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Paper 2: The Cold War Origins of the Cold War The collapse of the wartime alliance led to a Cold War between the two superpowers. America Russia 1. The richest country in the world. 1. The biggest country in the world. 2. A democracy with free elections, led by an elected president. 2. A one-party state led by a dictator. There were elections, but you could only vote for the Communist Party. 3. Freedom of speech and belief. 3. State control: censorship, secret police, terror and purges. 4. Capitalism - private ownership and the right to make money. 4. Communism - state ownership of the means of production, and the belief that wealth should be shared. 5. Led by Truman, who believed that Communism was evil. 5. Led by Stalin, who believed that capitalism was evil. 6. Had the atomic bomb - but was scared of 6. Had the biggest army in the world - but was angry that Truman had not Russia's conventional army. warned that he was going to drop the atomic bomb. 7. Feared the spread of communism throughout the world. 7. Was angry because America and Britain had invaded Russia in 1918-19 to try to destroy communism. 8. Angry about the Nazi-Soviet Pact that was a major factor in starting the Second World War. 8. Believed that America and Britain had delayed opening the second front (attacking France) to let Germany and Russia destroy each other on the eastern front. 9. Wanted reconstruction - to make Germany a prosperous democracy and a trading partner. 9. Wanted to wreck Germany, take huge reparations for the damage done during the war, and set up a buffer of friendly states around Russia to prevent another invasion in the future. Capitalism v Communism Businesses / farms owned by private people Businesses and farms owned by the state and… Profit is good – a reward for risk-bearing …run by the government for the benefit of all people Profit is a form of oppression Democracy v Dictatorship Multi-party system Elections to the ‘Soviets’ Free elections One party only – the Communist party which… Parliament (UK) / Congress (USA) make the laws – …rules the country separate executive and legislative branches Stalin de facto (in fact) an absolute dictator Freedom v Human Rights ‘His Majesty’s Opposition’ – minority party in UK Dissidents imprisoned Protests and demonstrations KGB arrest grumblers Human rights respected in law The gulag Free Market v Command Economy Laws of supply and demand control production Workers ordered to a job / area Competition keeps prices low and quality up – the Wages and hours fixed by law weak go out of business No unemployment – everyone has a job Strikes and unemployment Freedom of choice Equal Opportunity v Equality Everyone has a chance to succeed Poor standard of living – ‘producer’ goods (goods Consumer economy made are good for the producer, not necessarily good Great differences in wealth and class – millionaires v for the consumer) / empty shops poverty Fewer very poor people Private medicine, houses, etc (health care is very Free health care / state-provided housing (health care good, but very expensive) is poor, but available to everyone) Free Press v Censorship Freedom of speech No freedom of speech Newspapers, books, radio / tv / films not censored The media are owned and run by the government Media openly criticize government (Washington Post , Censorship and propaganda (Pravda, Izvestia) New York Times) Yalta Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin Potsdam Attlee, Truman and Stalin Germany to be split into four zones. Arguments about the details of the boundaries between the zones. Germany will pay reparations. Disagreements about the amount of reparations Russia wanted to take. It was agreed that Russia could take whatever it wanted from the Soviet zone, and 10 per cent of the industrial equipment of the western zones, but Britain and the US thought this was too much. A government of 'national unity' to be set up in Poland, comprising both communists and noncommunists. Truman was angry because Stalin had arrested the noncommunist leaders of Poland. Free elections in the countries of eastern Europe. This part of the agreement was called the Declaration of Liberated Europe. America and Britain were alarmed because communists were coming to power in the countries of Eastern Europe. Russia would help against Japan when Germany was defeated. Truman dropped the atomic bomb so that Japan would surrender before Russian troops could go into Japan. America had the bomb in July 1945, but Truman did not tell Stalin about it. When he saw how he had been tricked, Stalin was furious. Complete Mission 1 Nature and Development of the Cold War Salami Tactics Country Date Method Albania 1945 The Communists immediately took power. Bulgaria 1945 In the 1945 elections, a Communist-led coalition was elected, but the Communists executed the non-Communists. East Germany 1945 East Germany was the Soviet zone of Germany. In 1949, they set up a Communist-controlled state called the German Democratic Republic. Romania 1947 In the 1945 elections, a Communist-led coalition was elected to power. The Communists gradually took over and in 1947 they abolished the monarchy. Poland Stalin had promised to set up a joint Communist/non-Communist government at Yalta, but then 1947 he invited 16 non-Communist leaders to Moscow and arrested them. Thousands of nonCommunists were arrested, and the Communists won the 1947 election. Hungary The non-communists won the 1945 elections with Zoltan Tildy as president. However, the Communists' leader, Rakosi, took control of the secret police (the AVO), and executed and 1947 arrested his opponents. Tildy was forced to resign and Cardinal Mindzenty, head of the Catholic Church, was imprisoned. By 1948, Rakosi had complete control of Hungary. A coalition government was set up and led by the non-Communist Benes. However, the Communists' leader Gottwald made sure they controlled the radio, the army and the police. Czechoslovakia 1948 Gottwald became prime minister and set up a secret police