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Psychological Science is Born
Wundt (1832-1920)
Wundt and psychology’s
first graduate students
studied the “atoms of the
mind” by conducting
experiments at Leipzig,
Germany, in 1879.
This work is considered
the birth of psychology as
we know it today.
Psychological Science Develops
Behaviorists
Skinner (1904-1990)
Watson (1878-1958)
Watson and later Skinner emphasized the study of
overt behavior as the subject matter of scientific
psychology.
Survey
Random Sampling
If each member of a
population has an equal
chance of inclusion into a
sample, it is called a
random sample
(unbiased).
The fastest way to know about the
marble color ratio is to blindly
transfer a few into a smaller jar and
count them.
Correlation
When one trait or behavior accompanies
another, we say the two correlate.
Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)
Correlation
coefficient
Correlation Coefficient is a
statistical measure of the
relationship between two variables.
r = + 0.37
Indicates direction
of relationship
(positive or negative)
Experimentation
Experimentation is the backbone of psychological
research.
Experiments isolate causes and their effects.
Exploring Cause & Effect
Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments
(1) manipulate factors that interest us, while other
factors are kept under (2) control.
Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate
cause and effect relationships.
Evaluating Therapies
Double-blind Procedure
Neither the participant nor the research
assistant knows whether the participant is
receiving the treatment or a placebo
Independent Variable IV
An independent variable is a factor manipulated
by the experimenter. The effect of the independent
variable is the focus of the study.
For example, when examining the effects of breast
feeding upon intelligence, breast feeding is the
independent variable.
Dependent Variable DV
A dependent variable is a factor that may change
in response to an independent variable. In
psychology, it is usually a behavior or a mental
process.
For example, in our study on the effect of breast
feeding upon intelligence, intelligence is the
dependent variable.
FAQ
Q1. Can laboratory experiments illuminate
everyday life?
Q2. Does behavior depend on one’s culture
and gender?
Q3. Why do psychologists study animals,
and is it ethical to experiment on animals?
Neuron
A nerve cell, or a neuron, consists of many
different parts.
Myelin sheath
• Specialized Glial cells
• Acts as an electrical
insulator
• Not present on all
cells
• When present
increases the speed
of neural signals
down the axon.
Myelin Sheath
Action Potential
A neural impulse. A brief
electrical charge that
travels down an axon and
is generated by the
movement of positively
charged atoms in and out
of channels in the axon’s
membrane.
Threshold
Threshold: Each neuron receives
excitatory and inhibitory signals from
many neurons.
Action Potential Properties
All-or-None Response: A strong stimulus can
trigger more neurons to fire, and to fire more
often, but it does not affect the action potentials
strength or speed.
Intensity of an action potential remains the
same throughout the length of the axon.
Types of Neurotransmitters
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Acetylcholine
Serotonin
Norepinephrine
Dopamine
Endorphins
GABA
Glutamate
Acetylcholine
• Found in
neuromuscular
junction
• Involved in
muscle
movements
Serotonin
Serotonin
pathways are
involved with
mood regulation.
Dopamine
Important for
movement,
rewards &
pleasure.
Involved with
diseases such as
schizophrenia
and Parkinson’s
disease.
Endorphins
• Control pain and
pleasure
• Released in response
to pain
• Morphine and
codeine work on
endorphin receptors
Involved in healing
effects of
acupuncture
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Sympathetic Nervous System: Division of the
ANS that arouses the body, mobilizing its
energy in stressful situations.
Parasympathetic Nervous System: Division of
the ANS that calms the body, conserving its
energy.
PET Scan
Courtesy of National Brookhaven National Laboratories
PET (positron emission
tomography) Scan is a
visual display of brain
activity that detects a
radioactive form of
glucose while the brain
performs a given task.
MRI (magnetic resonance
imaging)
A technique that uses magnetic
fields and radio waves to produce
computer-generated images that
distinguish among different types of
soft tissue; allows us to see
structures within the brain
fMRI - Functional MRI
Compares MRI scans taken less than
a second apart
Detects blood moving to active parts
of the brain
Shows brain function
Brain Stem
The Thalamus is the
brain’s sensory
switchboard, located on
top of the brainstem. It
directs messages to the
sensory areas in the
cortex and transmits
replies to the
cerebellum and
medulla.
