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ASCARIS LUMBRICOIDES
Course Name:
Zoology
Paper No. & Title:
Z 101 B
Animal Diversity-1
Topic No. & Title:
Topic-6
Platyhelminthes &
Nemathelminthes
Ascaris lumbricoides
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Left Side
Zoology
Model 1 –UGC Syllabus
1st Year Undergraduate
Programme Title :
Ascaris lumbricoides
Right Side
Course Name:
Zoology
Paper No. & Title:
Z 101 B
Animal Diversity-1
Topic No. & Title:
Topic - 6
Platyhelminthes & Nemathelminthes
Ascaris lumbricoides
Credits:
-:Programme Title:Ascaris lumbricoides
-:Subject Experts:Dr. Y.M. Dalal
-:Subject Coordinator:Prof.Dr.M.V.Rao,
Head, Dept. of Zoology,
Gujarat University,
Ahmedabad
-:Voice:Dr. Anshita Purohit
-:Graphics:G K Prajapati, Dilip Dave
-:Animation:Jay Bheda
-:Technical Assistants:Nandini Joshi
-:Technician:Mukesh Soni
-:Floor Assts:Satyavan Sheth
-:Multimedia Support:Ruchish Shah
-:Editing & Production:Malti Mehta
EMMRC,
Gujarat University, Ahmedabad
Presentation - January,2012
Video Index:
1. Introduction (0:36)
2. External Features (3:01)
3. Body Wall (2:46)
4. Digestive System (3:54)
5. Excretory System (1:22)
6. Central Nervous System (1:07)
7. Reproductive System (4:12)
8. Life Cycle (3:46)
9. Pathogenicity & Treatment (1:54)
10. Parasitic Adaptation (2:38)
Script:Programme: Ascaris lumbricoides
Subject Expert: Dr.Y.M.Dalal
Producer: Malti Mehta
1.Introduction
Habit and Habitat:
Ascaris lumbricoides also called ‘Giant Intestinal Round worms’
is a nematode parasite in the small intestine of children and
adult human beings. It has a holozoic nutrition and takes hosts
digested food by sucking action. Respiration is an aerobic type.
The worm produces anti enzymes to counteract the host
enzyme.
2.External features:
Ascaris is narrow, elongated, cylindrical and vermiform. It is
light yellowish brown in colour. It possesses a lusture due to the
glistening cuticle. The size of female is larger than the male. The
male measure 15-31 cm. in length and 2-4 mm in diameter. The
female is usually 20-40 cm. long and 6-8 mm wide. The body is
rounded and slender with tapering at both the ends. It’s surface
show pseudo segmented appearance due to transverse striated,
thick and elastic cuticle. It is marked with four longitudinal lines
extending along the length of the body. These lines are thick,
present on the lateral side. These lines are called lateral lines.
The anterior end of the body bears a mouth which is terminal
with triangular opening. The mouth is bounded by three rounded
lips. One of them is mid-dorsal and two are ventro-lateral. The
mid-dorsal lip is elliptical with central forbed and fleshy core. It
has four sensory papillae. The two ventro-lateral lips with forked
fleshy cups and bear two rows of sensory papillae. The jaws are
provided with sensory structure known as the amphids. They are
chemoreceptors. The sensory papillae are tangoreceptor. The
inner edges of the lip are toothed. The excretory pore is situated
mid ventrally slightly behind the anterior end. In female, the
gonopore is situated at about anterior 1/3rd of the body. The
posterior part of the body shows sexual dimorphism. In female,
it is straight and sharply curved in male. The posterior part in
female bears anus as a transverse slit and a cloacal opening in
males. Two penial setae sometime project out from cloacal
opening. The body part behind anus is known as tail.
3.Body Wall:
The body wall consists of cuticle, Epidermis, and muscle layer
(1) Cuticle:
The body is covered with transparent cuticle. It is elastic thick
but
resistant.
The
cuticle
also
lines
the
buccal
cavity,
oeosophagus, rectum, cloaca, excretory pore and vagina. Cuticle
protects the body against the action of digestive enzymes and is
secreted by epidermis. Histologically, the cuticle is constituted
by five layers.