force. Non-Communists were arrested. In 1948, Communist workers went on strike, the non-Communist minister Masaryk committed suicide and Gottwald took over the government. Complete Missions 2 and 3. FDR (1933-1945) Development of the Cold War Date Summary February Yalta 4th - 11th Conference 1945 May 8th 1945 V E Day August 6th 1945 Hiroshima August 8th 1945 Nagasaki Russia/Japan Meeting between Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin to decide what would happen at the end of the war. Partitioning of Germany Fate of Poland The United Nations German reparations Victory in Europe as Germany surrenders to the Russian army. Formally divided Germany and Austria into four zones. Berlin would be divided into four zones. The Russian Polish border was determined Korea was to be divided into Soviet and American zones. The United States dropped the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima Russia entered the war in the Pacific The United States dropped the second atomic bomb on Nagasaki. August V J Day 14th 1945 The Japanese surrendered bringing World War Two to an end. September Vietnam 2nd 1945 Independence Ho Chi Minh proclaimed Vietnam an independent republic. March 5th Churchill's 1946 Iron Curtain Speech Churchill delivers his 'Sinews of Peace' speech which contain the famous phrase "..an iron curtain has descended on Europe" March Truman 12th 1947 Doctrine President Truman promised to help any country facing a Communist takeover (Greek Civil War) Truman Doctrine Greece After WWI Greece appeared to be ‘under threat’ from Communism Britain was unable to support Greece (as it had done in the past) In 1947 Greece was under attack from Communist rebels and asked the USA for help Communism Truman was concerned about the spread of Communism and was determined to take action He offered arms, supplies and money to Greece Stalin (1927-1953) Truman (1945-1953) July 17th - Potsdam August Conference 2nd 1945 Detailed Information Communism in Greece was defeated by 1949 following a civil war Doctrine Truman was determined that the USA would not live in isolation Offered assistance to ‘all free peoples’ resisting ‘attempted subjugation’ June 5th 1947 Marshall Plan Marshall Plan Truman saw war ravaged Europe as a ‘breeding ground’ for Communism He felt it was vital to encourage countries to become prosperous again – to recover from the war US Secretary of State, George Marshall, proposed Marshall Aid Total aid from 1948 – 1951 was close to $13 billion US Just Being Helpful? Helping European countries to recover also meant creating a market for US exports Also (although not publicly admitted) it was a clear aim to prevent the spread of Communism Stalin saw this as America trying to buy support Countries receiving aid included UK, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Austria, Denmark, Norway, Greece, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ireland, Iceland Success? 1948 – 1952 saw period of growth in European history Agricultural production surpassed pre-war levels Forged North Atlantic alliances Political stability was achieved in the countries receiving aid Rationing was ended, poverty and starvation disappeared Tension July 1947 Containment Aid was vital for European economic recovery However, Stalin refused Marshall Aid and banned Eastern European countries under the USSR’s control from accepting it This created tension on both sides Kennan coins the term “Containment” - contain Communism, but not push it back – Containment September Cominform 1947 The USSR set up Cominform (Communist Information Bureau) which was the Information Bureau of the Communist and Workers' Parties responsible for the creation of the Eastern bloc. Complete Missions 4 and 5. February Czechoslovakia Communists take over 1948 June 1948 Formation of The French, USA and UK partitions of Germany were merged to form West Germany West Germany Complete Mission 6 Berlin Blockade 1948 Yalta Background Had been agreed to split Germany into four zones between USSR, France, Britain and USA. Berlin was similarly divided In 1948 USA, Britain and France merged their zones into West Germany and West Berlin USA poured large sums of money into West Berlin Stalin’s Concerns Stalin was convinced this was a capitalist plot to lure East Germans and East Berliners He was angry that he wasn’t consulted about decisions – such as the new Deutschmark Stalin may have thought the US and its allies were planning to reunite Germany Stalin’s Reaction June 24, 1948 Stalin ordered all road, rail and canal routes between West Germany and West Berlin to be closed He hoped to force the US and her allies into submission US reacted strongly, claiming this was Stalin’s first step in a take-over of Western Europe Allied Reaction – Berlin Airlift The Allies didn’t want to force their way into Berlin for fear of sparking a war, so they began to fly supplies in Flights began on June 26, reaching a peak of one every 3 minutes by September 1948 Consequences for USSR Stalin couldn’t just shoot the planes down He had to eventually back down – on May 12, 1949 he ended the blockade – it was a major embarrassment Stalin realized the USSR needed the atom bomb to stand up to the US. Atomic testing was increased Consequences for USA Seen as ‘proof’ that the USSR had plans to take over Europe NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) formed in April 1949 as a result Stalin saw this as a deliberate threat In 1955 when West Germany joined NATO, the USSR-led ‘Warsaw Pact’ was formed Complete Mission 7 Stalin (1927-1953) Truman (1945-1953) June 24th Berlin 1948 Blockade April 4th NATO formed The North Atlantic Treaty Organization formed with member states Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the 1949 Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States May 12, 1949 End of Berlin Blockade Russia ended the blockade of Berlin. September Mao Zedong Communists are in control of China 1949 Russians explode 1st atomic bomb Russians Have Atomic Bomb February McCarthy’s 1950 Witch hunt Red