated culture of WE to Russia (architects, art, philosophes) Domestic Reform: new law code (no torture, tried to make new legal code, some relig toleration) Territorial Expansion: Poland, removed Mongols and Tartars in conquest of Caucasus 9 Pugachev: Led uprising of serfs, claimed to be true czar, executed by Catherine’s army 1785: Formalized the nobility’s privileged position Joseph II of Austria: “Revolutionary Emperor”, continued work of mom Maria Theresa, limited papacy’s power, reform bureaucracy, religious toleration, Abolished Serfdom, equal taxes Leopold II (Brother): Cancel Joseph’s radical edicts to re-establish order, peasants required to do forced labor for lords again France: 1715: Duke of Orleans restores right to evaluate royal decrees before becoming law by Parlements Reinvigorated noble power, HUGE step Parlement of Paris: A court; king originally used it to control government but positions became hereditary and successors weren’t necessary loyal War of Austrian Succession: Louis XV has to 5% tax on everyone, led to protests, get taken back Happened a gain after the 7 Years’ War Rene de Maupeou: Abolished existing parlements and replaced with supporters Louis XVI: Didn’t want to be king, lets them evaluate royal decrees, reinstates old parlements Winter Break Assignment Chapter 19: The Expansion of Europe in the 18th Cent Open Field System: Divided land cultivated by peasantsNeeded to keep one field fallow to avoid Nitrogen depravation of the soil Agricultural Revolution: Milestone in human developmentCrop rotation, new types of crops Started in Low Countriesdense population, needed maximum yields Cornelieus Vermuyden: Dutch engineer helping England; turned swamps into good land Charles “Turnip” Townsend: Learned about Dutch agr. While ambassador there, obsessed with it Jethro Tull: English innovator; wanted to use horses to plow, equipment to spread seed, selective breeding of lifestock “Enclosure Acts”: Moves by Parliament to get people to have to enclose (fence in) their land Displaced many poor people, made them go even more poor th 18 Cent population growthFewer deaths due to disappearance of Black Plague Cottage Industry: rural industrial development with wage workers needed to make goods Putting-Out System: merchant “put out” materials to cottage workers, then return it to merchant Textile Industry: Most vital and important industry for most of Europe Mercantilism: Economic regulations aimed to increase state’s power by forming a favorable balance of trade to increase gold Navigation Acts: Cromwell, required British goods to only be shipped via British ships Treaty of Paris: British victory in the 7 Years’ War- France loses everything in North America to Spain, loses land in India (Allows the British to move in) Atlantic Slave Trade: Brutal, but needed, considered a legitimate business activity 1807: English Parliament abolishes the slave trade Philip V of Spain: Brought French ideas and restored peace and made reforms to reassert royal authority after Charles II’s death Mestizos: Offspring of Spanish men and Indian women Adam Smith: thought that mercantilism was unjust Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations: basis for modern economics, critical of Mercantilism; free competition, “system of natural liberty” (Gvt shouldn’t be involved in $) - Wanted people to follow proper economic behavior on their own to achieve progress Chapter 20: The Changing Life of the People Illegitimacy Explosion: 1750-1850huge rise in illegitimate births Jules Michelet: thought wet nurses were abused and exploited Children: Parents were very unconcerned with children because they mostly died young Hospitals didn’t take care of children, mostly midwives did Emile (Rousseau): Called for greater love towards children and proposed new teaching methods with gender differences Schooling: Increasing role to try and teach the basics of literacy and religion 10 Prussia: inspired by Prot idea that everyone should be able to read the biblemandatory attendance, influenced other areas like France Chapbooks: Small books that dealt with religious issues/biblical stories Regional Dietary Differences (& Social ones too): Poor people in England and Neth ate the best Faith Healers: Wanted to exorcise devil spirits Physicians (mostly men): Eager to experiment with new methods, stress on purging (cleaning bowels) and bloodletting Surgeons: Studied anatomy and improved; done without pain killers and knowledge of bacteria Midwives: delivered majority of babies, older women, helped with “girl problems” Hospitals: very dirty, grim, overcrowded Mary Wortley Montagu: learned about the smallpox inoculation in Muslim landsDistributed in Eng Edward Jenner: new method of treatment; give Cowpox to avoid Smallpox Jesuits: Eventually declined as a result of more monarchical religious power; will be removed from France and Spain altogether Pietism: Protestant revival beginning in Germany; warm, emotional religion; stress of Priesthood of all Believers; practical power of Christian rebirth John Weseley (England): Methodists; convinced that any person may have a conversation with god and get assurance; rejected Predestination Carnival: Combination of religious celebration and popular recreation preceding Lent Unit 8: The French Revolution Bourgeoisie: Prosperous middle class, wanted to defend their liberty Marquis de Lafayette: returned from England with a love of liberty and firm republican views Estates General: Organization of French government- Clergy, Noblemen, Commoners July 1788: Louis XVI calls for a session of the EG at Versailles National Assembly: 3rd Estate that broke away from the Estates General Sieyes: What is the Third Estate?