(i) Lipoid layer
(ii) Cuticle / cortex layer: which consists of
1.Outer Layer
2.inner layer
(iii) Matrix layer which consists of
1. Fibrillar Layer
2. Homogenous Layer
3. Boundary Layer
(iv) Fibre layer
(v) Basement membrane
(2) Epidermis:
The cuticle is separated from the epidermis by a basement
membrane. This is a thin, syncytial, ectoderm layer. It is layer
found along the mid dorsal, mid ventral and lateral lines and
forms chords. Lateral chords contain excretory canal and lateral
nerves. Dorsal and ventral nerves run along dorsal and ventral
chords respectively.
(3) Muscle Layer:
Circular muscle layer is absent. Longitudinal muscle form a
single layer or spindle shaped cells below the epidermis. It lines
the body cavity. The muscle layer is divided into 4 longitudinal
columns. Each column contains 150 muscles possesses two
portions – muscular portion & protoplasmic portion.
Pseudocoel: Body cavity represents pseudocoel. The body
cavity is bounded externally by the muscle cells and internally
by the lining of the gut. The pseudocoel remains filled with a
pseudocoeloimic, fluid containing pseudocoelomocytes.
4. Digestive System: The alimentary canal with associated
glands constitute simple digestive system. It consists of mouth,
buccal cavity, pharynx or esophagus, intestine and rectum.
Mouth and buccal cavity: The mouth is anterior and has
terminal aperture. It is bounded by three lips, one mediandorsal and two ventro laterals. Mouth leads into the buccal
cavity. It is a narrow, muscular chambers opening into pharynx.
Oesophagus/pharynx: It is a small cylindrical chamber with a
muscular bulb. Its walls are formed of radially arranged
muscles. Pharyngeal cavity is tri-radiate in appearance which is
lined by cuticle. Its wall is embedded with two branched subventral oesophageal glands and a branched dorsal oesophageal
gland. These glands secrete their contents into pharyngeal
cavity. The pharynx act as a suction tube, which leads to
intestine.
Intestine: It is a straight, tall, thin walled and dorso-ventrally
flattened tube. It is devoid of muscles. The intestinal wall form a
single layer of columnar cells lined by a basement membrane
and a thin layer of cuticle. The inner intestinal layer has many
finger like microvilli, which increase the surface area for
absorption.
Rectum: It is the distal narrow part to the intestine. It has thick
wall. The wall of rectum consists of elongated columnar cells.
This is lined externally by muscle and internally by cuticle. In
female, the rectum opens by a transverse slit known as anus. In
male, it
opens
into
the
cloaca
which also receives the
ejaculatory duct. The anus is guarded by thick anterior and
posterior muscle and a sphincter muscle. In male there are six
large unicellular rectal glands and three in the females.
Physiology of Digestion: The food of ascaris consists of semidigested food of the host, tissues and blood from the mucus
membrane by the sucking action of muscular pharynx. Digestion
is partially extracellular and partially intracellular. The digested
food is absorbed by the intestinal cells. The excess food is stored
as reserve glycogen and little fat in the epidermal cells of the
body wall.
Respiratory system: In Ascaris there are no respiratory organs
and it respires anaerobically by glycolysis. It is also able to
consume free oxygen in the host’s intestine.
5. Excretory System: In Ascaris, the excretory system is
simple and H-shaped. There is a longitudinal excretory canal in
each lateral side. The anterior limbs of the H are reduced.
Transverse canal is branched and forms a network. From the
network there is a short common excretory canal to open by
minute excretory pore on ventral side. The canals are more
developed on left side then on the right side. The excretory
system has no internal opening, nephridia or flame cells and
cilia. The nitrogenous waste comprises of urea which diffuses
into pseudocoelomic fluid. The excretory canals secrete this urea
which is passed out through the excretory pore. Some urea and
ammonia are eliminated with fecal matters. When water is
scarce, ascaris excretes more urea.
6. Central Nervous System: The nervous system is epidermal
and consists of circum pharyngeal nerve ring and the nerves
arise from it.
(A) Around the pharynx lies the circumpharyngeal nerve ring,
consists of four types of cephalic ganglia.
(1)
Six papillary ganglia
(2)
Two ventral ganglia
(3)
Two sub-dorsal ganglia
(4)
Two dorsal ganglia
(B) The nerves: Five nerves arise anteriorly from the nerve ring
and innervating various sense organs of anterior body part.
Eight nerves arise posteriorly from the nerve ring.