The Limbic System
The Limbic System is a
doughnut-shaped system
of neural structures at
the border of the
brainstem and cerebrum,
associated with emotions
such as fear, aggression
and drives for food and
sex. It includes the
hippocampus, amygdala,
and hypothalamus.
Hypothalamus
The Hypothalamus lies
below (hypo) the
thalamus.
It directs several
maintenance activities
like eating, drinking,
body temperature, and
control of emotions.
It helps govern the
endocrine system via
the pituitary gland.
"TALE of the
hypothalamus":
Temperature
Appetite
Libido
Emotion
The Cerebral Cortex
• Cerebral Cortex
– the intricate fabric of interconnected neural
cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres
– the body’s ultimate control and information
processing center
• Glial Cells
– cells in the nervous system that are not
neurons but that support, nourish, and protect
neurons
Figure 2.24 The cerebral cortex
Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition
Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
The Cerebral Cortex
• Frontal Lobes
– involved in speaking and muscle movements and in
making plans and judgments
• Parietal Lobes
– include the sensory cortex
• Occipital Lobes
– include the visual areas, which receive visual
information from the opposite visual field
• Temporal Lobes
– include the auditory areas
The Cerebral Cortex
Split Brain
 a condition in which
the two hemispheres
of the brain are
isolated by cutting
the corpus Callosum.
 Sperry and
Gazzaniga are key
researchers in this
area.
Environmental Influence
 Culture
 the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes,
and traditions shared by a large group of
people and transmitted from one
generation to the next
 Norm
 an understood rule for accepted and
expected behavior
Developmental Psychology
Issue
Nature/Nurture
Continuity/Stages
Stability/Change
Details
How do genetic inheritance
(our nature) and experience
(the nurture we receive)
influence our behavior?
Is developmental a gradual,
continuous process or a
sequence of separate stages?
Do our early personality
traits persist through life, or
do we become different
persons as we age.
Infancy and Childhood
Infancy and childhood span from birth to the
teenage years. During these years, the
individual grows physically, cognitively, and
socially.
Stage
Span
Infancy
Newborn to toddler
Childhood
Toddler to teenager
Infancy and Childhood:
Cognitive Development
 Schema
 a concept or framework that
organizes and interprets
information, they are building
blocks of intellectual development
Piaget’s Stages
Typical Age
Range
Description
of Stage
Developmental
Phenomena
Sensorimotor
Birth to nearly 2 years
Experiencing the world through
senses and actions (looking,
touching, mouthing)
•Object permanence
•Stranger anxiety
•Some cause and effect
Preoperational
About 2 to 6 years
Representing things
with words and images
but lacking logical reasoning
•Pretend play
•Egocentrism
•Language development
•Think in symbols
Concrete operational
About 7 to 11 years
Thinking logically about concrete
•Conservation
events; grasping concrete analogies
•Mathematical
and performing arithmetical operations transformations
Formal operational
About 12 through
adulthood
Abstract reasoning, speculation
•Abstract logic
•Potential for
moral reasoning
Sensorimotor Stage
In the sensorimotor stage, babies take in the
world by looking, hearing, touching, mouthing,
and grasping. Children younger than 6 months
of age do not grasp object permanence, i.e.,
objects that are out of sight are also out of mind.
Doug Goodman
Infancy and Childhood:
Cognitive Development
 Conservation
 the principle that properties such as mass,
volume, and number remain the same despite
changes in the forms of objects
Attachment
• Mary Ainsworth – Strange situation
– Unfamiliar playroom
– Mother and unfamilar woman
– Women play with baby – leave briefly
• How to the babies respond?
Social Development:
Parenting Styles
 Authoritarian
 parents impose rules and expect obedience
 “Don’t interrupt.” “Why? Because I said so.”