- encourages the masses to take control Oath of the Tennis Court (June 20, 1789): Swore not to disband until a new constitution was written Storming of the Bastille: Medieval fortress that had been used as a prisonMob will get king to call off the troops that he is summoning to Versailles (they supported the NA) Great Fear: Group of outlaws that seized the countryside against feudal landlords, inspired by Bastille August 4, 1789: Duke of Aiguillon said that taxation should be equal and abolish feudal dues Declaration on the Rights of Man (1789): Equality, innocent until proven guilty, general will, guaranteed rep government “Women’s March”: 7,000 women go from Paris to Versailles to try and harm Marie Antoinette Forces the King/Queen and the National Assembly to move to Paris Constitution of 1791: Constitutional Monarchy and Legislative Assembly; universal male suffrage; reorganized the church, nationalizes its property, nationalized the Cath church Edmund Burke: Reflections on the Revolution in France- people aren’t capable of governing themselves, only smart people should rule Mary Wollstonecraft: A Vindication of the Rights of Man- wants the revolution to extend to women Declaration of Pillnitz: After Louis XVI and Marie tried to leave Paris; Warning call issued by Austria and Prussia threatening war if the king was removed April 1792: France declared war on Francis II, Habsburg king Jacobins: younger, more liberal/radical; distrustful of monarchy; wanted a republic September Massacres: angry crowds killed everything and everyone in sight September 1792: National Convention proclaims France a republic, Const of 1791 collapses Girondists: Wanted to end the revolution and let the king live (don’t make him a martyr) Mountain: Thought the revolution needed to continue, wanted to kill the king Sans-Culottes: (“without breeches”)- laboring poor and petty traders, had economic drive Committee of Public Safety: Mountain and Robespierre and the Sans-Culottes; made a planned economy (fixed prices), produced goods for war 11 Reign of Terror: Created more division in France, kills over 40,000 people for being outspoken, political weapon used against all who opposed the revolutionary government Robespierre: Leader of the Mountain, Comm of Public Safety, Reign of TerrorWill be killed Thermidorian Reaction: France’s reaction to the Reign of Terror- middle classes try to reassert their authority, abolishes price controls, hurt the poor Directory: Panel of 5 directors of the National Convention (Middle class)Corrupt, only lasts 5 years from 1974-1799 Napoleon Bonaparte: Corsican born, became a major army hero 1799: Coup d’etat: Military takeover of a government (ousted Directors), made himself 1st Consul of the Republic Civil Code of 1804: Equality of all male citizens, security of wealth and private property Bank of France: Appeals to the peasants and middle classes Imperial Nobility: New class of nobility made by Napoleon to honor his best followers Concordat of 1801: Napoleon and Pope Pius VII- French Caths practice freely but Napoleon controls the church and nominates people to positions 1801-1815: Napoleon’s Grand Empire rules almost all of Europe Joseph Fouche: Police state- spy system, keep people under house arrest Treaty of Luneville (1801): Austria loses all Italian possessions and German territory to France Treaty of Amiens (1802): with Great Britain; France controls Holland and the Netherlands Battle of Trafalgar (1805): Joint French/Spanish fleet will be defeated by Lord NelsonWill prevent Napoleon and his armies from entering into England 3rd Coalition: Austria, Russia, Sweden, Britain Battle of Austerlitz: Defeats the Austrians/RussiansWill free peasants and abolish feudal obligations, will still tax these people Confederation of the Rhine: Reorganized Germany Treaty of Tilsit: Russia accepted Napoleon’s reorganization of Europe and enforced his blockade against British goods (Czar Alexander I) Continental System: Napoleon’s blockade of British goods that was expected to be enforced in all areas of the Grand Empire June 1812: Invasion of RussiaNapoleon tries to defeat Russia but cannot “Scorched Earth Policy”: Burn everything (Russians) to try and weaken Napoleon’s army Treaty of Chaumont: Held together the 4th Coalition of GB, Russia, Austria, Prussia Island of Elba: Given to Napoleon after he was taken down by the 4th Coalition “Hundred Days”: Napoleon escapes from Elba and tries to raise an army to restore him to power Battle of Waterloo: Napoleon is defeated by England once and for all St. Helena: Island where Napoleon is moved to after defeated at Waterloo Unit 9: The Industrial Revolution Industrial Revolution: 1770-1850; Describes