(1)
A dorsal nerve
(2)
A ventral nerve
(3)
A pair of dorso-lateral nerves
(4)
A pair of ventro-lateral nerves
(5)
A pair of lateral nerves
These dorsal and ventral nerves pass through the dorsal and
ventral posterior parts of the body.
7. Reproductive System: In Ascaris, sexes are separate and
can be morphologically distinguished because,
(1)
Female is bigger than male.
(2)
In male, the posterior end of the body is sharply curved,
sbut it is straight in females.
(3)
In male, the alimentary canal and genital duct both open
through a small cloacal aperture to the exterior. In female,
it possesses a genital aperture at about 1/3rd position of
the body.
(4)
Sometime, penial setae can be seen protruding out of the
cloaca in the male.
(A)
Male reproductive organs consist of Single testis,
unpaired vas deferens, seminal vesicle ejaculatory duct,
and penial sac with penial setae.
Testis: The testis is a long, coiled, thin and thread like
structure. It is present in the anterior part of the
pseudocoel. Testis represents monarchic condition means
single testis. The germ cells develop only from the proximal
part of the testis. Hence they are called telogonic. The
testis can be disguised into three parts.
(1) Anterior part of the testis is solid and contains sex
cells, (2) Middle part and (3) Posterior part.
Vas deferens: It is as wide as the testis and cannot be
distinguished externally. It is very small and opens into the
seminal vesicle.
Seminal vesicle: It is a wide tube found in the posterior
1/3rd part of the body, and leads in to ejaculatory duct.
Ejaculatory duct: It is a short, narrow and muscular tube
and opens into the cloaca. Cloaca opens outside by cloacal
opening
Penial sacs and setae: The penial sacs are paired
muscular pocket, which is outgrowth from dorsal wall of
cloaca. Each pocket contains a chitonous, club-shaped
spicule protractile or penial setae. The penial setae help in
sperm transfer during copulation.
(B) Female reproductive system – It consists of a pair of
ovaries and paired oviducts, pair of uteri and vagina.
Ovaries: They are long threadlike, coiled structures and are
found in posterior 1/3rd of the body. The paired ovary represents
didelphic condition. Ovary opens into oviduct.
Oviducts: The paired oviducts are thin ducts, very similar to the
ovaries, which open into uteri.
Uterus: Each oviduct opens into a long, wide and much coiled
muscular wall called uterus.
Vagina: The both uteri unite and form short muscular tube. It is
known as vagina. Vagina opens to the exterior by female
gonopore or vulva.
8. Life Cycle: Life of Ascaris is simple and requires only one
host - human. Ascaris male and female copulate inside the host
intestine and the sperms are transferred into the vagina. The
sperms ascend up in the uterus and fertilize the eggs in the
upper part of uterus. After fertilization, eggs move downwards.
They are surrounded with chitinous egg shell which is highly
resistant and also possess a coat of albumen.
Egg-laying: After the eggs are laid in the host intestine, they
are deposited outside with the faeces of host. The egg produced
are as many as 27,000,000( two crore seventy lakh)
with a
deposition of 20,000 eggs daily.
Eggs: The eggs are elongated, elliptical or oval in shape and
measuring about 40-75 microns. The eggs are enclosed in
transparent, thick, chitinous egg-shell and albuminous layer.
The egg cover is resistant to environmental changes. These eggs
can remain dormant for years.
Development: Development of egg starts outside the body of
the host. The cleavage is spiral and determinate. Then blastula
stage is attained. Eggs undergo gastrulation by invagination and
finally develops into rhabditoid stage. After 10-14 days, it
requires to reach the 2nd stage of larva. The hatching and
further development of the larva is possible if the eggs enters
the host .
Infection: Infective embryo is swallowed accidentally along
with water, soil, contaminated food or green raw vegetables.
The embryonated eggs move down the duodenum, the 2nd stage
rhabditoid from larva hatches out of the eggs. The larva is
measured about 0.2 to 0.3 micro meter. with a well developed
system. Now, larva penetrates the mucous membrane of the
small intestine and enters the blood. From blood it is carried to
the liver and then it reaches to the heart. Through pulmonary
artery, it enters the lung. Here, they attack the lung alveoli and
undergoes two moulting one after the other. The larvae reaches
the glottis and finally crawl up the intestine again. The size is
about 1-2 mili meter. Inside the intestine, it moults and
continues to grow to attain the adult size within 6-10 weeks to
become sexually mature.