Scare Complete Mission 8 April 1950 NSC 68 June 25th Korean War 1950 Containment w/ force and not diplomacy The Korean war began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The Korean War The decade after the Second World War saw communism spread to the Far East. In 1950, communist North Korea invaded South Korea and within three months, had conquered most of their land. Following their policy of containment, the USA got UN backing to send troops into Korea to re-take the south, and if possible take the north too. The war lasted three years and peace was only achieved when the use of the atomic bomb was threatened. In 1945, Korea was split along the 38th parallel between a communist north led by Kim IL Sung, and a non-communist south led by Syngman Rhee. But communism was growing in the Far East. In 1949, the Communists had taken power in China. The US developed the 'domino theory' - the idea that, if one country fell to communism, others would follow like a row of dominoes. Then, in 1950, a report by the American National Security Council ('NSC68') recommended that the US stop containment and start to roll back communism. The war In 1950, after getting the support of Russia and China, Kim IL Sung invaded South Korea. The North Korean People's Army (NKPA) easily defeated the Republic of Korea's army (the ROKs). By September, the NKPA had conquered almost the whole of South Korea. The USA went to the United Nations and got them to send troops to defend South Korea. The Russians couldn't veto the idea because they were boycotting the UN at the time. In September, UN troops, led by the US General MacArthur, landed in Korea and drove the NKPA back. By October, the UN forces had almost conquered all of North Korea. In November 1950, Chinese People's Volunteers attacked and drove the Americans back. They recaptured North Korea, and advanced into South Korea. The Americans landed more troops and drove the Chinese back to the 38th parallel, where Truman ordered General MacArthur to stop and sacked him when he disagreed. The war went on as border clashes until 1953 when America's new president, Eisenhower, offered peace, but threatened to use the atomic bomb if China did not accept the offer. Recently, historians have shown that the Korean crisis almost led to a third world war - many US advisers wanted to use the atomic bomb. Complete Mission 9 March 5th Death of Stalin Joseph Stalin died at the age of 74. He was succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev. 1953 isenhower (1953-1961) Khrushchev’s Soviet Union 1953-1964 De-Stalinization Feb 1956 – Secret Speech (report to govt criticizing Stalin’s purges and cult of personality) Attacked image and reputation of Stalin More freedom for writers and artists Size and power of secret police reduced Political prisoners released Agricultural Policies Aim was to produce more food Virgin Land Scheme – take fallow land and cultivate it using govt resources Introduce maize Small collective farms became independent Bigger, more efficient Collective Farms were created Khrushchev thought he was an expert, but was not Virgin Land Scheme failed Maize was unsuitable (climate, soil, etc) New collective farms did not work well Industrial Policies Sovnarkhozy – Regional Economic Councils Controls on workers relaxed Decisions to be taken at a more regional level Ordered more luxury goods Developed Space program “What sort of Communism is it that cannot produce a sausage?” Industrial Problems Sovnarkhozy didn’t work Managers and workers were not used to the freedom Led to more bureaucracy Consumer goods sacrificed for space program 1961 slogan “Turn Khrushchev into sausage meat” “Whilst Gagarin orbited the earth, we counted on abacuses” – housewife, 1990 Why did he Resign? Prices rose by 30% Agricultural policies had failed Industrial policies had failed Failed foreign policies – Cuba Embarrassment – UN shoe stamping incident during a speech Criticism of Stalin had gone too far for many Forced to resign in 1964 More Peaceful? Khrushchev said that he wanted ‘peaceful co-existence’ BUT By ‘peaceful co-existence’ he really meant ‘peaceful competition’ Friendlier? Khrushchev had a sense of humor and was always laughing and smiling BUT He was NOT gentle and easy-going – Stalin had used him to run the terror purges after WWII Gentler? In 1956, Khrushchev said that Stalin was a murderer, and he began to ‘destalinize’ Russia. Political prisoners were set free and Beria (responsible for Stalin’s Great Purge) was executed BUT ‘Destalinization’ did not mean a change back to capitalism, or freedom from Russia Summits? Khrushchev often met western leaders at ‘summit’ meetings BUT Khrushchev loved to argue. This often caused tension between leaders Iron Curtain? In 1955 Khrushchev told Tito of Yugoslavia ‘there are different roads to communism’. Western leaders thought this meant an end to the Iron curtain BUT When communist countries went too far in their reforms, Khrushchev sent in the army (eg Hungary 1956) Thaw? At first, the western powers hoped that this would be the start of a ‘thaw’ in the Cold War BUT Khrushchev gave countries like Burma and Afghanistan economic aid if they supported Russia July 27th Korean War 1953 1954 Iran and Guatemala The Korean war ended. North Korea remained affiliated with Russia while South Korea was affiliated with the USA. 38th parallel. US helps overthrow unfriendly regimes Khrushchev (1953-1964) Complete Mission 10 Summer 1954 Geneva Accords Ended the French war with the Vietminh & divided Vietnam into North and South. The communist leader of North Vietnam was Ho Chi Minh while the US friendly south was led by Ngo Dinh Diem. May 14th Warsaw Pact Communist Pact: East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Albania, Bulgaria, and the Soviet Union. 