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Task in action – Ancient Greek theatre
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Achievement Standard 91215 (Drama 2.3) ‘Discuss a drama or theatre form or period
with reference to a text’ requires you to:
• identify the features of a specific drama/theatre form.
Historical background
The word ‘drama’ comes from a Greek word, dran, meaning ‘to do’ or ‘to act’. The word
‘theatre’ is derived from the Greek word theatron, which in turn comes from the Greek
word theasthai, which means ‘to view as spectators’. Ancient Greece can be considered
as the birthplace of drama in the Western world. By the 5th century bce dramas were
presented at religious festivals twice a year. The performance of plays became a very
important part of the religious festivals and playwrights could enter four plays – three
tragedies and one comedy – at each religious festival. There were prizes for best play, best
actor and best playwright. It was a great honour to receive the first prize and actors and
playwrights were treated like celebrities, a little like film stars today.
Tragedy and comedy
‘Tragedy is an imitation, not of men, but of action.’
The words ‘tragedy’ and ‘comedy’ are derived from the Greek words tragos and kômôdoi
or kômos. The word kômos comes from the word for ‘revel’.
Tragedy, which can be translated from the Greek literally as ‘goat song’, was the focus of
the City Dionysia each spring. The City Dionysia was a celebration in April in honour of
Dionysus, the god of wine and fertility. A chorus of men were dressed in goatskin to represent
satyrs. Satyrs were beings from Greek mythology who were half-man and half-goat.
The origin of comedy is not as clear-cut as that of tragedy. Comedy seems to have originated
from bands of young men who roamed the streets celebrating the good harvest or who had
just attended a banquet in the town square. A banquet is a large public meal. These men
used to carry torches through the streets, singing songs and shouting abuse at passers-by.
There is a distinct difference between tragedy and comedy. Tragedy usually focuses on
a great and noble character who fails to achieve his/her desired goals, or is overcome
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160 AS 91215 (Drama 2.3) Discuss a drama or theatre form or period with reference to a text
by opposing enemies. This brings them to a reversal of fortune or tragic downfall, often
caused by hubris or excessive pride. A tragedy always ends tragically. A comedy usually
deals with ordinary people and, in the case of Aristophanes’ plays, satirises aspects of
society including war and the role of women.
Activity: Research
Research one of the following topics in groups or individually. Present the findings to
the class and share the information with other students. This presentation could take
several forms: it could be a poster, a handout, a PowerPoint™ or an oral presentation.
1. The religious festival called the City Dionysia.
Find out about these religious gatherings and how drama developed from them.
2. The origin of tragedy.
Research an ancient Greek tragic playwright and find information about one of his
plays (characters, plot and theme). The playwrights are: Sophocles, Aeschylus and
Euripides.
3. The origin of comedy.
Research an ancient Greek comic playwright and find information about one of his
plays (characters, plot and theme). The playwrights are: Aristophanes and Menander.
History of Greek theatre
Aristotle (384–322 bce), a teacher and philosopher, was one of the important dramatic
critical thinkers in ancient Greek times. He not only analysed plays and classified the
different kinds of drama, but he also laid down the rules for the construction of tragedy.
The structure of the Greek plays as we know them now was first developed by Aristotle.
Aristotle dictated that a play should take place during the period of one day, be set in
one place, and have only one main plot. This became known as the three unities of time,
place and action. He regarded characterisation as important, but not as important as the
unities of time, place and action. You will learn more about the three unities in the next
chapter. We need to remember that the audiences were very familiar with the stories that
the playwrights told. They did not go to the theatre to find out what happens in the story,
but rather to see how it happens.
The influence of Greek tragedy on later drama forms
Chapter
Chapter15
2
Nearly 2 500 years later, Bertolt Brecht, the famous German playwright of the 1930s to
1950s, developed a style of theatre that became known as Epic theatre. This genre uses a
narrative style, where plot takes precedence over the emotions that are evoked; the plot is
more important than the characters. Brecht used song much like the chorus was used in
Greek tragedy and divided his play into episodes. This is a good example of a playwright
using established genres to create a new genre or drama form. Brecht’s purpose in his
theatre was to challenge his audience to think and act. It was a political theatre which
also entertained.
Once you know how ancient Greek theatre originated and who the main playwrights
were, you can take the next step and research the important features of ancient Greek
theatre.
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Chapter 15: Task in action – Ancient Greek theatre 161
The Old Theatre of Epidaurus, Greece.