9.Pathogenicity & Treatment:
Pathogenicity: Effect on host: Larvae and adult pursuing the
migratory course are pathogenic.The larvae in the lungs cause
inflammation and produce severe pneumonia, fever anaemia,
eosinophilia and leucocytosis. The mature worms are not very
fetal. But when found in large numbers, they cause abdominal
and acute colic pain. Diarrhea and temperature may also be
caused. They block the intestine and there will be appendicitis.
By damaging the wall of intestine, they produce peritonitis. The
liberated
toxins
cause
convulsions,
nervousness. Presence of Ascaris causes
coma,
delirium
and
stunted growth and
poor memory of human being.
Treatment: Anti-helminth drugs like piperazine citrate or
hydrate, hetrazan, dithiazanine & tetramezole are used so much
for the treatment of ascariasis these days. A mixture of
chenopodium oil & tetrachloroethylene, hexylresorcinol of one
gram with fasting for 12 hours before treatment and 4 hours
afterwards, followed by purgative, removes almost all ascaris
infection.
10. Parasitic adaptation:
Definition: The adaptation is power of self-regulation, self
preservation and race continuation in the organisms so they can
live particular in environment. Ascaris is an endoparasite found
in the intestine of human. Ascaris has undergone a few
morphological adaptations in accordance with the parasitic mode
of life like
1. The body of Ascaris is long, cylindrical and pointed at both
the ends.
2. The body wall is covered with very thick, tough and
resistant cuticle formed of several layers. Cuticle protects
the body against the digestive enzymes of the host
intestine.
3. Cilia are completely absent.
4. Locomotory organs are wanting.
5. Alimentary canal of ascaris lacks digestive glands and is
simple and poorly developed because it receives semidigested food from the host intestine. Pharynx is muscular,
modified for sucking the food.
6. The nervous system is poorly developed. The sense organs
and the eyes are absent except for a few papillae present
on lips, which are regarded to be tango-receptors
and
other few chemo-receptors.
7. Respiration is almost entirely anaerobic and respiratory
organs are absent. There is an enormous storage of fatty
acid within the Ascaris, which is needed for anaerobic
glycolysis of glycogen. The energy produced is adequate for
Ascaris to carry out their vital activity.
8. The reproductive system is highly developed, numerous
eggs are laid daily from 1500 to 2000. The eggs are
covered with thick chitinous shell which protects them from
enzyme of host, prolonged cold and dryness for many days.
Objectives:
 To outline the habit and habitat, external features, physiology
of digestion, excretory system, central nervous system,
reproductive system and life cycle of Ascaris lumbricoides.
 To give details of pathogenicity, effects on host i.e.
humanbeing, treatment and parasitic adaptation of Ascaris
lumbricoide.
FAQs :Q-1. What is pseudocoelom ?
Ans. Body cavity represents pseudocoel (Pseudo, false, coel,
cavity). The body cavity is bounded externally by the muscle
cells and internally by the lining of the gut.
Q-2. Which are two differences between male and female
Ascaris?
Ans. In female, posterior part is straight and sharply curved in
male. The posterior part in female bears anus as a transverse
slit and a cloacal opening in males. Two penial setae sometime
project out from cloacal opening.
Q-3. What is the size of male and female Ascaris ?
Ans. The male measure 15-31 cm. in length and 2-4 mm in
diameter. The female usually is 20-40 cm. long and 6-8 mm
wide.
Q-4. Whether Ascaris is a endoparasite or ectoparasite ?
Ans. Ascaris is found in the small intestine of children and adult
human beings, hence it is endoparasite.
Q-5. Which are two parasitic adaptations of Ascaris?
Ans. The body of Ascaris is long, cylindrical and pointed at the
both ends. Locomotory organs are wanting.
Q-6. What does digestive system consist of in Ascaris?
Ans. It consists of mouth, buccal cavity, pharynx or esophagus,
intestine and rectum.
Q-7. What does Body wall consists of Ascaris?
Ans. The body wall consists of (1) cuticle, (2) Epidermis and (3)
muscle layer
Q-8. Which are the different layers of Cuticle in the
bodywall of Ascaris?