 Permissive
 submit to children’s desires, make few demands, use
little punishment
 Authoritative
 both demanding and responsive
 set rules, but explain reasons and encourage open
discussion
 Rejecting-Neglecting
 completely uninvolved; disengaged. Expect little and
invest little
Developing Morality
Kohlberg (1981, 1984) sought to describe the
development of moral reasoning by posing moral
dilemmas to children and adolescents, such as
“Should a person steal medicine to save a loved
one’s life?” He found stages of moral
development.
AP Photo/ Dave Martin
Erikson’s Stages of
Psychosocial Development
Mnemonic
Approximate
age
Stage
Description of Task
Infancy
(1st year)
Trust vs. mistrust
If needs are dependably met, infants
develop a sense of basic trust.
Toddler
(2nd year)
Autonomy vs. shame Toddlers learn to exercise will and
and doubt
do things for themselves, or they
doubt their abilities.
Preschooler
(3-5 years)
Initiative vs. guilt
Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks
and carry out plans, or they feel
guilty about efforts to be independent.
Elementary
(6 yearspuberty)
Competence vs.
inferiority
Children learn the pleasure of applying
themselves to tasks, or they feel
inferior.
Aging and Intelligence
It is believed today that fluid intelligence (ability
to reason speedily) declines with age, but
crystalline intelligence (accumulated knowledge
and skills) increases.
We gain vocabulary and knowledge but lose recall
memory and process more slowly.
Thresholds
Proportion of “Yes” Responses
1.00
0.50
0.00
Absolute Threshold: Minimum stimulation needed
to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.
0
5
10
15
20
Stimulus Intensity (lumens)
25
Why Does the “Absolute”
Threshold Vary?
- Signal Detection
• Sensitivity:
– Intensity of the signal.
– Capacity of sensory systems.
– Amount of background stimulation, or “noise.”
• Response criterion reflects one’s
willingness to respond to a stimulus.
– Influenced by motivation and expectancies.
Judging Differences Between
Stimuli
• Difference Threshold or Just-Noticeable
Difference (JND)
• JND = Smallest detectable difference in
stimulus energy.
• JND determined by two factors:
– How much of a stimulus was there to begin
with?
– Which sense is being stimulated?
Sensory Adaptation
Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of
constant stimulation.
Put a band aid on your arm and after awhile
you don’t sense it.
The Lens
Lens: Transparent
structure behind the
pupil that changes shape
to focus images on the
retina.
Accommodation: The
process by which the
eye’s lens changes shape
to help focus near or far
objects on the retina.
Retina
Retina: The lightsensitive inner
surface of the eye,
containing receptor
rods and cones in
addition to layers of
other neurons
(bipolar, ganglion
cells) that process
visual information.
Optic Nerve, Blind Spot & Fovea
Optic nerve: Carries neural impulses from the eye to the
brain.
Blind Spot: Point where the optic nerve leaves the eye
because there are no receptor cells located there.
Fovea: Central point in the retina around which the eye’s
cones cluster.
http://www.bergen.org
Retina’s Reaction to Light- Receptors
 Rods
 peripheral retina
 detect black, white and gray
 twilight or low light
 Cones
 near center of retina
 fine detail and color vision
 daylight or well-lit conditions
Color Blindness
Genetic disorder in which people are blind to
green or red colors. This supports the
Trichromatic theory.
Ishihara Test
Opponent Process Theory
Hering proposed that we process four primary
colors combined in pairs of red-green, blueyellow, and black-white.
The Ear
Dr. Fred Hossler/ Visuals Unlimited
The Ear
Outer Ear/Pinna: Collects and sends sounds
to the eardrum.
Middle Ear: Chamber between eardrum and
cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer,
anvil, stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations
of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window.
Inner Ear: Innermost part of the ear,
containing the cochlea, semicircular canals,
and vestibular sacs.
Cochlea
Cochlea: Coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the
inner ear that transforms sound vibrations to
auditory signals.
Localization of Sounds
Because we have two ears, sounds that reach one ear
faster than the other ear cause us to localize the sound.
1. Intensity differences
2. Time differences
Taste
Traditionally, taste sensations consisted of sweet,
salty, sour, and bitter tastes. Recently, receptors for
a fifth taste have been discovered called “Umami”.
