Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers Arithmetic Where we've been: Abstractions: Instruction Set Architecture Assembly Language and Machine Language What's up ahead: operation Implementing the Architecture a 32 ALU result 32 b 32 Some Questions How are negative numbers represented? What are the largest number that can be represented in a computer word? What happens if an operation creates a number bigger than can be represented? What about fractions and real numbers? Ultimately, how does hardware really add, subtract, multiply or divide number? Numbers Bits are just bits (no inherent meaning) — conventions define relationship between bits and numbers Binary numbers (base 2) 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001... decimal: 0...2n-1 Of course it gets more complicated: numbers are finite (overflow) fractions and real numbers negative numbers e.g., no MIPS subi instruction; addi can add a negative number) How do we represent negative numbers? i.e., which bit patterns will represent which numbers? Possible Representations Sign Magnitude: One's Complement Two's Complement 000 = +0 000 = +0 000 = +0 001 = +1 001 = +1 001 = +1 010 = +2 010 = +2 010 = +2 011 = +3 011 = +3 011 = +3 100 = -0 100 = -3 100 = -4 101 = -1 101 = -2 101 = -3 110 = -2 110 = -1 110 = -2 111 = -3 111 = -0 111 = -1 Issues: balance, number of zeros, ease of operations Which one is best? Why? ASCII vs. binary numbers (p162 example) MIPS 32 bit signed numbers: 0000 0000 0000 ... 0111 0111 1000 1000 1000 ... 1111 1111 1111 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000two = 0ten 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001two = + 1ten 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0010two = + 2ten 1111 1111 0000 0000 0000 1111 1111 0000 0000 0000 1111 1111 0000 0000 0000 1111 1111 0000 0000 0000 1111 1111 0000 0000 0000 1111 1111 0000 0000 0000 1110two 1111two 0000two 0001two 0010two = = = = = + + – – – 2,147,483,646ten 2,147,483,647ten 2,147,483,648ten 2,147,483,647ten 2,147,483,646ten 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1101two = – 3ten 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110two = – 2ten 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111two = – 1ten Binary to decimal conversion: 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1100 two maxint minint Signed versus unsigned numbers It matters when doing comparison MIPS offers two versions of the set on less than comparison slt, slti work with signed integers sltu, sltiu work with unsigned integers Two's Complement Operations Negating a two's complement number: invert all bits and add 1 remember: “negate” and “invert” are quite different! See example on page 167. (2, -2) Converting n bit numbers into numbers with more than n bits: MIPS 16 bit immediate gets converted to 32 bits for arithmetic copy the most significant bit (the sign bit) into the other bits 0010 -> 0000 0010 1010 -> 1111 1010 "sign extension" (lbu vs. lb) Binary-to-Hexadecimal conversion Addition & Subtraction Just like in grade school (carry/borrow 1s) 0111 0111 + 0110 - 0110 Two's complement operations easy subtraction using addition of negative numbers 0111 + 1010 0110 - 0101 Overflow Overflow: result too large for finite computer word: e.g., adding two n-bit numbers does not yield an n-bit number 0111 + 0001 1000 Detecting Overflow No overflow when adding a positive and a negative number No overflow when signs are the same for subtraction Overflow occurs when the value affects the sign: overflow when adding two positives yields a negative or, adding two negatives gives a positive or, subtract a negative from a positive and get a negative or, subtract a positive from a negative and get a positive Consider the operations A + B, and A – B Can overflow occur if B is 0 ? Can overflow occur if A is 0 ? Detecting Overflow (cont’d) Operation Operand A Operand B Result A+B >=0 >=0 <0 A+B <0 <0 >=0 A-B >=0 <0 <0 A-B <0 >=0 >=0 Effects of Overflow An exception (interrupt) occurs Details based on software system / language Control jumps to predefined address for exception Interrupted address is saved for possible resumption example: flight control vs. homework assignment Don't always want to detect overflow — new MIPS instructions: addu, addiu, subu note: addiu still sign-extends! note: sltu, sltiu for unsigned comparisons Logical Operations Shifts: move all the bits in a word to the left or right, filling the emptied bits with 0s. sll: shift left logical; srl :shift right logical Example: sll $t2, $s0, 8 0 0 16 shamt: shift amount and, andi or, ori 10 8 0 Review: Boolean Algebra & Gates (Appendix B) Problem: Consider a logic function with three inputs: A, B, and C. Output D is true if at least one input is true Output E is true if exactly two inputs are true Output F is true only if all three inputs are true Show the truth table for these three functions. Show the Boolean equations for these three functions. Show an implementation consisting of inverters, AND, and OR gates. An ALU (arithmetic logic unit) Let's build an ALU to support the andi and ori instructions we'll just build a 1 bit ALU, and use 32 of them op a b res operation a result b Possible Implementation (sum-ofproducts): Review: The Multiplexor Selects one of the inputs to be the output, based on a control input S A B 0 C note: we call this a 2-input mux even though it has 3 inputs! 