1955 Background In 1945, USSR installed puppet government in Hungary Designed to remove opposition and enforce loyalty Soviet propaganda everywhere and protest groups emerged wanting democracy Khrushchev In February 1956, Khrushchev criticized parts of Stalin’s rule, suggesting that Soviet policy might be changing Those who heard about the speech thought this might mean countries like Hungary would be allowed to have self-determination Overthrow In October 1956 the Communist dictatorship was overthrown Opposition groups unite and support ex-Prime Minister Imre Nagy Red Army November 4, 1956 – Khrushchev orders Red Army to take control Tanks and soldiers enter Budapest Bitter street fighting, but Communist leader Rakosi was restored Pleas for Help Opposition group leaders were all captured and executed Desperate pleas over the radio for US assistance – but there was no US intervention Imre Nagy was imprisoned and then executed Consequences Around 30,000 Hungarians died including 20 opposition group leaders and Imre Nagy Showed Soviet policy – countries in her sphere of influence would stay in her sphere of influence USA showed no desire to get involved (this must have made USSR happy) Complete Mission 11 October Suez Crisis 30th 1956 Following military bombardment by Israeli forces, a joint British and French force invaded Egypt to regain control of the Suez Canal which had been nationalized by the Egyptian leader Nasser. The attack was heavily criticized by World leaders, especially America because Russia had offered support to Egypt. The British and French were forced to withdraw and a UN peace keeping force was sent to establish order. Khrushchev (1953-1964) Eisenhower (1953-1961) October Hungary 23rd 1956 January 5 Eisenhower 1957 Doctrine October 1954 Sputnik I 1) United States would use armed forces upon request in response to imminent or actual aggression to the United States. 2) Countries that took stances opposed communism would be given aid in various forms Russia Launched…1st in space November Space Race 1st 1957 USSR Sputnik II carried Laika the dog, the first living creature to go into space. November Berlin 1958 Khrushchev demands withdrawal of troops from Berlin Complete Mission 12 January 1959 Castro’s Cuba Cuba taken over by Fidel Castro September Disneyland 1959 Khrushchev visits United States; denied access to Disneyland May 1960 U2 Talks between Nikita Khrushchev and Dwight Eisenhower concerning the fate of Germany broke down when a USA U2 spy plane was shot down over Russian airspace. Complete Mission 13 Kennedy Doctrine April 12th Space Race 1961 April 17th Bay of Pigs 1961 Invasion “Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and the success of liberty.” Russian cosmonaut Yuri Alekseyvich Gagarin became the first human being in space. A force of Cuban exiles, trained by the CIA, aided by the US government attempted to invade Cuba and overthrow the Communist government of Fidel Castro. The attempt failed. Khrushchev (1953-1964) JFK(1961-1963) January 1961 Complete Mission 14 August Berlin Wall 13th 1961 Background At Yalta, Berlin had been divided into four zones (just as Germany had been) In 1948-49, the Berlin Blockade saw Stalin attempt to ‘starve’ West Berlin into submission Stalin was forced to back down following the Berlin Airlift Differences Apart from the Berlin Blockade, those living in Berlin could travel freely – live in the East and work in the West and vice versa Khrushchev proclaimed that Berlin was being used by the West as a base for spying and sabotage Problems In reality, he wanted to prevent all the highly skilled and educated from working in West Berlin East Berlin was still suffering badly, whereas West Berlin was recovering well Between 1945-60 it is thought 3 million people crossed from East to West Berlin August 13, 1961 Overnight a well guarded fence was constructed dividing the city in two People were trapped in either East or West Berlin The fence was guarded by Red Army machine gun posts Concrete Wall By August 17th, the barbed wire fence was replaced with a concrete wall, split only by well guarded checkpoints From 1961 to 1989 nearly 90 people died trying to cross The wall became a symbol of the division between Communism and Capitalism Consequences In some ways it was a propaganda victory for the ‘West’ – they claimed Communist countries had to build a wall to imprison people However, there was very little the West could do to stop it – and the wall did serve its purpose Complete Mission 15 1962 Vietnam US involvement in Vietnam increases October Cuban Missile Background In 1959 Fidel Castro’s rebels overthrew corrupt pro-US government in 14th 1962 Crisis Cuba Castro tried to make a trade agreement with the USA USA refused as they saw Castro as a Communist Thus Castro turned to the USSR, who readily made a deal Nuclear Site Spotted In return for buying Cuban goods, the USSR got permission to build a nuclear missile site in Cuba On October 14, 1962 a US U2 spy plane spotted the nuclear site being built ExComm Set Up US President Kennedy set up ‘ExComm’ a committee to decide what to do On October 22, Kennedy ordered the US navy to blockade Cuba He stated that any Soviet vessel that tried to break the blockade would be destroyed On the Brink of War On October 23, the United Nations backed the US and ordered any missiles to be removed Soviet ships were spotted heading towards Cuba The world was on the brink of all out nuclear war Compromise On October 27, Khrushchev secretly offered to pull out of Cuba if the USA pulled out of Turkey Kennedy agreed and a day later Khrushchev ordered Soviet ships to turn around Consequences Major propaganda victory for USA – they looked to have ‘won’ As the compromise was a secret, Khrushchev appeared to have backed down Both sides began seeking ways of improving relations (a hotline was set up providing immediate contact) Complete Mission 16 July 1963 Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Banned nuclear weapon tests in the atmosphere, in outer space and under water. November JFK JF Kennedy was assassinated while on a visit to Dallas. Lee Harvey 22nd 1963 Assassination Oswald was arrested for the murder but there has always been speculation that he was not a lone killer and that there may have been communist or CIA