Sweet
Sour
Taste link at Nova
Blocking bitter taste at Nova
Salty
Bitter
Umami
(Fresh
Chicken)
Chemical Senses:
The Flavors and Aromas of
Life
• Olfaction
– Olfactory epithelium – top of nasal cavity
– Pheromone detection of sweat and urine
• Vomeronasal organ
• Influence human female reproductive cycles
• Inhalation of male sex hormone and mood
changes
• Males may respond to sex hormones
Perceptual Organization: Gestalt
 Gestalt--an organized whole
 tendency to integrate pieces of information
into meaningful wholes
 a school of psychology founded in Germany
in the 1900s that maintained our sensations
are processed according to consistent
perceptual rules that result in meaningful
whole perceptions, or gestalts.
Perceptual Organization: Gestalt
 Grouping Principles





proximity--group nearby figures together
similarity--group figures that are similar
continuity--perceive continuous patterns
closure--fill in gaps
connectedness--spots, lines, and areas are
seen as unit when connected
Depth Perception
Innervisions
Depth perception enables us to judge distances.
Gibson and Walk (1960) suggested that human
infants (crawling age) have depth perception. Even
newborn animals show depth perception.
Visual Cliff
Binocular Cues
Retinal disparity: Images from the two eyes differ.
Monocular Cues
Relative motion: Objects closer to a fixation point
move faster and in opposing direction to those
objects that are farther away from a fixation point,
moving slower and in the same direction.
Biological Rhythms and Sleep
Illustration © Cynthia Turner 2003
Circadian Rhythms occur on a 24-hour cycle and include
sleep and wakefulness. Termed our “biological clock,” it
can be altered by artificial light.
Light triggers the suprachiasmatic nucleus to decrease
(morning) melatonin from the pineal gland
and increase (evening) it at nightfall.
Sleep Stages 1-2
During early, light sleep (stages 1-2) the brain
enters a high-amplitude, slow, regular wave form
called theta waves (5-8 cps). A person who is
daydreaming shows theta activity.
Theta Waves
Stage 5: REM Sleep
After reaching the deepest sleep stage (4), the
sleep cycle starts moving backward towards stage
1.
Although still asleep, the brain engages in lowamplitude, fast and regular beta waves (15-40 cps)
much like awake-aroused state.
Hypnosis
 Hypnosis
 a social interaction in which one person
(the hypnotist) suggests to another (the
subject) that certain perceptions,
feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will
spontaneously occur
 Posthypnotic Amnesia
 supposed inability to recall what one
experienced during hypnosis
 induced by the hypnotist’s suggestion
Hypnosis: Pain Relief
 Dissociation (divided consciousness)
 a split in consciousness
 allows some thoughts and behaviors to
occur simultaneously with others
 Hidden Observer
 Hilgard’s term describing a hypnotized
subject’s awareness of experiences, such
as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis
Withdrawal & Dependence
1. Withdrawal: Upon stopping use of a
drug users may experience undesirable
side effects.
2. Dependence: Absence of a drug may
lead to a feeling of physical pain, intense
cravings (physical dependence), and
negative emotions (psychological
dependence).
Depressants
1. Alcohol affects motor skills, judgment, and
memory…and increases aggressiveness while
reducing self awareness.
Daniel Hommer, NIAAA, NIH, HHS
Depressants
2. Barbiturates: Drugs that depress the activity of
the central nervous system, reducing anxiety
but impairing memory and judgment.
Nembutal, Seconal, and Amytal are some
examples.
Hallucinogens
Hallucinogens are
psychedelic (mindmanifesting) drugs that
distort perceptions and
evoke sensory images in
the absence of sensory
input.
Housewife on Acid on CNN 5:01
Another person on Acid 8:46
Leary and kids who dropped
acid…creepy 1:14
76
Classical Conditioning
It was the Russian physiologist Ivan
Pavlov who elucidated classical
conditioning.
Sovfoto
His work provided a basis for later
behaviorists like John Watson.
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Classical Conditioning is
learning that takes place when
an originally neutral stimulus
comes to produce a conditioned
response because of its
association with an
unconditioned stimulus.
