Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Learning Chapter 5 HR 101 1 POSSIBLE EXAM AND TEST QUESTIONS Personality: Distinguish between type and trait theories of personality (6 marks) Discuss A and B personality characteristics and explain the relationship between personality and stress. (8 marks) What are the main factors that contribute to stress in organisations? (6 marks) Identify and illustrate with appropriate examples individual and organizational stress management strategies (10) marks Evaluate the benefits and problems of psychometric assessment as a tool to assist management decision-making, especially in selection (12 marks) 2 TRAINING/LEARNING/DEVELOPMENT LINKED TO ORGANIZATIONAL NEEDS • The nature of the modern business environment, especially focus on knowledge management and development makes training/learning important. • Rapid change requires that employees continually learn new skills. • Growing reliance on teamwork creates a demand for the ability to solve problems in teams, an ability that often requires formal training/education/learning. 3 Expert Group on New Skills for New Jobs (European Commission, 2010): “Many of the jobs in 2015 and most of the jobs in 2030 do not currently exist and cannot be foreseen yet.” 4 ROLE OF THE EU IN LEARNING Integrated its educational and training initiatives under a single umbrella “Lifelong Learning Programme”. Budget €7 billion 2007-20013 4 Sub programmes: Comenius for schools Erasmus for higher education Leonardo da Vinci Vocational Education & Training Grundtvig for adult education (www.ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learningprogramme) 5 KEY COMPETENCIES FOR LIFELONG LEARNING EU PARLIAMENT AND COUNCIL Communication in the mother tongue Communication in foreign languages Mathematical competence and basic competences in science and technology Digital competence Leaning to learn Social and civic competences Sense of initiative and entrepreneurship Cultural awareness and expression (Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council, of 18 Dec 2006) 6 LEARNING DEFINED Process of acquiring knowledge through experience which leads to a change in behaviour (Huczynski & Buchanan, (2007) Relative permanent change in behaviour that occurs through experience (Santrock, 2002) 7 WHAT IS LEARNING? Learning is not directly observable – we must infer that it occurs by looking at its observable effects i.e. behaviour Learning is measured in terms of relatively permanent changes in behaviour Relatively permanent change in human capabilities that is not a result of growth processes 8 What does “LEARNING” mean to you? 9 APPROACHES TO LEARNING The behaviourist approach to learning Cognitive approach to learning 10 BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH Behaviorism, with its emphasis on experimental methods, focuses on variables we can observe, measure, and manipulate, Avoids whatever is subjective, internal, and unavailable -- i.e. mental. In the experimental method, the standard procedure is to manipulate one variable, and then measure its effects on another 11 BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH Behaviorism is a school of thought in psychology that assumes that learning occurs through interactions with the environment. Two other assumptions of this theory are: that the environment shapes behavior … …and that taking internal mental states such as thoughts, feelings, and emotions into consideration is useless in explaining behavior. There are two major types of conditioning: 12 TYPES OF CONDITIONING… Classical conditioning Operant conditioning 13 MAJOR THINKERS IN BEHAVIORISM Ivan B. Pavlov F. Skinner Edward John Thorndike B. Watson 14 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, Classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. Ivan Pavlov (1849 -1936) 15 PAVLOV'S DROOLING DOGS… What is the Pavlov dog experiment? When a dog encounters food, saliva starts to pour from the salivary glands located in the back of its oral cavity. This saliva is needed in order to make the food easier to swallow. Pavlov struck a bell and the dogs learned to associate the sound of the bell with food, after a while, at the mere sound of the bell, they responded by drooling. 