burst of inventions and technological changes that occurred in certain industries James Hargreaves: Spinning JennySimple machine to make thread fasterIncrease production of textiles; inexpensiveCreated too much thread- invention of the power loom to speed up Richard Arkwright: Water Frame- needed more power, didn’t make good quality thread Thomas Savery & Thomas Newcomen: First primitive steam enginesinefficient James Watt: Improved steam engine by adding a separate condenserVery important George Stephenson: “The Rocket” (1825)- good steam locomotive Thomas Malthus: Essay on the Principle of Population- Earth’s population will outstrip resources because industrialization feeds too many people David Ricardo: “Iron Law of Wages”- there will always be a read pool of poor laborers with low wages, and the entrepreneur will always be rich Factories: Grow in cities, near coal, near markets and labor, ports William Cockerill: Started building steam engines, railway cars, in Belgium (Liege- good industry) Fritz Harkort: “Watt of Germany”- built steam engines, but wasn’t able to make money 12 Tariff Protection: Put taxes on certain goods to protect the nation’s economy Friedrich List: Believed that tariffs b/w German states would keep Germany from advancing (Proposed the Zollverein- unified committee for tariffs); National System of Political Economy- railroad building and the tariff, wanted 1 international tariff Credit Mobilier of Paris: Bank, advertised heavily and built railroads to support industry Luddites: People that attacked factories and smashed machines that were taking their jobs Friedrich Engels: The Condition of the Working Class in England- accused MC of exploiting the poor Edwin Chadwick: Workers are better off because they can buy more things Robert Owen: Exposed the horrors of child labor; owned many factories himself Factory Act of 1833: Limited factory workday for children to under 12 hours, mandatory elementary schools for kids under 9 Mines Act of 1842: Prohibited underground work for women, boys under 10 Combinations Act of 1799: Outlawed unions and strikesRepealed in 1824 Grand National Consolidated Trades Union- Largest union Amalgamated Society of Engineers- Skilled machinists, got benefits easily Chartist Movement: Desired democracy and universal male suffrage Unit 11: 1814-1848 Ideologies and Upheavals Klemens von Metternich: Austria Robert Castlereagh: Prime Minister of England Charles Talleyrand: Representative of Louis 18 Congress of Vienna: Weaken Eastern states to keep France at bayBalance of power - Restoration of old monarchies; Reinstatement of serfdom in EE, East will be easier to return Holy Alliance: Austria, Prussia, RussiaPledge to stamp out all liberalism Two Sicilies: 1820- Revolutionaries capture it and vow to create liberal constitutionsCrushed Carlsbad Decrees (1819): Censorship program to pare down on revolutionary ideas - Established permanent committee with spies to investigate and punish people Bohemia: Ethnically dividedMetternich was afraid that if ethnic groups grasped nationalism, Austria would break up and be involved in huge civil war Liberalism: No monarchy, limited voting; Equality of opportunity- everyone can get rich, only some will Laissez-Faire: economic policy with no government interference on the economy Adam Smith- critical of mercantilism; belief that economy should benefit everyone, not just rich Nationalism: Originated in the French Rev and Napoleonic warsPeople have their own genius and cultural unity- wants to change cultural unity to political unity (grew with industrialization) Jules Michelet: The People- people identify themselves with their country Socialism: Redistribution of wealth from organizer of business to laborer French Utopian Socialism: Create towns with factories and share the wealth among everyone Economic Planning: French argued that government should radically organize economy Count Henri de Saint-Simon: Key to industrial development is social organization- Parasites (upper people) and Doers (workers); Doers should lead the economy forward Charles Fourier: Self-sufficient communities based on agriculture and industry; wanted free unions based on love to replace marriage Louis Blanc: Organization of Work- Want workers to take control of the state peacefully; gvt should set up workshops for all factory workers Pierre Joseph Proudhon: What is Property?- property is profit stole from the worker who is the source of wealth; feared the power of the state Karl Marx: The Communist Manifesto (1848)- Human history is a repeating cycle of oppressor and oppressed; the Proletariat must take over from the entrepreneur and ultimately divide all the world’s wealth among themselves Hegel: Scientist who inspired Marx; formed the basic idea of the repeating cycles Romanticism: Emotional exuberance, unrestrained imagination, spontaneity; VERY far left - Development of one’s full potential is the supreme goal of life William Wordsworth: Lyrical Ballads- endowed simple subjects with grandeur and majesty (daffodils) 13 Walter Scott: Romantic obsession with history Germaine de Stael: Wants France to remove classicism Lucie Dupin (George Sand): Enigmatic/mysterious/unique; Lelia- modern, delved