Pavlov’s Experiments
Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned
Stimulus, US) produces salivation
(Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the
tone (neutral stimulus) does not.
Pavlov’s Experiments
During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone)
and the US (food) are paired, resulting in
salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral
stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits
salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)
Acquisition
The CS needs to come half a second before the US
for acquisition to occur.
Extinction
When the US (food) does not follow the CS
(tone), CR (salivation) begins to decrease and
eventually causes extinction.
A disappeared CS
is called
extinguished, not
extinct.
Stimulus Generalization
Tendency to respond to
stimuli similar to the CS is
called generalization.
Stimulus Discrimination
Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish
between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that
do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
Biological Predispositions
• John Garcia
Conditioned taste aversions
• Not all neutral stimuli can become
conditioned stimuli.
• Internal stimuli—associate better with taste
• External stimuli—associate better with pain
• Biological preparedness
Behaviorism
 John B. Watson
 viewed psychology as
objective science
 generally agreed-upon
consensus today
 recommended study of
behavior without reference
to unobservable mental
processes
 not universally accepted by all
schools of thought today
Mary Cover Jones
Mary Cover Jones used an
early form of desensitization
to prove that fears (phobias)
could be unlearned.
Peter, a young boy, had an extreme
fear of rabbits. Jones gave Peter his
favorite food while slowly bringing the
rabbit closer and closer. Eventually
Peter no longer panicked around
rabbits.
Shaping
Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure
in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the
desired target behavior through successive
approximations.
Fred Bavendam/ Peter Arnold, Inc.
Khamis Ramadhan/ Panapress/ Getty Images
A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminate
objects of different shapes, colors and sizes.
Types of Reinforcers
Reinforcement: Any
event that
strengthens the
behavior it follows.
Reuters/ Corbis
A heat lamp
positively reinforces
a meerkat’s behavior
in the cold.
Punishment
An aversive event that decreases the behavior it
follows.
Updating Skinner’s Understanding
• Skinner’s emphasis on external control of
behavior made him an influential, but
controversial figure.
• Many psychologists criticized Skinner for
underestimating the importance of
cognitive and biological constraints.
Learning by Observation
©Herb Terrace
The monkey on the
right imitates the
monkey on the left in
touching the pictures in
a certain order to obtain
a reward.
© Herb Terrace
Higher animals,
especially humans,
learn through observing
and imitating others.
Modeling Violence
Children modeling after pro wrestlers
Glassman/ The Image Works
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Research shows that viewing media violence
leads to an increased expression of aggression.
Studying Memory:
Information Processing Models
Keyboard
Disk
Monitor
(Encoding)
(Storage)
(Retrieval)
Sequential Process
How Memory
Works Nova
Encoding: Serial Position Effect
Percentage
of
words
recalled
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Position of word in list
10
11 12
Chunking
You already know the capacity of the working
memory may be increased by “chunking.”
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
FBI TWA CIA IBM
But you didn’t know that
you can handle 4
chunks
Stress Hormones & Memory
Flashbulb memories are clear memories of
emotionally significant moments or events.
Heightened emotions (stress-related or
otherwise) make for stronger memories.
Scott Barbour/ Getty Images
Amnesias
After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient
Henry M. (HM) remembered everything before the
operation but could not make new memories. We
call this anterograde amnesia.
Anterograde
Amnesia
(HM)
Memory Intact
No New Memories
Surgery
Retrograde
amnesia
No old memories
How memory works at
Nova 10:15
Memory intact
Surgery
Implicit & Explicit Memory
HM is unable to make new memories that are
declarative (explicit), but he can form new
memories that are procedural (implicit).
A
B
C
Towers
of Hanoi
Link
Forgetting as Interference
 Learning some items may disrupt
retrieval of other information
 Proactive (forward acting) Interference
 disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of
new information
 Retroactive (backwards acting)
Interference
 disruptive effect of new learning on recall of
old information
Thinking
 Concept
 mental grouping of similar objects, events,
ideas, or people
 Prototype
 mental image or best example of a category
 matching new items to the prototype provides a
quick and easy method for including items in a
category (as when comparing feathered creatures
to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)
Algorithms
Algorithms, which are very time consuming,
exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a
solution. Computers use algorithms.