(Photos courtesy of Marthy Watson)
Main features of ancient Greek theatre
Role of gods
Parados
Deus ex
machina
Ekkyklema
Stychomythia
Anagnorisis (revelation/
enlightenment)
Episodes
Powerful roles
for women
Greek Drama
Poetic form
Chorus
Prologue
Three actors (protagonist,
deuteragonist, tritagonist)
Exodos
Violence
kept off
stage
Specific movements (approach,
flee, kneel, etc.)
Male actors
Unity of
time, place,
action
Masks
Actors wear
high boots
Acting
Actors motionless for
long periods
Spectacle
Large gestures
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Chorus sing/dance
Chapter 15
Masks
Chapter 16: Task in action – Antigone, by Sophocles 187
Sometimes the characters will engage in stichomythia, which looks more like the dialogue
of a modern play. Often the characters are engaged in an argument.
Activity: Exam preparation
Tip
There are many films that have theatre performances either as central to the plot
or as attended by characters. See if a film exists about the form or period you are
exploring. Such films can give an idea about the audiences and theatre of the time.
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Chapter 16
This activity is designed to help you revise for your external exam. Complete the
following tasks in your drama notes.
1.a.Character sketch: Who are the characters in the play? How are they typical or
atypical of the drama form?
b.
Genre: You have studied the ancient Greek drama, theatre form or genre. Write
notes on how you have achieved this and what you have found out about the
form. In your notes portfolio, write notes on the context of the genre. When you
write your notes, use the following headings to assist you in writing about the
theatre form:
• Festival of Dionysius
• Role of the Chorus
• Playwrights.
c.
Stage: Draw a stage plan of your stage and explain how you have used the space
to perform the drama.
d.
Costume: Describe your character’s costume. Research ancient Greek clothing
and compile a portfolio of costumes your character can wear.
e.
Props (Technologies): Research props used in ancient Greek theatre
performances. Compare your props with those used in ancient Greece, and give
reasons for using the props you have chosen.
2. Imagine you are a member of the audience at the original production of the play.
Describe what you experience, what you see and hear. Use your five senses to
describe the experience. How does the audience respond to the play. Fill in as many
details as possible.
188 AS 91215 (Drama 2.3) Discuss a drama or theatre form or period with reference to a text
Some examples are:
Shakespeare in Love (Elizabethan theatre)
Stage Beauty (1660s restoration theatre)
Phantom of the Opera (the musical)
Love Never Dies (filmed in front of a live audience)
The National Theatre live films are a good opportunity to see theatre that has
been filmed live before an audience. YouTube has many examples, including
performance of Greek theatre in Greece in modern times.
When you have studied the play Antigone and the form of Greek tragedy, make
your final assessment checks.
Final assessment checks
Before you sit your external exam to discuss a drama or theatre form or period with
reference to a text, look at the Excellence criteria and make sure you can:
• Name the drama or theatre form or period studied.
• Provide details of the text, e.g. title, playwright/creator of the text.
• Make specific reference to this text in the form of:
– annotated sketches
– quotations and examples.
• Describe and explain certain features of the form or style.
• Make insightful connections between the features of the drama or theatre form or
period and the purpose(s) of the text.
Read the paper through first before answering any questions. Stay for the full exam. Draw
your diagrams in pen. Check your answers at the end and add anything necessary. Make
sure all answers are numbered correctly if you use the additional pages.
Example
Chapter 16
Identifying features and conventions of ancient Greek drama
Make sure that you know and understand the most important features of ancient
Greek theatre. Look at the list of features below and then read the script of the chosen
play to find out where the features can be found in the extract.
Following is an annotated excerpt from the script of Antigone. A student was asked
four questions about this script. All the questions related to features and conventions
of ancient Greek drama. Study the questions and then look at the annotations on the
script to help you understand how the student has answered them.
Questions:
1. Identify where this extract fits into the structure of Antigone.
2.What is the role of the chorus? Is the chorus on stage, or does it leave the stage
during the dialogue?
3. Unity of place: where is the scene taking place? What is the setting?
4.Role of the messenger: what is the role of the messenger and how is he portrayed?
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Chapter 16: Task in action – Antigone, by Sophocles 189
How is he conveying the news to the King? Can you detect his status in the play
through the dialogue?
Chorus: What other duty remains for us?
Creon:
Not to connive at any disobedience.
Chorus: If there were any so mad as to ask for death
–
Creon:
Ay, that is the penalty. There is always
someone
Ready to be lured to ruin by hope of gain.
He turns to go. A SENTRY enters from the
side of the stage.
CREON pauses at the palace door.
Sentry:
My lord: If I am out of breath, it is not from
haste.
I have not been running. On the contrary,
many a time
I have stopped to think and loitered on the
way,
Saying to myself, ‘Why hurry to your doom,
Poor fool?’ and then I said ‘Hurry you fool.