into personal quest Delacroix: Romantic painter obsessed with exotic scenes and subjects Turner: English; Nature’s power and terror (storms, sinking ships) Constable: English; Nature is beautiful but can be dangeours Franz Liszt: Greatest pianist of the time Beethoven: Romantic music; Corn Laws of 1815: Landed classes manipulating grain trade to raise pricesEnriches the English noble class; Repealed in 1839 (workers unhappy) Six Acts (1819): Designed to repress uprising; eliminated mass meetings, controls on the press Battle of Peterloo: Mass protests that erupted after the Six Acts; repressed by gvt cavalry Tories: Civil equality for Catholics, heavy tariffsMiddle class wanted more say in gvt Whigs: More responsive to commercial interests; More liberal, more reform-minded (had MC in mind) Reform Bill of 1832: Gradual reforms without violent revolution; elimination of “rotten boroughs” (areas with few people- unfair for representation)Shifts rep by population; 12% of people can now voteKing tries to step in and says he’ll make more lords to undermine their power People’s Charter of 1838: Not Passed; wanted universal male suffrage Chartist Movement: Demanded UMS; political democracy and rule by the people Ten Hours Act of 1847: Limited workday of women and young people to 10 hours Great Famine: Failure of the potato crop leads to starvation, disease; mass decline in population Bourbon Restoration: Replacement of a Bourbon after Napoleon (Louis XVIII) Constitutional Charter of 1814: Liberal constitution from Louis XVIII; 100k can vote Charles X: Wanted to bring back old absolutism; Repudiated the Constitutional Charter; new censorship, decrees removing rightsWill flee under major pressure Louis Philippe: Accepted Const. Charter; “King of the French People”; Representative of the Bourgeoisie seizing the gvt- fear of losing its money to the working class Provisional Republic: Urban Poor is controlling gvtNational Workshops, 10 hour workday, right to employment Louis Blanc and Albert: Believed in creating gvt-sponsored workshops to move away from capitalism Constituent Assembly: Elected by UMS; France is more conservative than Provisional Gvtalliance between the peasants and the middle class Tocqueville: Countryside seized with universal hatred of Paris “June Days”: Uprising by the radical left; representative of moving right, MC wants order Louis Napoleon: Appointed by Constituent Assembly after the fighting; name appealed to many; alliance with the peasantsWill spark revolts in Austria and Prussia Frankfurt Assembly: Called to start writing a constitution for a unified GermanyGermany is industrializing and powerful MC is countered by a growing radical left (increasing Hohenzollern opposition existed) Schleswig & Holstein: Denmark controlled provinces that Germany claimed were theirs Unit 12: The Age of Nationalism Louis Napoleon: Elected by UMS; “straddled the political spectrum”- had the name of his uncle and was able to unify; NOT nationalist- use of censorship, spy networkNamed himself Emperor Napoleon III in 1852 (After Coup d’etat- created UMS right after to make support) Rebuilt Paris (Baron de Hausmann) (Cheap housing); right to unions, strike, kept Assembly New Constitution (1870): Parliamentary regime with hereditary emperor Giuseppe Mazzini: Italian; LEFT- democratic Italy; RIGHT- papal/religious association; Desired constitutional monarchy with Kingdom of Sardinia under King Victor Emmanuel (middle) Pope Pius IX: Initial support for unification of Italy, gave way to fear and hostility Syllabus of Errors (1864): Pius IX denounced radicalism, socialism, separation of church and state 14 Count Cavour: Leader of Sardinian gvt; Sought unity for states of northern and central Italy into SardiniaHighways and railroads in Sardinia, civil liberties; Secret alliance with Napoleon III against AustriaAttacked in 1859 and only got Milan, forced to resign; Came back in 1860 Giuseppe Garibaldi: Wanted to get the south; plans to “liberate” the 2 Sicilies “Red Shirts”: Guerilla band of fighters (mostly peasantry); won battles, tried to attack Rome (blocked by Cavour, would start war with France) Garibaldi gives southern Italy to CavorPuts the national unity above his own desires Zollverein: German customs union; Creates a tight economic link (didn’t include Austria); Prussia head William I of Prussia: Saw need to reform armyRejected by Parliament Otto von Bismarck: Wants expansion and unity of German states; Prussia to be a major power; Uses nationalism as a tool for Prussian power; Just reorganized the army and raised taxes w/o consent - Brief war with Denmark over Schleswig HolsteinNeutralized France (land), Russia (Poland) to keep them out of the war Austro-Prussian War of 1866: (7 weeks); Bismarck had a better army but didn’t crush Austria- would show too much power; Declared by Austria; Generous peace terms to curb revenge New North German Confederation: Led by Prussia; King & Chancellor (Bismarck); Houses of gvt (Reps and UMS); Southern Catholic states stayed independent but allied with Prussia “Blood and Iron Speech”: Bismarck; Greatness is dependent on blood and iron, not discussion and compromise- Prussia