SPLOYOCHYG
If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word
using an algorithmic approach, we would face
907,200 possibilities.
Heuristics
B2M Productions/Digital Version/Getty Images
Heuristics are simple,
thinking strategies
that allow us to make
judgments and solve
problems efficiently.
Heuristics are less
time consuming, but
more error-prone than
algorithms.
Thought Puzzle #1
What got in the way of solving this problem?
Mental Set - Old pattern of problem
solving is applied to a new problem.
Functional Fixedness – A tendency to
think about familiar objects in familiar ways
which may prevent more creative use of
those objects to solve the problem.
Fixation
Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a
fresh perspective. This impedes problem
solving. An example of fixation is functional
fixedness.
From “Problem Solving” by M. Scheerer. Copyright © 1963 by
Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
The Matchstick
Problem: How would
you arrange six
matches to form four
equilateral triangles?
Thinking
 Belief Bias
 the tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to
distort logical reasoning
 sometimes by making invalid conclusions
seem valid or valid conclusions seem invalid
 Belief Perseverance
 clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the
basis on which they were formed has been
discredited
Magic and the Brain at PBS
Language Structure
Morpheme: The smallest unit that carries a
meaning. It may be a word or part of a word.
For example:
Milk = milk
Pumpkin = pump . kin
Unforgettable = un · for · get · table
Language
 Semantics
 the set of rules by which we derive meaning
from morphemes, words, and sentences in
a given language
 also, the study of meaning
 Syntax
 the rules for combining words into
grammatically sensible sentences in a
given language
Explaining Language Development
cont.
2. Inborn Universal Grammar: Chomsky (1959,
1987) opposed Skinner’s ideas and suggested
that the rate of language acquisition is so fast
that it cannot be explained through learning
principles, and thus most of it is inborn.
Language Influences Thinking
Linguistic Determinism
(Whorf hypothesis):
language determines the way
we think.
For example, he noted that
the Hopi people do not have
the past tense for verbs.
Therefore, the Hopi cannot
think readily about the past.
Link
Insight
Chimpanzees show insightful behavior when
solving problems.
Chimp Problem solving:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ySMh1
mBi3cI&NR=1&safety_mode=true&persist
_safety_mode=1
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xOrgO
W9LnT4&feature=related&safety_mode=tr
ue&persist_safety_mode=1
Sultan uses sticks to get food.
General Intelligence
Spearman proposed that general intelligence (g)
is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed
by factor analysis.
For example, people who do well on vocabulary
examinations do well on paragraph
comprehension examinations, a cluster that
helps define verbal intelligence. Other factors
include a spatial ability factor, and a reasoning
ability factor.
Alfred Binet
Alfred Binet practiced a
modern form of
intelligence testing by
developing questions
that would predict
children’s future
progress in the Paris
school system.
Lewis Terman
In the US, Lewis Terman
adapted Binet’s test for
American school
children and named the
test the Stanford-Binet
Test.
The following is the
formula of Intelligence
Quotient (IQ)
Normal Curve
Standardized tests establish a normal distribution
of scores on a tested population in a bell-shaped
pattern called the normal curve.
Validity
Reliability of a test does not ensure validity. Validity
of a test refers to what the test is supposed to
measure or predict.
1.
2.
Content Validity: Refers to the extent a test
measures a particular behavior or trait.
Predictive Validity: Refers to the function of a test
in predicting a particular behavior or trait.
Genetic Influences
Studies of twins, family members, and adopted
children together support the idea that there is a
significant genetic contribution to intelligence.
Drive Reduction Theory Cont.
• Secondary Drives
• Primary Drives
– Learned
– Unlearned
• Food
• Water
• Temperature regulation
• Money
• Shelter
• Job
Drive
Reduction
Food
Empty
Stomach
Stomach
Full
(Food Deprived)
Organism
Homeostasis
-tendency to
maintain a
balanced or
constant
internal state
-regulation of
any aspect of
body
chemistry
around a
particular level
Hierarchy of Needs
Body Chemistry & the Brain
Levels of glucose in
the blood are
monitored by
receptors (neurons) in
the stomach, liver, and
intestines. They send
signals to the
hypothalamus in the
brain.