Ans. Histological, the cuticle is constituted by five layers:
(1) Lipoid Layer
(2) Cuticle / Cortex layer:
(i) Outer Layer
(ii) Inner Layer
(3) Matrix Layer :
(i) Fibrillar Layer
(ii) Homogenous Layer
(iii) Boundary Layer
(4) Fibre Layer
(5) Basement Membrane
Q-9. Is there any Respiratory system in Ascaris?
Ans. In Ascaris, there are no respiratory organs and it respires
anaerobically by glycolysis. It is also able to consume free
oxygen in the host’s intestine.
Q-10. What are the external features of Ascaris?
Ans. Ascaris is narrow, elongated, cylindrical and vermiform. It
is light yellowish brown in colour. It possesses a lusture due to
the glistening cuticle. The size of female is larger than the male.
The body is rounded and slender with tapering at the both ends.
It’s surface show pseudo segmented appearance due to
transverse striated, thick and elastic cuticle.It is marked with
four longitudinal lines extending along the length of the body.
QUIZ :1. Which type of body cavity is found in Ascaris ?
(a) Gastrovascular (b) Pseudocoelom
(c) Spongocoel (d) Coelenteron
2. Normal life span of Ascaris is
(a) 9-12 weeks (b) 9-12 months
(c) 9-12 years (d) None of these
3. Infection of Ascaris usually occurs by
(a) Contaminated water and vegetables
(b) Eating imperfectly cooked pork
(c) Bed bug bite
(d) Mosquito bite
4. The space between alimentary canal and body wall in
Ascaris is
(a) Coelenteron (b) Haemocoel (c) Pseudocoel (d) Gastrocoel
5. Ascaris completes its life cycle
(a) Only in human (b) Human & Goat
(c) Human & Dog (d) Human & cow
6. Digestion in Ascaris is
(a) Extracellular aided by digestive enzymes.
(d) None of these
(c) Intracellular
(b) Extracellular
7. Which type of excretory canal system is present in
Ascaris ?
(a) C-shaped (b) K-shaped (c) H-shaped (d) W-shaped
8. The mammiliated eggs of Ascaris are enclosed in
(a) One layered membrane (b) Two layered membrane
(c) Three layered membrane (d) None of the above
9. While migrating, the larva of Ascaris takes its 4th
moult in (a) Intestine (b) Liver (c) Lungs (d) Heart
10. Ascaris has a body cavity which is
(a) Intracellular (b) Pseudocoel
(c) Intracellular & Pseudocoel (d) Highly obliterated by cells
11. Maximum number of eggs released by single female
Ascaris in any day is
(a) 2,000 (b) 20,000 (c) 5,000 (d) 2,00,000
12. Excretory organs in Ascaris are
(a) Nephridia (b) Kidneys (c) Flame cells (d) Green Gland
13. In life cycle of Ascaris, the juvenile hatches out of egg
in
(a) Lung (b) Liver (c) Duodenum (d) None of these
14. The final moult in juvenile of Ascaris occurs in
(a) Lung (b) Intestine (c) Liver (d) Heart
15. Ascaris has well developed
(a) Nervous system (b) Reproductive system
(c) Excretory system (d) Digestive system
16. The reproductive organs of Ascaris comprise
(a) A single testis in male and one pair ovaries in female
(b) A single testis in male and a single ovary in female
(c) A single testis in male and a single ovary in female
(d) One pair of testes in male and one pair of ovaries in female
Summary:
Ascaris lumbricoides is a nematode parasite in the small
intestine of children and adult human beings.
Ascaris is narrow, elongated, cylindrical and vermiform.
The size of female is larger than the male.
The body wall consists of (1) cuticle (2) epidermis and (3)
muscle layer
Body cavity represents pseudocoel.
The pseudocoel remains filled with a pseudocoeloimic, fluid
containing pseudocoelomocytes.
It consists of mouth, buccal cavity, pharynx or esophagus,
intestine and rectum.
It respires anaerobically by glycolysis.
In Ascaris, the excretory system is simple and H-shaped.
Ascaris excretes more urea.
Ascaris consists of circumpharyngeal nerve ring and the nerves
arise from it.
In Ascaris, sexes are separate and can be morphologically
distinguished. Male has single testis, unpaired vas deferens,
seminal vesicle ejaculatory duct and penial sac with penial
setae.
Female consists of a pair of ovaries a paired of oviducts, pair
uteri and vagina.
Life of Ascaris is simple and requires only one host
(Humanbeing).