will only be great if it has the military power to prove itself Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871): Bismarck realized that patriotic war with France would arm the southern German states; Wanted France to start (Ems Dispatch); Apparent Issue: succession dispute over SpainLouis Napoleon will be captured and humiliated French patriots will claim another French republic; vow to continue fightingHave to give up - William I is crowned Emperor of Germany in Versailles (symbolic of Germany’s power) Ems Dispatch: French/Prussian reps met at a spa at Ems; Bismarck edited the telegrams to get France to start a war with Prussia 1st Treaty of Versailles: France had to pay a huge sum (they started the war), cede Alsace-Lorraine Vengeful France- Prussia outnumbered them, stronger military, stronger gvt - Bismarck/Kaiser Wilhelm- Declare Prussia a satisfied nation- do not aspire more territory Crimean War of 1853-1856: Dispute with France over who should protect Christian shrines in the Ottoman EmpireShowed how far back Russia had fallen in industrializing Alexander II: Rapid social change, general modernization; 1861- frees all serfsThought it would lead to economic growth Zemstvo (1864): Local Gvt- 3 class system of towns, villages, noble landowners (most control) Alexander III: Political modernization stopped, increased economic modernization- Russia can modernize without freeing people Sergei Witte: Finance minister; Inspired by Friedrich List; state owned railroads; Gvt-directed economy; Encouraged foreigners to build in Russia; Tariffs to protect domestic economy; heavy industry goods (for the military especially); Creation of a new Proletariat class Nichals II: Last Czar- sees the middle class’ desire for change; Wants to combine with nationalist demands too Ruso-Japanese War: Russia loses surprisingly to a very underestimated Japan Revolution of 1905: Starts with the Bloody Sunday Massacre- peaceful workers protest at winter palace, guards open fire on them October Manifesto: Full civil rights, promised an elected Duma; Insists on full veto power Fundamental Laws: New constitution on eve of first Duma; elected indirectly by UMS, Czar could veto Seen by MC as a step backward; Czar Dismissed Duma after 3 months Peter Stolypin: Tough chief minister; encouraged the enterprising peasants Reichstag: Lower house of German government; elected National Liberals: Supported Bismarck, Wanted a stronger unity to help increase power Kulturkampf: “Culture War”- attack on the church; Pius IX wanted church loyalty above national Catholic Center Party: Raised tariffs to make the farmers happy; other nations will follow Laws of 1883,1884: National sickness and accident insurance; Law of 1889- old age pensions 15 William II: Emperor in 1890; Forced Bismarck to resign Paris Commune (1871): Want Paris (liberal) to govern without the rest of France Leon Gambetta: Third republic had firm foundations for 10 years, even splitting into parties Jules Ferry: Laws passed for Free public education; new teachers to teach patriotic republicanism to win loyalty of the young citizens (dismissed older nuns and the church) Dreyfus Affair: Jewish member of the army had problems; exposed disunity in the army John Stuart Mill: On Liberty (Benthamite)- wants to protect the rights of the individuals Benjamin Disraeli: Conservative Party; Extends vote to all middle class males- gamble- hopes to gain new votes (Peasants will definitely vote Torie) Reform Bill of 1832: 12% can vote Third Reform Bill of 1884: UMSWanted more votes; the working classes would revolt People’s Budget: Increase spending on social welfare (tax the rich to help the poor) David Lloyd George: Prime Minister, Liberal Party- National health insurance, unemployment benefits, pensionsPlacates the lower classes Ulsterites: Ulster County residents of southern Ireland, Catholics Theodore Herzl: Desired a national state for Jews (Zionist Movement) Revisionism: Effort by various socialists to update Marxian doctrines to reflect realities Edward Bernstein: Evolutionary Socialism- Marx’s predictions were proved false Jean Juares: Socialist leader in France Chapter 24: Life in Emerging Urban Society Edwin Chadwick: Believed that government’s job is to do all it can for its people; Showed that better sanitation could prevent more diseases Jeremy Bentham: Gvt should do the greatest good for the greatest people; Utilitarianism Miasmatic Theory: Belief that disease is contracted by inhaling odors Louis Pasteur: Germ theory; believed that these tiny living organisms could be killed Joseph Lister: “Antiseptic Principle”- chemical disinfectant could kill bacteria Baron Georges Hausmann: Responsible for rebuilding Paris under Napoleon III Electric Streetcars: Cheaper, faster, more dependable than horse drawn carriages Labor Aristocracy: Highly skilled workers; 15% of working classes; Earned 2x unskilled workers My Secret Life: Anonymous autobiography of an English sexual adventurer “Separate Spheres”: Wife should be homemaker, husband as wage-earner Mary Wollstonecraft: Started movement for equality of the sexes, rights for women 1882 Law: English married women get full property rights Feodor Dostoevski: The Brothers Karamazov- shows that people hated their fathers Thermodynamics: Relationship between heat and energy Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy can not be created or destroyed, only changed in form Dmitri Mendeleev: Periodic table and periodic law Michael Faraday: Electromagnetism- major advancement for electricity Auguste Comte: System of Positive Philosophy- belief that all activity progresses through predictable stages (Disciple of Saint-Simon) Charles Lyell: Principle of Uniformitarianism- geological processes slowly formed earth’s surface Jean Baptiste Lamarck: Belief that all forms of life arise through a long process of adjustment to earth Charles Darwin: On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection- how evolution occurred (common ancestor, survival of the fittest, natural selection) Realism: Anti-RomanticismArt should be about true life of man and real living; people are important Balzac: The Human Comedy- panorama of post-revolutionary life Flaubert: Madame Bovary- depth and accuracy of psychological insight Zola: Animalistic view of working class life Mary Ann Evans (“George Eliot”): Middlemarch- people are shaped by social environment Count Leo Tolstoy: Realism in description and character development Theodore Dreiser: Sister Carrie- about an ordinary girl in Chicago 16 Unit 13: The Age of European Imperialism Robert Fulton: Created a successful steamboat in New York; shipping got cheaper, faster Suez & Panama Canals: Modern port facilities; allowed for faster, cheaper loading and unloading Canton: Chinese city that was suspect to mass Opium smuggling (it was outlawed) Lin Tse-Hsu: Sent by Qing dynasty to Canton to try and root out illegal Opium trade Opium War of 1842: When British merchants refused to order Chinese laws; Chinese cities will be forced to open up to British merchants for trade Treaty of Nanking (1842): British economic control of China; China cedes Hong Kong, pays $100 million, must open 4 major cities to trade with low tariffs Commodore Matthew Perry: Went into Edo Bay (1853); got Japan to allow trade in 2 ports with US Muhammad Ali: Egypt; got rid of political rivals, started to build his own state (BIG army) Ismail: 16 year rule as “khedive” (Prince) after MA; Westernized- irrigation, Arabic language; financial issues (led to France and GB taking political/economic control of Egypt) Colonel Ahmed Arabi: Egyption Nationalist party; forced Ismail’s abdication Shogun: Hereditary military governor of Japan (Had the real power) Meiji Restoration (1867): Coalition led by samurai seized the gvt and restored the political power of the emperor; series of measured to reform Japan to catch up to the west (*Industrialize) Qing Dynasty: On verge of collapse in 1860; able to last 30 more years; relied on Imperialism Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895: Harsh peace treaty hurt China badly Hundred Days Reform (1898): China meets foreign challenges and improves itself Boxer Rebellion: Rebellion of secret societies; resulted in declined prestige of Qing dynasty “Dwarf Economy”: Friedrich List; tiny plots of land, small industryPrompted migrations “Migration Chain”: 1 man left, the rest followed and joined him “Great White Walls”: Americans and Australians; laws to keep out Asians Afrikaners/Boers: Original Dutch in Cape Town; declared independence from GB and defended it Cecil Rhodes: British; overtook Boer states and established protectorates (Want East Africa to protect British holdings in India) Leopold II of Belgium: Energetic about imperialism; Causes GB and France to send people to claim land in Africa (Belgium wanted Central Africa, Congo Basin- rubber, needed for industry) Pierre De Brazza: Sent by France to claim Western Sudan3rd Republic desperate to unite the French behind government- conquered territory and promoted its importance Berlin Conference: Jules Ferry of France and Otto von Bismarck “Effective Occupation”: Want to prevent war b/w GB and France; prevents 1 nation from ruling entire continent (Bismarck didn’t care about colonies, just wanted to keep GB and France busy) - To claim land in Africa, must have army occupation (Weakens GB Fr domestically) General Horatio H Kitchener: GB; met Muslims and Omdurman, and crushed them there Dreyfus Affair: Forced France to back down and let British take over conquest of Africa Technology aiding conquest: Machine gun, quinine (controlled malaria), telegraph “White Man’s Burden”: Belief that white men are supposed to “civilize” inferior peoples J. A. Hobson: Imperialism- rush to get colonies was from economic needs of unregulated capitalism; colonies only helped some people in countries, not everyone Joseph Conrad: Heart of Darkness- “pure selfishness” of Europeans “civilizing” Africa India: “Jewel of the British Empire”; Traded tea and cotton Sepoys: Hired Indian soldiers that were used to help the British East India Company Sepoy Rebellion: Sparked by issues with new guns that used pork/cow fat gun packets; Sepoys didn’t believe that British cared about them (“Sepoy Mutiny”) Rajes: Princes that land in India was divided amongst Indian National Congress: Hindu dominated, demands for equality