Rat Hypothalamus
Glucose Molecule
Hypothalamus & Hormones
The hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones that
are related to hunger.
Hormone
Orexin increase
Tissue
Response
Hypothalamus Increases hunger
Ghrelin increase Stomach
Increases hunger
Insulin increase
Pancreas
Increases hunger
Leptin increase
Fat cells
Decreases hunger
PPY increase
Digestive tract
Decreases hunger
Motivation-Hunger
 Set Point
 the point at which an individual’s
“weight thermostat” is supposedly set
 when the body falls below this weight,
an increase in hunger and a lowered
metabolic rate may act to restore the
lost weight
 Basal Metabolic Rate
 body’s base rate of energy expenditure
Industrial-Organizational (I/O)
Psychology Overview
Applies psychological principles to the workplace.
1.
Personnel Psychology: Studies the principles of
selecting and evaluating workers.
2.
Organizational Psychology: Studies how work
environments and management styles influence
worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity.
3.
Human Factors Psychology: Explores how
machines and environments can be designed to fit
our natural perception.
Sources of Achievement Motivation
Why does one person become more motivated
to achieve than another? Parents and teachers
have an influence on the roots of motivation.
Emotional roots: learning to associate
achievement with positive emotions.
Cognitive roots: learning to attribute
achievements to one’s own competence, thus
raising expectations of oneself.
Setting Specific, Challenging
Goals
Specific challenging goals motivate people to
reach higher achievement levels, especially if
there is feedback such as progress reports.
James-Lange Theory
James-Lange Theory
proposes that
physiological
activity precedes the
emotional
experience.
Schachter and Singer’s TwoFactor Theory
Our physiology and
cognitions create
emotions.
Emotions have two
factors–physical
arousal and
cognitive label.
Culture and Emotional Expression
When culturally diverse people were shown
basic facial expressions, they did fairly well
at recognizing them (Matsumoto & Ekman,
1989).
Elkman & Matsumoto, Japanese and
Caucasian Facial Expression of Emotion
Catharsis Hypothesis
Venting anger
through action or
fantasy ---achieves an
emotional release
or “catharsis.”
Opposing Theory-- Expressing
anger breeds more anger, and
through reinforcement it is habitforming.
General Adaptation Syndrome
(GAS)
EPA/ Yuri Kochetkov/ Landov
According to Selye, a stress response to any kind of
stimulation is similar. The stressed individual goes
through three phases.
Stress and the Heart
Stress that leads to elevated blood pressure may
result in coronary heart disease, a clogging of the
vessels that nourish the heart muscle.
Plaque in
coronary
artery
Artery
clogged
Stress and Colds
People with the highest life stress scores were also
the most vulnerable when exposed to an
experimental cold virus.
Dream Analysis
Another method to analyze the unconscious
mind is through interpreting manifest and
latent contents of dreams.
Humanistic Perspective
Focuses on mental capabilities that set humans
apart; self awareness, creativity, planning,
decision making, responsibility.
http://www.ship.edu
Abraham Maslow
(1908-1970)
Carl Rogers
(1902-1987)
Self-Actualizing Person
http://www.ship.edu
Maslow proposed
that we as
individuals are
motivated by a
hierarchy of needs.
Beginning with
physiological
needs, we try to
reach the state of
self-actualization—
fulfilling our
potential.
Person-Centered Perspective
Carl Rogers also believed in an individual's selfactualization tendencies. He said that
Unconditional Positive Regard is an attitude of
acceptance of others despite their failings.
Michael Rougier/ Life Magazine © Time Warner, Inc.
Evaluating the Trait Perspective
The Person-Situation Controversy
Walter Mischel (1968, 1984, 2004) points out that
traits may be enduring, but the resulting
behavior in various situations is different.
Therefore, traits are not good predictors of
behavior.
Personal Control
External locus of control refers to the perception
that chance or outside forces beyond our personal
control determine our fate.
Internal locus of control refers to the perception
that we can control our own fate.