16 PAVLOV'S DROOLING DOGS… 17 APPLICATIONS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (association of one stimulus with another) CC is present when a song reminds you of a place or a person. The song has conditioned you to think about that particular subject – even though you do not realise it Jingles and advertisements allow you to think of a companies product when you hear its name, slogan or jingle 18 OPERANT CONDITIONING – Learning through Consequences Most associated with the work of Thorndike and B.F. Skinner Is a form of associative learning in which the consequences of behaviour change the probability of a behaviours occurrence. 1904 - 1990 19 Operant Conditioning The likelihood of a behaviour can be increased by the use of reinforcement. behaviour hard work followed by encourages reinforcer sweets •The likelihood of a behaviour can be decreased by the use of punishment. behaviour talking in cinema followed by punishment ice down back discourages 20 TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Punishment Extinction 21 Reinforcement regimes: Positive reinforcement Behaviour Positive reinforcement Example Example Reinforcement Result Desired behaviour occurs Positive consequences are introduced Work completed to schedule Manager praises employee each time work is completed on schedule Increases desired behaviours Teacher praises your performance You increasingly turn in homework on time Turn in homework on time Desire behaviour is repeated 22 Reinforcement regimes: Negative reinforcement Behaviour Negative reinforcement (Unpleasant stimulus removed) Desired behaviour occurs Reinforcement Negative consequences are withdrawn Result Desire behaviour is repeated Supervisor If error occurs again Employee completes task stops criticizing supervisor criticizes. correctly after employee repeated criticism from supervisor Example Turn your homework in on time Example Teacher stops criticizing late homework You increasingly turn in homework on time 23 Reinforcement regimes: Punishment Behaviour Punishment Undesired behaviour occurs Reinforcement Result A single act of punishment is introduced Undesired behaviour is not repeated Manager asks employee to stay late when work is not handed in on schedule Eliminates or decreases undesired behaviours 24 Reinforcement regimes: Extinction Behaviour Extinction Reinforcement Result Undesired behaviour occurs The behaviour is ignored Undesired behaviour is not repeated Practical jokes Ignores employees practical jokes Eliminates or decreases undesired behaviours 25 Video Behaviour and Fear Conditioning Video http://www.psychologicalharassment.com/psychol ogy_videos.htm 26 SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Continuous and Partial (Intermittent) Partial Reinforcement: Ratio vs Interval schedules Fixed vs Variable schedules 27 Behaviourist Approach - Schedules of Reinforcement Schedules of reinforcement Schedule Description Implications continuous reinforcement after every correct response fixed ratio reinforcement after a predetermined number of correct responses reinforcement after a random number of correct responses reinforcement of a correct response after a predetermined period reinforcement of a correct response after random periods can establish high performance, but can also lead to satiation; rapid extinction when reinforcement is withheld tends to generate high rates of desired responses variable ratio fixed interval variable interval can produce a high response rate that is resistant to extinction can produce uneven response patterns, slow following reinforcement, vigorous immediately preceding reinforcement can produce a high response rate that is resistant to extinction Based on Fred Luthans and Robert Kreitner, Organizational Behaviour Modification and Beyond, Scott Foresman, Glenview, IL, 1985. Reference: Page 113 Huczynski & Buchanan, Organizational Behaviour 6e, © Pearson Education 2007 28 / 35 28 PATTERN AND TIMING OF REWARDS…. Variable ratio rewards a behaviour an average number of times but on an unpredictable basis For example: Slot machines are on a variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement – the slot machine may pay off twice in a row, but the gambler does not know when this payoff will be 29 RESEARCH ON OPERANT CONDITIONING IN ORGANIZATIONS Special payment rewards Prizes for effective work Bonuses Employee of the month Photo in news letter etc 30 RULES FOR USE (OC) Do not give the same level of reward to all employees Remember that your failure to respond to behaviour has reinforcing consequences You need to inform employees which behaviours are to be rewarded Provide informative feedback on performance Have consequences relative to behaviour 31 BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION Identify critical, observable and measurable work related performance to be encouraged (on-time delivery; quality; quantity) Measure the current frequency of these behaviours Establish the triggers for those behaviours and establish the consequences (positive/ negative- that follow from these behaviours) Develop an intervention strategy to strengthen desired behaviours and weaken dysfunctional behaviours Evaluate the effectiveness of the approach 32 PROBLEMS WITH BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION Is it manipulative? We do not all respond the same way to the same reinforcers Once started, a behaviour modification programme has to be sustained There may not be enough extrinsic motivators (money etc) available 33 BEHAVIORISM PROS AND CONS Pros: “Scientific” Deals with observable, Rigorous methodology measurable phenomena Con: Ignores the things that make humans “human” Cognitions (the mental process of acquiring knowledge by the use of reasoning, intuition, or perception) Emotions “Free Will” 34 SELF-REGULATION AND COGNITION We can exercise control over our behavior through selfregulation We are not slaves to environmental influences We have free will Cognition (process of acquiring knowledge by the use of reasoning, intuition, or perception) allows us to use previous experiences, rather than trial-and-error, to foresee probable consequences of our acts, and behave accordingly Self-regulation allows us to choose behaviors that help us to avoid punishments and move towards long-term goals 35 THEREFORE …. Albert Bandura’s (1960s +) Social Learning Theory Social Cognitive Theory Put the “person” back into personality and learning! 36 SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY OR SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY People learn by observing the behaviour of models and acquiring the belief that they can produce behaviours to influence events in their lives. Behaviourism ignores the cognition and emotion: assumes that actual reinforcement is necessary for learning to occur (rejects free will). 37 BEYOND REINFORCEMENT 1 External reinforcement isn’t the only way in which behavior is acquired, maintained, or altered We can also learn by observing, reading, or hearing about others’ behavior We develop anticipated consequences for our behaviors even for behaviors we’re never engaged in Our cognitive abilities give us the capability for insight and foresight 38 BEYOND REINFORCEMENT 2 Bandura’s biggest contribution to learning theory: New patterns of behavior can be acquired in the absence of external reinforcement We can pay attention to what others do, and repeat their actions i.e., We learn through observation, rather than through direct reinforcement 39 MODELING We learn much of what we do through observing and speaking with others (“models”), rather than through personal experience We form a cognitive image of how to perform certain behaviors through modeling, and use this image as a guide for later behaviors 40 BASIC PROCESSES OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING 1. Attention Pay attention to the model’s behaviour 2. Retention Processes (remember the model’s behavior, recall when needed) 41 BASIC PROCESSES OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING 3.Reproduction (we must be physically capable of reproducing the model’s Behaviour or something similar to it) 4. Motivation (we must be motivated to display the behaviour) 42 SUMMARY We acquire, maintain, and modify behaviors that we see others perform We decide which behaviors to keep, and when to use them, by using: symbolic thought (“what are my long term goals?”) emotion self-regulation (“I really want to tell my lecturer this subject is awful, but I need an A, so…”) Bandura and other Social Learning Theorists put the “person” back into personality by stressing the interplay of personal factors, environmental factors, and behavior 43 SOCIAL LEARNING: APPLIED In an organization setting we might begin by: Deciding I want to be a manager (goal) Choose a role model who is a successful manager Observe the behaviours of the role model Practice these behaviours Evaluate success 44 APPLICATIONS: SOCIALIZATION AND FEEDBACK New employee: Socialization (induction/ mentoring/ coaching) Newcomers learn the ropes simply by watching their colleagues Socialization is achieved without planned intervention, rewards It is being achieved by negative reinforcements – like being ignored Learn quickly what attitudes to take, dress code to obey 45 APPLICATIONS: TRAINING Learning theory Social learning theory: people learn by observing other persons/ models whom they believe are