and self-Government Unit 14: World War I and the Russian Revolution Franco-Prussian War: Increased tensions between European nations “Satisfied Power”: Germany didn’t desire any more territory, only desired peace 17 Three Emperors’ League: Linked monarchies of Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Russia (So Austria and Russia couldn’t ally with France) Bismarck’s System of Alliances: Want to keep France isolated William II: dismissed Bismarck (1890); refused to renew Russian-German Reinsurance Treaty Alexander II: Beheaded in 1981 Anglo-French Entente of 1904: Settled all outstanding colonial disputes b/w Eng, France Algeciras Conference of 1906: Germany demanded it; ended up leaving with nothing, but just worrying all other European nations about its’ danger First Balkan War: Serbia joined with Greece and Bulgaria against Ottoman Empire Second Balkan War: Disputes b/w Serbia and Bulgaria “Black Hand”: Secret radical society secretly supported by the Serbian government (Assassinated Archduke Francis Ferdinand and Wife Sophie) Third Balkan War: Austria-Hungary gave Serbia an ultimatum; Germany gave A-H a “blank check” - Russia was forced to get involved Schlieffen Plan: Provided for a two front war- knock out France through Belgium, turn on Russia General Helmuth von Moltke: Demanded Belgium to allow them through; was refused Triple Entente: Britain, France, Russia 1st Battle of the Marne: French attacked a gap in the German line; Germans would end up falling back, preventing Germany from capturing Paris and the rest of France Trench Warfare: Used in WWI; resulted in mass deaths; had to go “over the top”; no man’s land, etc Erich Remarque: All Quiet on the Western Front- description of deadly trench warfare Lawrence of Arabia: British colonel; arouse Arab princes to revoltGB smashed Ottoman Empire for good in 1918 Lusitania: British passenger ship sunk by German U-Boat submarines; had passengers and munitions Woodrow Wilson: US President; entered the war- saw German U-Boat warfare as attack on everyone Walter Rathenau: German electric company head; head of German Raw Materials Board German Raw Materials Board: rationed and distributed raw materials Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg: Driven out of office by military leaders in 1917 Hindenburg & Ludendorff: New leaders in Germany; declared for mobilization of total war Auxiliary Service Law (1917): Required all males 17-60 to work at jobs helping war effort Ministry of Munitions: England; Organized private industry to produce for war, controlled profit, wages, David Lloyd George: Prime Minister in 1916 of GB Henri Philippe: New general in French army; promised no more grand offensives to restore order Georges Clemenceau: “The Tiger”; ruthless, effective wartime leader of France Czar Nicholas II: Wanted full veto power for the Czar Progressive Bloc: Wanted new government responsible to the Duma Tsarina Alexandra: Took over when Nicholas went to the front lines Grigory Rasputin: Invited by Czarina to try and help Alexei; rumors of his ruling, and affairs Alexei: Heir to the Russian throne; suffered from hemophilia (secret) March Revolution: Czar abdicated the throne, wanted a more democratic nation Alexander Kerensky: New leader of the Provisional government Petrograd Soviet: Mass meetings of workers, watched the Provisional Gvt and made rules too Army Order Number 1: Led to total collapse of army discipline Vladimir Lenin: Banished from Russia for Marxist ideas; came back and believed that Marxist revolution was possible in backwards nations like Russia with help from Peasants Bolsheviks: Followers of Lenin (“majority”) Mensheviks: (“Minority”) Leon Trotsky: With Lenin, joined to gain power from the Petrograd Soviet “Land, Bread, Peace”: Promised by Lenin and Trotsky to gain support of the people Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: Ceded almost 1/3 of Russia to Germany; allowed Russia to leave war Russian Civil War: Between the “Reds” (Lenin & followers), and “Whites” (everyone else) Reds miraculously win (more centralized, organized, had industry, had army, etc.) Ckeka: Old Czarist secret police that was re-established 18 Weimar Republic: Government set up in Germany after the fighting ended; somewhat left Treaty of Versailles: “Compromise gone wrong”; ended up with demilitarization of the Rhine, reparations fees, distribution of Germany’s colonies, etc., League of Nations; alliance between Eng, France, US, Alsace Lorraine returned League of Nations: Desired by Wilson; permanent international organization to prevent war National Self-Determination: As long as many cultures existed in single empires, the possibility of revolt always existed due to ethnic tensions US Senate: Refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles and didn’t join League of Nations Unit 15: The Age of Anxiety Friedrich Nietzsche: German philosopher; Believed that all optimistic things in Europe were falseespecially down on religion and democracy; idea of the “uber-man” Henri Bergson: Believed that immediate experience and intuition were needed to understand life Georges Sorel: Rejection of democracy and believed masses would be controlled by