1 A C ( A S ) (B S ) C B S Different Implementations Not easy to decide the “best” way to build something Don't want too many inputs to a single gate Don’t want to have to go through too many gates for our purposes, ease of comprehension is important Let's look at a 1-bit ALU for addition: CarryIn cout = a b + a cin + b cin sum = a xor b xor cin a Sum b CarryOut ALU How could we build a 1-bit ALU for add, and, and or? How could we build a 32-bit ALU? Adder Hardware for the CarryOut Signal cout = a b + a cin + b cin CarryIn a b CarryOut How about the Sum bit? Leave as an exercise. Building a 32 bit ALU CarryIn a0 b0 Operation Operation CarryIn ALU0 Result0 CarryOut CarryIn a1 a b1 0 1 CarryIn ALU1 Result1 CarryOut Result a2 b2 CarryIn ALU2 Result2 CarryOut 2 b CarryOut a31 b31 CarryIn ALU31 Result31 What about subtraction (a – b) Two's complement approach: just negate b and add. How do we negate? Binvert Operation CarryIn a 0 1 A very clever solution: b 0 2 1 CarryOut Result Tailoring the ALU to the MIPS Need to support the set-on-less-than instruction (slt) remember: slt is an arithmetic instruction produces a 1 if rs < rt and 0 otherwise use subtraction: (a-b) < 0 implies a < b Need to support test for equality (beq $t5, $t6, $t7) use subtraction: (a-b) = 0 implies a = b Supporting slt Binvert Operation CarryIn a 0 Can we figure out the idea? (TOP) A 1-bit ALU that performs AND, OR, and addition on a and b or !b (BOTTOM) A 1-bit ALU for the most significant bit. 1 Result b 0 2 1 Less 3 a. CarryOut Binvert Operation CarryIn a 0 1 Result b 0 2 1 Less 3 Set Overflow detection b. Overflow 32 Bit ALU Binvert CarryIn a0 b0 CarryIn ALU0 Less CarryOut a1 b1 0 CarryIn ALU1 Less CarryOut a2 b2 0 CarryIn ALU2 Less CarryOut Operation Result0 Result1 Result2 CarryIn a31 b31 0 CarryIn ALU31 Less Result31 Set Overflow Test for equality Notice control lines: 000 001 010 110 111 = = = = = and or add subtract slt •Note: zero is a 1 when the result is zero! Bnegate Operation a0 b0 CarryIn ALU0 Less CarryOut Result0 a1 b1 0 CarryIn ALU1 Less CarryOut Result1 a2 b2 0 CarryIn ALU2 Less CarryOut Result2 a31 b31 0 CarryIn ALU31 Less Zero Result31 Set Overflow Conclusion We can build an ALU to support the MIPS instruction set key idea: use multiplexor to select the output we want we can efficiently perform subtraction using two’s complement we can replicate a 1-bit ALU to produce a 32-bit ALU Important points about hardware all of the gates are always working the speed of a gate is affected by the number of inputs to the gate the speed of a circuit is affected by the number of gates in series (on the “critical path” or the “deepest level of logic”) Hardware Design Our primary focus: comprehension, however, Clever changes to organization can improve performance (similar to using better algorithms in software) We’ll look at two examples for addition and multiplication Problem: ripple carry adder is slow Is a 32-bit ALU as fast as a 1-bit ALU? Is there more than one way to do addition? two extremes: ripple carry and sum-of-products Can you see the ripple? How could you get rid of it? c1 c2 c3 c4 = = = = b0c0 b1c1 b2c2 b3c3 + + + + a0c0 a1c1 a2c2 a3c3 Not feasible! Why? + + + + a0 b0 a1b1c2 = a2 b2 c3 = a3 b3 c4 = Carry-lookahead adder An approach in-between our two extremes Motivation: If we didn't know the value of carry-in, what could we do? When would we always generate a carry? When would we propagate the carry? Did we get rid of the ripple? c1 c2 c3 c4 = = = = g0 g1 g2 g3 + + + + p0c0 p1c1 p2c2 p3c3 Feasible! Why? c2 = c3 = c4 = gi = ai bi pi = ai + bi Plumbing Analogy for Carry Lookahead Next-level Carry Lookahead Analogy Use principle to build bigger adders CarryIn a0 b0 a1 b1 a2 b2 a3 b3 CarryIn Result0--3 ALU0 P0 G0 pi gi Carry-lookahead unit C1 a4 b4 a5 b5 a6 b6 a7 b7 a8 b8 a9 b9 a10 b10 a11 b11 a12 b12 a13 b13 a14 b14 a15 b15 ci + 1 CarryIn Result4--7 ALU1 P1 G1 pi + 1 gi + 1 C2 ci + 2 CarryIn Result8--11 ALU2 P2 G2 pi + 2 gi + 2 C3 ci + 3 CarryIn Result12--15 ALU3 P3 G3 pi + 3 gi + 3 C4 CarryOut ci + 4 Can’t build a 16 bit adder this way... (too big) Could use ripple carry of 4-bit CLA adders Better: use the CLA principle again! Example Determine gi,pi,Pi and Gi for these two 16-bit numbers: a: 0001 1010 0011 0011 b: 1110 0101 1110 1011 Also, what is CarryOut15(or C4)? Speed of Ripple Carry vs. Carry Lookahead Take 16-bit adder as an example Ripple carry: the carry out signal takes two gate delays (Fig B5.5) 16x2 =32 Carry Lookahead C4 is the carry out bit of the msb, which takes two levels of logic to specify in terms of Pi and Gi Pi is specified in one level of logic using pi, Gi is specified in two levels of login using pi,gi, pi, gi are each one level of logic 2 + 2 + 1 = 5 gate delays The Carry Lookahead method is 6.4 times faster than the ripple carry approach.