If Creon hears this from another man,
Your head’s as good as off.’ So here I am,
As quick as my unwilling haste could bring
me;
In no great hurry, in fact. So now I am
here …
But I’ll tell my story… Though it may be
nothing after all.
And whatever I have to suffer, it can’t be
more
Than what God wills, so I cling to that for
my comfort.
Creon:
Good heavens, man, whatever is the matter?
Sentry:
To speak of myself first – I never did it sir;
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Q. 1: This extract is
the first episode in the
structure of Antigone.
Q. 2: Chorus in
dialogue with actor
Q. 3: Unity of place
Q. 4: Sentry/
messenger brings
news from off stage.
All violence is kept off
stage.
Q. 4: Sentry is
apologetic. He has a
low status.
Chapter 16
Antigone, by Sophocles
TIE complex performance skills, conventions and
structures
Any of the following might be used in a TIE performance. All drama is performative
and TIE requires actors to be versatile and to use their skills of performance in the
development and performance of the form. The following shows how a TIE performance
might be developed. This will give you an insight into some of the performance skills
required as well as into the features of the form.
Development of work
• You need to find out about your audience. How old are they? What are they studying?
Where will you be performing? You need to talk to the teacher in charge of the
students. What would the teacher like the students to learn about or gain from their
experience of watching your drama? How interactive can your drama be? You need to
develop strong aims and objectives for your performance.
• You need to know what theme or topic is going to be explored? How will you
approach this theme or topic? Directly or indirectly? For example you might use a
myth or fairy tale to approach your theme or topic.
• You might use a range of conventions to help you plan your work. For example, you
might hot seat characters to find out more about them.
• You will need to carry out research into your topic. You may want to use the actual
facts and verbatim dialogue. Do not make sweeping generalisations.
• You will then need to script your drama, rehearse and perform. For theatre in
education you will want to plan interactive opportunities. For example, involving
members of your audience during or after the performance.
Structure
Your drama can be structured in a wide variety of ways. It is important that you have a
strong story underpinning your drama, although you may include any of the following to
shape it:
• chronological order
• episodic, non-linear, non-chronological
• telescoping of time
• short scenes
• fast cross-cutting of scenes
• documentary format
• strong story line
• topical or challenging themes/issues
• identification with good and bad characters
• rapid-fire scenes
• incorporation of student responses/feedback into the drama
• cyclic structure: your drama ends where it begins.
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Chapter 17
Chapter 17: Theatre in Education 207
208 AS 91216 (Drama 2.4) Use complex performance skills...
Chapter 17
Techniques
The productions require actors to be confident and skilful in their use of the techniques
of voice, body, movement and space. The actors also need to be aware of the needs of
the audience. Not all the audiences will be willing. Students may have been told they are
attending the performance and there is no choice. This can be challenging for the actors.
The actors need to use:
• vocal agility, to play a number of roles
• stylised movement
• singing
• dancing.
Conventions
Following are some of the conventions that you can use in the development and
performance of the drama. You will not use all of these: you should experiment and
choose those that are appropriate to your story. For example, you may wish to have a
narrator who links together all the scenes in the play. The narrator may speak directly
to members of the audience, encouraging them to be involved. With a small group of
actors it may be necessary and beneficial to play more than one role. You may want to
sing and encourage the audience to join in by having the words available. You might use
hot seating to develop your characters during the rehearsal process. But you could also
allow the audience to hot seat a character, by allowing them to ask some questions. Your
central character might have a dilemma or problem, and you could bring members of the
audience up on stage to act as their conscience and provide the convention of ‘voices
in the head’. These conventions require complex performance skills of voice, body,
movement and use of space. Conventions you might consider are:
• narrator
• multiple role-playing (doubling)
• song
• use of facts
• dance
• role-play
• representative or symbolic characters
• actor-teachers in role
• sculptures
• improvisation
• hot seating
• voices in the head/thought tracking
• elements of surprise – ‘magic moment’ or coup de théâtre
• symbolism
• Come on Down (TV game show formats)
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• tableaux, freeze frame, photograph
• images
• verbatim dialogue
• direct address to the audience
• short monologues
• interaction with the audience (asides, soliloquies, songs, shouting out, problem
solving and so on).
Technologies
You will probably use some technologies to enhance your drama. For example, you
may have developed throughout the rehearsal process the use of puppets on masks.
Costumes are particularly important for young children to help them identify with
characters. However, if you are playing several roles you will need to think about simple
multi-purpose costumes or ways to affect a quick costume change. If you are planning
to use music or sound effects take your equipment with you to your performance venue.