credible and knowledgeable Why •Want to change behaviour How •Demonstration •Ask an excepted leader (credible) to demonstrate behaviour • Indicate what to look out for • Practice • Feedback 46 LEARNING CYCLE YOUR EXPERIENCE ACTIVIST PLANNING HOW TO APPLY LEARNING REVIEWING YOUR EXPERIENCE Pragmatist Reflector INTEGRATING YOUR EXPERIENCE WITH NEW IDEAS AND SKILLS [LEARNING] 47 THEORIST ADULT LEARNING Adults have the need to know why they are learning something Have a need to be self-directed Bring work-related experiences in the learning situation Have a problem centered approach to learning Motivated by extrinsic and extrinsic factors 48 The Learning Organization The Learning Organization The concept of the learning organization is based on the work of Chris Argyris and Donald Schön (Argyris and Schön, 1974, 1978; Argyris, 1982) Chris Argyris (B 1923) Donald Schön (1930-1997) Learning organization An organizational form that enables individual learning to create valued outcomes, such as innovation, efficiency, environmental alignment and competitive advantage 49 Reference: Page 123, 124 49 / 35 Huczynski & Buchanan, Organizational Behaviour 6e, © Pearson Education 2007 THE LEARNING ORGANIZATION SIGNIFICANCE 50 / 35 Why the learning organization concept has become significant: Huczynski & Buchanan, Organizational Behaviour 6e, © Pearson Education 2007 The production of goods and services increasingly involves sophisticated knowledge Knowledge is, therefore, as valuable a resource as raw materials Many organizations have lost knowledgeable staff through retirements and delayering Information technologies are knowledge intensive Some knowledge can have a short life span, made obsolete by innovation Flexibility, creativity and responsiveness are now prized capabilities Knowledge can thus be a source of competitive advantage for an organization Reference: Page 123, 124 Peter Senge’s Five Disciplines Systems Thinking Personal Mastery Team Learning Mental Models Shared Vision 51 Five Disciplines - expanded Systems thinking • mind shift & understanding change processes. • ‘feedback’ to reinforce/counteract action. • recognise recurring structures • remove root causes/problems Personal Mastery • personal competence and vision • developing patience to look at reality objectively Mental Models • changing ingrained assumptions about influencing factors. Shared Vision • use instincts, intuition by sharing personal vision • pictures of the future Team Learning • dialogue, discussion, group relationships • accelerate org. learning thru. Synergy 2+2=5 52 IS YOURS A LEARNING ORGANISATION? • • • Supportive Learning Environment Concrete Learning Processes and Practices Leadership that Reinforces Learning Garvin, Edmondson, Gino, Harvard Business Review, March 2006 53 CHALLENGES OF THE LEARNING ORGANISATION Linking organisational development programmes with individual development programmes. Designing training to accommodate organisational and individual needs. Links between individual learning and organisational learning. 54 KEY ISSUE: TRANSFER OF LEARNING • • • The effective and continuing job application of the knowledge and skills gained in training. Has the training been appropriate and effective? Has learning transfer taken place? Are the new knowledge and skills being supported by your workplace culture? 55 TRANSFER CLIMATE Those organisational supports and constraints that influence whether trainees (employees) take what they learn in one environment (training) and actually use it in another environment (on the job). 56 Trainee Characteristics •Ability •Personality •Motivation Training Design •Principles of Learning •Sequencing •Training Content Learning & Retention Generalization & Maintenance Work Environment •Support •Opportunity to Use 57 Transfer of Learning: Baldwin & Ford (1988) READINESS FOR TRAINING • • Readiness for training: a combination of employee characteristics and positive work environment that permit training. The necessary employee characteristics: Ability to learn the subject matter Favorable attitudes toward the training – Motivation to learn – – • A positive work environment encourages learning and avoids interfering with training. 58 TABLE 7.2: WHAT MANAGERS SHOULD DO TO SUPPORT TRAINING 59 I am always ready to learn although I do not always like being taught. ~Winston Churchill Education consists mainly of what we have unlearned. ~Mark Twain The illiterate of the 21st century will not be those who cannot read and write, but those who cannot learn, unlearn, and relearn. ~Alvin Toffler 60