Ascaris male and female copulate inside the host intestine and
the sperms are transferred into the vagina. The sperms ascend
up in the uterus and fertilized the eggs in the upper part of
uterus. After fertilization, eggs move downwards. They are
surrounded with chitinous egg shell which is highly resistant and
also coat of albumen.
Ascaris deposits approximately 20,000 eggs daily.
Development of eggs starts outside the body of the host
The hatching and further development of the larva is possible if
the eggs enter the host
Infective embryo is swallowed accidentally along with water,
soil, contaminated food or green raw vegetables. The
embryonated eggs move down the duodenum.
The larvae in the lungs cause inflammation and produce severe
pneumonia, fever, anaemia, eosinophilia and leucocytosis.
Presence of Ascaris causes stunted growth and poor memory of
human being.
TUTORIALS:This topic does not contain any tutorials.
ASSIGNMENTS:(A) Answer in brief (1-2 sentences):
1
2
3
4
5
What is pseudocoelom ?
Any two differences between male and female Ascaris.
What is the size of male and female Ascaris ?
Whether Ascaris is a endoparasite or ectoparasite ?
Give any two parasitic adaptations of Ascaris.
(B) Write short notes on:
1 Digestive system of Ascaris
2 Cuticle in the bodywall of Ascaris
3 Respiratory system of Ascaris
4 Excretory system of Ascaris
(C) Write notes on:
1 External features of Ascaris
2 Excretory system of Ascaris
3 Body wall of Ascaris
(D) Draw the labelled diagram:
1 Ascaris - T.S. passing through pharynx
2 Ascaris - T.S. passing through testis
3 Ascaris - T.S. passing through ovary
4 Ascaris - Life cycle
(E) Write short notes on:
1 Digestive system of Ascaris
2 Cuticle in the bodywall of Ascaris
3 Respiratory system of Ascaris
4 Excretory system of Ascaris
5 External features of Ascaris
6 Body wall of Ascaris
REFERENCES: M.E. Ayyar (1966) A Manual of Zoology Part 1:
Nonchordata, Madras
 R.C. DALELA (2008) A Text Book of invertebrate zoology,
Jai prakash Nath & co. Meerut
 Parker TJ, Haswell WA. (1951) The Onychophora, pp.
526-533 in A text-book of Zoology, 6th ed MacMillan,
London.
 Sedgwick A. (1888) A Monograph of the Species and
Distribution of the Genus Peripatus (Guilding). Quarterly
Journal Microscopical Science, 28:431-493.
 Sedgwick A. (1910) Peripatus, pp. 3-26 in Harmer SF
,Shipley AE.,(eds). Cambridge Natural History 5, Peripatus,
Myriapods, and Insects Part 1, MacMillan, London.
 Snodgrass RE. (1938) Evolution of the Annelida,
Onychophora, and Arthropoda. Smithsonian Misc.
Collections 97(6):50-149.
 Jordan E L, Verma P.S. (2011) Invertebrate Zoology,
S.Chand and company.
WEBS AND LINKS:This topic does not require any links.
GLOSSARY:Central nervous system
The brain and the spinal cord including the dorsal root ganglion.
Abbreviated CNS.
Cloaca
A common receptacle for digestive, excretory wastes and
reproductive cells.
Cuticle
Thin non-cellular outermost covering secreted by the underlying
epidermis.
Digestion
Conversion of complex substance of food into simple soluble
forms which can be absorbed.
Excretion
Discharge of metabolic wastes; also the substances discharged.
Habitat
Environment in which an animal lives.
Hindgut
Posterior portion of the digestive tract in arthropods.
Nematode
Round worms of the phylum Aschelminthes.
Ovary
Female gonad in which the egg(ova) multiply and develop.
Oviduct
A tube that conveys eggs from ovary to uterus or to exterior.
Oviparous
Producing eggs that hatch outside the body of the mother, egglaying animals.
Penis
Male organ of copulation for conveying sperms to the female
genital tract.
Parasite
Organism that lives during the whole or phase of its life cycle
upon or within another organism (Host) and from which it
derives nourishment.
Reproduction
Production by an organism of others of its kind.
Respiration
Use of oxygen by the cell, this is usually termed cellular or
internal respiration.
Sexual dimorphism
Phenomenon of two sexes of a given species differing in
secondary characters.
Vas deferens
Duct that carries sperms away from the testis.