complicity. August 1964 Gulf of Tonkin Incident and Resolution US claimed N Vietnam attacked our ship; not true Johnson and declare war in SE Asia How the US got involved During the Second World War, South-East Asia had been under Japanese control, but, in 1945, the French re-occupied Indo-China, which had been a French colony before the war. Johnson(1963-1969) During the war the Japanese had been opposed by a Vietnamese nationalist group called the Vietminh, led by Ho Chi Minh. The Vietminh, however, had been fighting for their independence, and not to reinstate the French Empire, so now they tried to drive out the French. In 1954, the Vietminh surrounded and wiped out the French army at Dien Bien Phu. The French realized they would have to leave, and over the next 20 years, America was dragged into fighting a costly and disastrous war in Vietnam. How the US got involved At the Treaty of Geneva in 1954, Indo-China was divided into Laos, Cambodia, North Vietnam and South Vietnam, although it was agreed to hold elections in 1956 to unify the two parts of Vietnam. Ngo Dinh Diem, the ruler of South Vietnam, refused to hold elections. Ho Chi Minh was a communist, who was supported by China. In 1960, he set up the National Liberation Front (NLF) in South Vietnam, which started a guerrilla war to take over South Vietnam from Diem and his American backers. The Americans called the NLF guerrillas the Vietcong, and supported Diem with military advisers and money. Diem's government was made up of rich Christian landowners. It was corrupt and unpopular and persecuted the poor Buddhist peasants. By 1963, most of South Vietnam's rural areas were under Vietcong control - the ARVN (South Vietnamese army) could not defeat them. In 1963, the US supported a military coup, which murdered Diem and put a military government in South Vietnam. In August 1964, sailors on the American warship USS Maddox in the Gulf of Tonkin claimed they had been attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo boats. The US Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin resolution, allowing the American President Lyndon B. Johnson to take direct military action in retaliation. In February 1965, the Vietcong attacked American air bases and killed American soldiers. President Johnson declared war against North Vietnam. Why did the US get involved? 1. Containment China had fallen to communism in 1949, and America had fought in Korea in 1950-53 to contain the spread of communism. The US president, Lyndon B. Johnson, said: "I am not going to be the president who saw South-East Asia go the way China went." 2. Domino theory Americans believed that, if South Vietnam fell, Laos, Cambodia and Thailand - and then Burma and India - would follow. President Johnson said: "If you let a bully come into your garden, the next day he'll be in your porch, and the day after that he'll rape your wife." 3. ARVN's weakness It was obvious the South Vietnamese could not resist communist infiltration by the Vietcong without help. In 1963, the American commander reported that the ARVN - the South Vietnamese army - were "ill-equipped local militia who more often than not were killed asleep in their defensive positions". US advisers believed that good government and an efficient, largescale war would defeat the Vietcong. 4. The US was attacked The North Vietnamese had attacked the USS Maddox in August 1964, and then killed US soldiers in February 1965. Johnson became convinced that action in South Vietnam alone would never win the war: "We are swatting flies when we should be going after the manure pile." The Vietnam War did not seem like a fair match. The Americans, under their president, Lyndon B. Johnson, had a huge army, money and technology at their disposal - the Vietcong were an underground army, which used underground tactics. So why couldn't the Americans defeat the Vietcong? - In February 1965, President Johnson ordered Operation Rolling Thunder - a massive bombing campaign against North Vietnam. - He sent US troops - 500,000 by 1969 - to fight in Vietnam. - In November 1965, General William Westmoreland, the US commander, lured the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) to attack a force of American troops at Ia Drang, then destroyed the attackers with a massive air strike. - In 1968, the CIA started Operation Phoenix, arresting, interrogating and killing suspected Vietcong activists. - Despite this, the Americans could not succeed in driving the Vietcong out of the rural areas. - In January 1968, the NVA launched the Tet Offensive, capturing a number of towns in South Vietnam. - The North Vietnamese lost 58,000 men, including many officers. Their morale was damaged - the offensive proved that they could not defeat the Americans by direct attack. - It took the Americans a month to recover the towns. Their confidence was badly shaken. They won the Tet Offensive, but realized that they would never defeat the Vietcong. Vietcong and American tactics The Vietcong's tactics They fought a guerrilla war, ambushing US patrols, setting booby traps and landmines, and planting bombs in towns. They mingled in with the peasants, wearing ordinary clothes. The Americans couldn't identify who the enemy was. They were supplied with rockets and weapons by China and Russia. They used the Ho Chi Minh Trail - a jungle route through Laos and Cambodia - to supply their armies. The Americans couldn't attack their supply routes without escalating the war. Their tactic was "hanging onto the belts" of the Americans - staying so close to the Americans so they could not use air or artillery backup without killing their own men. The Americans' tactics They fought a hi-tech war, using B52 bombers, artillery, helicopters, napalm and defoliants (Agent Orange). This killed many innocent civilians, and failed to stop the Vietcong guerrillas. They forced the peasants to leave Vietcong-controlled areas and made them live in defended strategic hamlets in loyal areas. This created immense opposition, and allowed Vietcong infiltrators into loyal