rev. elite Logical Empiricism: US+GB; Only believe in things that can be verified by math and science; no deeper meaning can be found for things Ludwig Wittgenstein: Tratacus Logico-Philosophicus- Philosophy is on the clarification of thoughts Existentialism: Continental; No meaning, no progress, no goal; we are just here Jean Paul Sartre: Human beings simply exist Camus: Sisyphus- No greater goal is freeing; Once realized, life can be better Martin Heidegger & Karl Jaspers: Brought Existentialism to Germany Soren Kierkegaard: Christian Existentialist; there is a god, but he has no plan for us Karl Barth: Wanted to recreate the intensity of the Reformation Gabriel Marcel: Catholicism and belief provided hope, humanity, honesty, piety Jacques Maritain: Denounced Anti-Semitism and promoted closer ties Marie Curie: Radioactivity Max Planck: Quantum physics Albert Einstein: Theory of Relativity- Only constant in the universe is the speed of light, time alters because of your position in the universe Ernest Rutherford: Subatomic particles (*Esp. Neutron- important for the atom bomb) Werner Heisenberg: “Principle of Uncertainty”- impossible to know exact location of an electron Sigmund Freud: Founder of modern Psychology; Superego, Ego, Id; subconscious behaviors Virginia Wolfe: Jacob’s Room- Our views are very small James Joyce: Ulysses- Main character just says what he feelsThe real human Oswald Spengler: The Decline of the West- West had reached its peak and was likely to go into decline; the Yellow Race (Asians) would take over George Orwell: 1984- Negative view- argues that mankind is so desiring of control that we are allowed to be manipulated Kafka: Metamorphosis- Play; a man who is turning into a cockroach- man is filthy and gross T.S. Eliot: The Love Song of J. Alfred Profock- urban isolation=loneliness Functionalism: Architectural movement that buildings should be useful Le Corbusier: Franco-Swiss architectural genius Chicago School of Architects: Louis H. Sullivan; cheap steel, concrete, electric elevators Frank Lloyd Wright: American modern architect that inspired Europe Walter Gropius: Started the Bauhaus- combined school of the arts French Impressionism: The real thing is the essence of the thing; capture the impression Monet: Light, color, seem blurred; not as photogenic and detailed Renoir: People Van Gogh: The Starry Night- “Id on canvas”; able to feel the struggle Paul Cezanne: At the basis of everything is structure (Precursor to cubism) Henri Matisse: Fauvism- focus on color, line, form Pablo Picasso: Cubism- geometry of zigzagging lines 19 Dadaism: Attacked all accepted standards of art Surrealism: World of wild dreams and complex symbols Igor Stravinsky: The Rite of Spring- rhythms, provocative dance Alban Berg: Wozzeck- Opera; tale of a soldier driven by inner terrors and suspicions The Great Train Robbery: 1903- First major silent short film Charlie Chaplin: “King of the Silver Screen”- combined new mass entertainment and artistic feats Guglielmo Marconi: Radio- first wireless communication and development of vacuum tube British Broadcasting Corporation: British company for radio; supported by licensing “Fireside Chats”: Radio addresses given by political leaders Leni Riefenstahl: Master of German Nazi propaganda movies John Maynard Keynes: Economic Consequences of the Peace- shift away from traditional mercantilism; a nation is rich from its exchange of goods Little Entente: Alliance of France, Czech, Romania, Yugoslavia (Frightened GB) Ruhr District: Germany’s industrial part occupied by French soldiers when Weimar Republic was unable to pay the reparations fees Gustav Stresemann: Took gvt leadership in Germany Beerhall Putsch (1924): Hitler and drunk friends tried to topple government; unsuccessful Dawes Plan: Reparations were reduced and based on level of German prosperity; loans from US Treaties of Locarno: France and Germany accept their common border; Germany settles outstanding boundary disputes; GB and Italy agree to gang up on any nation that is too aggressive and causing trouble Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928): Condemned and denounced war as a means of national policy; desire to settle all disputes peacefully Mein Kampf: “My Struggle”; book written by Hitler while imprisoned Labour Party: Champion of the British working classes and greater social equality Ramsay MacDonald: Governed country with support of Liberalparty Buying “On Margin”: Paying only part of a stock, borrowing money for the rest “Counter-Cyclical Policy”: (Keynes)- If money is moving, people will be motivated to spend Franklin Delano Roosevelot: “New Deal” (Socialism) Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933: Raise prices and farm income by limiting production National Recovery Administration: Reduce competition, fix prices and wages Works Progress Administration: New agency to employ people in public works projects Scandinavia: Adopted the Counter Cyclical Policy Popular Front: France; alliance of different political groups against Fascists Leon Blum: Strongest Socialist (Leader of the Popular Front) Civil War in Spain: Led to a growth of extremism in France, collapse of the Popular Front in 1937 20