You should make sure that it is working prior to performance with a quick tech run.
Technologies to consider include:
• puppets and masks
• bright costumes easily changed
• simple multi-purpose sets (portable)
• music
• sound
• multimedia images
• projected titles
• significant props
• colourful visual props
• instant setting – e.g. through use of chairs.
The aim is to keep the piece moving quickly with fast transitions between scenes.
Students might be invited to interact with the set, props and actors. The actor/audience
space may not be traditional.
Technologies to enhance performance skill
Just wearing a costume may not require complex performance skills. However the use
of a costume as integral to your performance does require skill. For example, the use of
Elizabethan costume to present a role in a Shakespearean drama will alter and contribute
to your poise and posture and may communicate important symbolic information. There
are actors who ‘find’ their roles through costume choices, e.g. shoes. Carry out some
research into how Johnny Depp developed the role of Captain Jack Sparrow through
costume in The Pirates of the Caribbean series of films. Visit the website of The Royal
National Theatre, London, for more information about how technologies contribute to a
performance.
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Chapter 17
Chapter 17: Theatre in Education 209
INDEX
aerial view 74
Alexander technique 21
annotated sketches 151, 188, 195, 310,
313, 324–5, 332
annotation 11–13, 44–5, 59, 65–6, 188,
227, 298–9, 331, 376, 380, 389
anticlimax 358–9
Aristotle 96, 152, 160, 164, 179–80, 267
audibility 7, 10, 26, 43, 170, 182
audition 287, 387
conventions of drama 53, 67, 85–6, 96–9,
101, 104, 107, 114–15, 117–19, 121,
126, 129, 141, 143, 191–3, 203–4,
207–9, 219, 227–8, 282, 286, 307–10,
315, 318–20, 323, 329, 358–9, 377
costume 38, 67, 86, 125, 128, 170, 191,
193–5, 206, 209, 220, 240, 243, 245,
275, 285, 295, 307–8, 310, 312, 315,
319–20, 324, 330, 335, 337, 360, 370,
372, 378–9, 381, 385
blocking 45, 65, 67, 293, 298, 318, 362,
370–2, 374–5, 378, 380–1, 389–92
body language 14, 17, 27–8, 44
breath control 7–9, 21
Brecht, Bertolt 39, 85, 105, 129, 154, 156,
160, 235, 269–70, 285, 331
dialogue 48, 65, 67, 97–8, 104, 114, 125,
141, 164–5, 170–2, –182–4, 187, 268,
291–2, 357–60, 376 see also learning
lines, verbatim dialogue
director, role of 179, 280, 287–8, 291,
293, 295, 307, 309, 320, 324, 369–79,
383–4, 388
dramatic action 88, 90, 96, 138
dramatic irony 87, 90–1, 123, 184, 191
dramatic meaning 115–16
dramatic truth 43, 47, 67, 268, 270, 278,
289, 385
dramatic verse 172 see also iambic
pentameter
casting 370, 372–3, 381, 385, 387, 393
character trait 47, 377, 385
characterisation 45–7, 89, 271, 375, 377
choral ode 183–4,186
choral song 164, 183
chorus 97–8, 115, 125, 128, 134, 144,
151, 156–7, 159–62, 164–5, 169–71,
176, 181–6, 188, 192–4, 308, 358,
369
climax 13, 32, 90, 102–3, 116, 118, 283,
354, 357–9, 361–2
closed body movement 15 see also open
body movement
comedy 38, 65, 85, 159–60, 170–1, 182
commedia dell’arte 38, 85, 153, 203, 227
conflict 32, 49, 87, 90–1, 102–3, 111–13,
116, 131, 171, 191, 214, 275, 283,
318, 353, 359
contrast 11, 13, 87, 91–2, 99, 113–14,
117–18, 122–3, 126, 141, 226–7, 235,
238–9, 245, 284–5, 308, 315, 317,
329, 357
conventions of ancient Greek drama 165,
171, 181–8, 191–3
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effort 21–2
elements of drama 86–7, 91, 124, 225,
357, 359
entrances and exits 44, 97, 169, 183, 318,
327, 335, 358, 360, 375
Euripides 37, 152, 163, 193, 312
external characteristics 47
focus 7, 16–17, 43–4, 87–9, 91, 113, 129,
191, 193, 211, 295, 308, 315, 317,
357, 388
foreshadowing 115, 171, 357
genre 37–40, 86, 104, 107, 151, 160, 270,
278, 357, 371, 380, 385
gesture 15–17, 27, 43–5, 67, 72, 88, 96,
113, 157, 161, 182–3, 194–5, 225,
227, 267, 286, 308, 317, 327, 376