areas. American troops were sent on patrols, then supported by air and artillery when attacked. This demoralized the soldiers, who realized they were being used just as bait. Search and destroy patrols went out looking for "Charlie", as they called the Vietcong. But the patrols were very visible, and easy to ambush. This led to atrocities such as "zippo raids" to burn villages, and the unprovoked massacre of peaceful villagers at My Lai in 1968. The US gets out The Americans didn't leave Vietnam until 1973 - by which time 58,000 US soldiers had lost their lives. Vietnam had been a total disaster for America financially, politically and morally. - In 1968, the US president, Lyndon B. Johnson, ordered an end to American bombing of North Vietnam. - There were increasing problems in the American army in Vietnam. - There was increasing opposition to the war in America. - Richard Nixon, who became US president in 1969, began Vietnamization - pulling US troops out but giving financial support to the South Vietnamese army (the ARVN). - On occasions, the US escalated the war, launching attacks into Cambodia (1970) and Laos (1971) to pursue the Vietcong who were hiding there. - In October 1972 Henry Kissinger worked out a peace agreement with the North Vietnamese. - Nguyen Van Thieu, the president of South Vietnam, refused to sign (he thought the Americans were going to abandon him), so the North Vietnamese pulled out of the talks. - Richard Nixon mounted huge bombing raids on North Vietnam until the North Vietnamese were forced to sign. - Nixon told Thieu he had to make peace whether he agreed with it or not, so Thieu was forced to sign too. - January 1973: the Paris Peace Agreement was signed, and the Americans left Vietnam. Why did America lose the war? Take a look at this table highlighting the differences between the Americans and the Vietcong. Americans Vietcong The American hi-tech tactics The Vietcong's guerrilla tactics were continually killed the wrong people and appropriate to the nature of the demoralized their own troops. conflict. The US was trying to supply a war 8,000 miles from America. The Vietcong were supplied with weapons by China and Russia. The South Vietnamese regime was weak, brutal and corrupt. The South Vietnamese peasants supported and sheltered the Vietcong. Their short (one-year) tour of service meant that American troops were always inexperienced. The Vietcong had been continuously at war since they resisted the Japanese during the Second World War. The morale of Americans soldiers was The Vietcong were fanatically rock bottom - they took drugs, shot determined to drive out the their officers ('fragging') and deserted. Americans, whatever the cost. The North Vietnamese were The war became very unpopular in the motivated, fighting at home to US, and lost public support. unite their country. Why did the war arouse so much opposition in America? 1. 58,000 Americans - average age 19 - were killed. 2. It was hard for Americans to believe that they were defending America by fighting in a war 8,000 miles away. 3. Extensive media coverage brought all the failures and horrors of the war into US homes. 4. Atrocities such as the massacre at My Lai undermined the moral authority of the US to continue the war. 5. The cost of the war meant that the US president Lyndon B. Johnson had to cancel his Great Society program of reform. 6. The war was opposed particularly by Martin Luther King and by America's black community (because wealthier white men could avoid the draft by going to university or to Canada, and young black men were twice as likely to be killed). After the Vietnam War In 1975, two years after the Americans left, South Vietnam was united with the North - it was now a communist state. Vietnam united - Although the Americans left Vietnam in 1973, they continued to support the South Vietnamese army - the ARVN - with financial and military aid. - In April 1975 the South Vietnamese regime collapsed and Vietnam was united. The impact on Vietnam - The North Vietnamese army - the NVA - massacred thousands of South Vietnamese after the Americans had left. Many people tried to flee South Vietnam (eg the "boat people"). - The Vietnamese had to fight wars against Cambodia and China before their independence was secured. - Vietnam was ruined - its infrastructure was destroyed, thousands of its people had been killed, and its farmland was polluted by American chemical warfare. It remains one of the poorest countries in the world. The impact on America - 58,000 Americans died in Vietnam. - The war had cost so much that President Johnson's Great Society program of social reform had to be cancelled. - Loss of confidence: America had failed to "contain" communism. In 1973, Nixon announced that America was abandoning the Truman Doctrine. It was nearly 20 years before America again intervened militarily in world affairs. - The domino theory was proved to be wrong. The fall of South Vietnam to communism was not immediately followed by a similar effect in other countries. - News of atrocities such as the killings at My Lai lost the US its claim to moral superiority, and its status as the world's defender of freedom and right. - 700,000 Vietnam veterans suffered psychological aftereffects. Complete Mission 17 October USSR 15th 1964 Nikita Krushchev removed from office. He was replaced by Leonid Brezhnev. July 1965 Vietnam War 150,000 US troops sent to Vietnam. August Soviet invasion Warsaw Pact forces entered Czechoslovakia in a bid to stop the reforms known as 'Prague Spring' instigated by Alexander Dubcek. When he 20th 1968 of Czechoslovakia refused to halt his program of reforms Dubcek was arrested. Czechoslovakia 1968 For four months in 1968, Czechoslovakia broke free from Soviet rule, allowing freedom of speech and removing some state controls. This period is now referred to as the Prague Spring. 5. For four months (the Prague Spring), there was freedom in Czechoslovakia. But then the revolution began to run out of control. Dubcek announced that he was still committed to democratic communism, but other political parties were set up. 6. Also, Dubcek stressed that Czechoslovakia would stay in the Warsaw Pact, but in August, President Tito of Yugoslavia, a country not in the Warsaw Pact, visited Prague. 7. At a meeting in Bratislava on 3 August 1968, Brezhnev read out a letter from some Czechoslovakian Communists asking for help. He announced the Brezhnev Doctrine - the USSR would not allow any Eastern European country to reject Communism. 8. On 20 August 1968, 500,000 Warsaw Pact troops invaded Czechoslovakia. Dubcek and three other leaders were arrested and sent to Moscow. Brezhnev (1964-1982) 1. There were no riots or demonstrations but, during 1967, students and writers were complaining about the lack of freedom, and the poor performance of the Czechoslovak economy. 2. But when Antonin Novotny, the Czechoslovak president, asked Leonid Brezhnev, the Soviet leader, for help, Brezhnev did not support him. 3. Novotny fell from power and on 5 January 1968, Alexandr Dubcek - a reformer - took over as leader of the Communist Party (KSC). 4. In April 1968, Dubcek's government announced an Action Plan for what it called a new model of socialism - it removed state controls over industry and allowed freedom of speech. 9. The Czechoslovakians did not fight the Russians. Instead, they stood in front of the tanks, and put flowers in the soldiers' hair. Jan Palach burned himself to death in protest. 10. Brezhnev put in Gustav Husak, a supporter of Russia, as leader of the KSC. Causes and effects of the Prague Spring Causes of the Prague Spring 1. The policy of détente encouraged the uprising. Romania had also broken free of Russian control, and was improving relations with the West. 2. The Czechs hated Russian control, especially: - Russian control of the economy, which had made Czechoslovakia poor. - The censorship and lack of freedom. 3. Some Czechs thought the USA would help them. Effects of the invasion of Czechoslovakia 1. Czechoslovakia returned to communist control and Russian troops were stationed there. Half the leadership of the KSC, along with the directors of many firms (especially publishing companies) were sacked and 47 anticommunists were arrested. 2. Russia stayed in control behind the Iron Curtain. The Brezhnev Doctrine stated that Iron Curtain countries would not be allowed to abandon communism, "even if it meant a third world war". 3. Increase of the Cold War. People in the West were horrified and so were many communist countries, especially Romania and Yugoslavia. Similarities and Differences between Hungary 1956 and Czechoslovakia 1968 Similarities - Same causes - hostility to Russian control, repression, poor economic performance/poverty. - Change started when Russia refused to support the old regime. - Rakosi = Novotny, Nagy = Dubcek - Brief period when the new government introduced reforms and freedom of speech. - Russia got scared when Hungary planned to leave the Warsaw Pact; Tito visited Czechoslovakia. - A letter from some Communists asking for Russia's help was used as the excuse to invade. - Russia invaded with overwhelming force. - Kadar = Husak - The West failed to help either Nagy or Dubcek. Differences - Started with riots in Hungary, but not in Czechoslovakia. - Czechoslovakia was much more planned than Hungary; Dubcek's government had a proper Action Plan. - Nagy announced he was going to leave the Warsaw Pact; Dubcek stressed that he would stay in the Warsaw Pact. - The Hungarians introduced democracy; Dubcek stressed that he wanted communism, albeit "democratic communism". - Four months of freedom in Czechoslovakia; five days of freedom in Hungary. - The Catholic Church took a lead in events in Hungary, but not in Czechoslovakia. - Hungary fought back; Czechoslovakia had passive resistance. - Some 4,000 Hungarians executed, while 47 Czechoslovaks were arrested. - Dubcek was arrested; Nagy was executed. Complete Mission 18 November Brezhnev 1968 Doctrine December Space Race 21st 1968 20th July Space Race 1969 November Nixon Doctrine 3, 1969 Detente When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the development of some socialist country towards capitalism, it becomes not only a problem of the country concerned, but a common problem and concern of all socialist countries." US launched Apollo 8 - first manned orbit of the Moon. US Apollo 11 landed on the Moon and Neil Armstrong became the first man on the Moon. 1) United States will keep all of its treaty commitments. 2) provide a shield if a nuclear power threatens the freedom of a nation allied with us 3) military and economic assistance when requested 4) Leads to Détente Nixon (1969-1973) Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty: powers with 1968 nuclear weapons agreed not to give any other countries nuclear technology. 1971 The US table tennis team played in China. 1971 The US dropped its veto and allowed China to join the United Nations. 1972 President Nixon visited China. Russia and America signed the SALT1 Treaty 1972 (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) agreeing to limit their anti-ballistic missiles and bombers. Brezhnev (1964-1982) Detente You will have come across the term détente when reading about the Cold War during the late 1960s and 1970s. The policy of détente refers to the time when the two superpowers eased tension and tried to co-operate to avoid conflict. The Helsinki Agreement recognized Soviet control 1975 over Eastern Europe, concluded a trade agreement, and Russia promised to respect human rights. 1975 Russian and American spacecraft docked in space. Causes and limitations of détente Causes of détente 1. America was shocked by the Vietnam War and wanted to stay out of world affairs. There was also a vociferous CND movement in the West. 2. The arms race was very expensive for both superpowers. 3. The price of oil rocketed in the 1970s, and both superpowers experienced economic problems. Limitations of détente 1. The Non-Proliferation Treaty did not stop other countries developing nuclear weapons (eg China, and perhaps South Africa and Israel). 2. Neither Russia or America kept to the SALT1 agreement. Neither side reduced their conventional weapons. Further talks were much less successful and a SALT2 Treaty in 1979 added little. 3. In the Arab-Israeli War of 1973, America supported Israel, and Russia supported Egypt and Syria. 4. The Helsinki Agreement achieved nothing - it confirmed the Iron Curtain and Russia ignored its promises about human rights. 5. Table tennis and space meetings were just one-off propaganda stunts. 6. Brezhnev said that Communists would still try to destroy capitalism. Some historians suggest that Nixon only went to China to drive a wedge between Russia and China. April 30th Vietnam War 1970 President Richard Nixon ordered US troops to go to Cambodia. February China 1972 Nixon visits China May 1972 Moscow Nixon visits Moscow May 26th SALT I 1972 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty signed between the US and USSR. Anti-Ballistic Missiles August Vietnam 15th 1973 The Paris Peace Accords ended American involvement in Vietnam. September Chili 1973 US helps overthrow Chili Gov’t October Egypt asks for Soviet help Egypt and Ford (1974-1977) 1973 Syria attack Israel August 1974 Nixon Resigned Watergate April 17th Cambodia 1975 Killing fields The Khmer Rouge attacked and took control of Cambodia. Any supporters of the former regime, anyone with links or supposed links to foreign governments as well as many intellectuals and professionals were executed in a genocide that became known as the 'killing fields'. April 30th Vietnam 1975 North Vietnam invaded South Vietnam. The capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese led to the whole country becoming Communist. July 1975 Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Joint space venture between USA and USSR heralded as an end to the 'Space Race' January Carter 20th 1977 President Jimmy Carter became the 39th President of the United States July 1979 SALT II November Iranian hostage A group of Iranian students and militants stormed the American embassy and took 53 Americans hostage to show their support for the Iranian 4th 1979 crisis Revolution. December Afghanistan 24th 1979 Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan Complete Mission 19 January 1980 Carter Doctrine “Let our position be absolutely clear: An attempt by any outside force to gain control of the Persian Gulf region will be regarded as an assault on the vital interests of the United States of America, and such an assault will be repelled by any means necessary, including military force.” July 1980 Olympic Boycott by USA A number of countries including the USA boycotted the summer Olympics held in Moscow in protest at the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Other countries including Great Britain participated under the Olympic flag rather than their national flag Brezhnev (1964-1982) Carter(1977-1981) 1979 – SALT 2 treaty proposed to cover long-range nuclear missiles. Never ratified by US Congress due to Soviet invasion of Afghanistan USSR claimed they had been asked to ‘restore order’. US saw it as an invasion and supported Afghan rebels Joe Biden was in on the discussions with Gromyko December Poland 13th 1980 Martial law was declared to crush the Solidarity movement January Iranian hostage The Iranian hostage crisis ended 444 days after it began 20th 1981 crisis ended June 1982 START Reagan (1981-1989) July 1984 Olympic boycott by Russia Ground-based and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles Russia and 13 allied countries boycotted the summer Olympics held in Los Angeles in retaliation for the US boycott of 1980. Chernenko (1984-1985) “Star Wars” Andropov (1982-1984) 1983 During a summit in Geneva Reagan proposed Strategic Arms Reduction Talks March Govbachov Mikhail Gorbachev became leader of the Soviet Union 11th 1985 leader of USSR 1985 Iran-Contra Affair Arms sold to Iran, profits used to support contras (rebels) in Nicaragua An explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in the Ukraine remains the worst nuclear disaster in history June 1987 Glasnost and Perestroika Mikhail Gorbachev announced his intention to follow a policy of glasnost - openness, transparency and freedom of speech; and perestroika - restructuring of government and economy. He also advocated free elections and ending the arms race. February Afghanistan 15th 1989 The last Soviet troops left Afghanistan June 4th 1989 Tiananmen Square Anti Communist protests in Tiananmen Square, Beijing, China were crushed by the government. The death count is unknown. August 1989 Poland Tadeusz Mazowiecki elected leader of the Polish government - the first eastern bloc country to become a democracy October Hungary 23rd 1989 Hungary proclaimed itself a republic Gorbachev (1985-1991) Bush (1989-1993) Complete Mission 20 Gorbachev (1985-1991) April 26th Chernobyl 1986 Disaster November Fall of the 9th 1989 Berlin Wall The Berlin wall was torn down November Velvet 17th Revolution December 29th 1989 The Velvet Revolution, also known as the Gentle Revolution, was a series of peaceful protests in Czechoslovakia that led to the overthrow of the Communist government. December Malta Summit This meeting between Mikhail Gorbachov and George H W Bush 2nd, 3rd reversed much of the provisions of the Yalta Conference 1945. It is seen by some as the beginning of the end of the cold war. 1989 December Romanian 16th Revolution 25th 1989 Riots broke out which culminated in the overthrow and execution of the leader Ceauşescu and his wife. October 3rd 1990 German reunification East and West Germany were reunited as one country. 1st July 1991 End of Warsaw The Warsaw Pact which allied Communist countries was ended Pact 31st July 1991 START The Strategic Arms Reduction treaty was signed between Russia and the USA 25th Gorbachev December resigned 1991 Mikhail Gorbachev resigned. The hammer and sickle flag on the Kremlin was lowered 26th End of the December Soviet Union 1991 Russia formally recognized the end of the Soviet Union