Self efficacy: learned expectations about
probability of success
Learned Helplessness
When unable/unwilling to avoid repeated
adverse events an animal or human learns
helplessness.
Low self efficacy
Deviant, Distressful & Dysfunctional
1. Deviant behavior in
one culture may be
considered normal,
while in others it may
lead to arrest.
Carol Beckwith
2. Deviant behavior must
accompany distress.
3. If a behavior is
dysfunctional it is
clearly a disorder.
Woodabe clip at youtube
Goals of DSM
1.
2.
Describe (400) disorders.
Determine how prevalent the
disorder is.
Disorders outlined by DSM-IV are reliable.
Therefore, diagnoses by different professionals
are similar.
Others criticize DSM-IV for “putting any kind
of behavior within the compass of psychiatry.”
Anxiety Disorders
Feelings of excessive apprehension and anxiety.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Generalized anxiety disorder
Panic disorder
Phobias
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
Post-traumatic stress disorder
Panic Disorder
Symptoms
Minutes-long episodes of intense dread which may
include feelings of terror, chest pains, choking, or
other frightening sensations.
Anxiety is a component of both disorders. It
occurs more in the panic disorder, making
people avoid situations that cause it.
Kinds of Phobias
Agoraphobia
Phobia of open places.
Acrophobia
Phobia of heights link.
Claustrophobia
Hemophobia
Phobia of closed spaces
Link .
Phobia of blood.
Arachnophobia at National Geographic Link
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
Persistence of repetitive thoughts (obsessions)
and urges to engage in repetitive behaviors
(compulsions) that cause distress.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Four or more weeks of the following symptoms
constitute post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD):
1. Haunting memories
2. Nightmares
3. Social withdrawal
4. Jumpy anxiety
5. Sleep problems
Bettmann/ Corbis
Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)
A disorder in which a person exhibits two or
more distinct and alternating personalities,
formerly called multiple personality disorder.
Chris Sizemore (DID)
Lois Bernstein/ Gamma Liason
Personality Disorders
Personality disorders are characterized by
inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that
impair social functioning.
Antisocial Personality Disorder
A disorder in which the person (usually men) exhibits a lack
of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and
family members.
Formerly, this person was called a sociopath or psychopath.
Major Depressive Disorder
Major depressive disorder occurs when signs of
depression last two weeks or more and are not
caused by drugs or medical conditions.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Signs include:
Lethargy and fatigue
Feelings of worthlessness
Loss of interest in family & friends
Loss of interest in activities
Bipolar Disorder
Many great writers, poets, and composers
suffered from bipolar disorder. During their
manic phase creativity surged, but not during
their depressed phase.
Earl Theissen/ Hulton Getty Pictures Library
The Granger Collection
Wolfe
George C. Beresford/ Hulton Getty Pictures Library
Bettmann/ Corbis
Whitman
Clemens
Hemingway
Social-Cognitive Perspective
The social-cognitive perspective suggests that
depression arises partly from self-defeating
beliefs and negative explanatory styles.
Schizophrenia
The literal translation is “split mind” which
refers to a split from reality. A group of severe
disorders characterized by the following:
1. Disorganized and delusional
thinking.
2. Disturbed perceptions.
3. Inappropriate emotions and
actions.
Disturbed Perceptions
A schizophrenic person may perceive things
that are not there (hallucinations). Most such
hallucinations are auditory and lesser visual,
somatosensory, olfactory, or gustatory.
L. Berthold, Untitled. The Prinzhorn Collection, University of Heidelberg
August Natter, Witches Head. The Prinzhorn Collection, University of Heidelberg
Photos of paintings by Krannert Museum, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Understanding Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a disease of the brain exhibited
by the symptoms of the mind.
Brain Abnormalities
Dopamine Overactivity: Researchers found that
schizophrenic patients express higher levels of
dopamine D4 receptors in the brain.
Drugs that block these sites help schizophrenic
156
patients.
Abnormal Brain Morphology
Schizophrenia patients may exhibit
morphological changes in the brain like
enlargement of fluid-filled ventricles.
Both Photos: Courtesy of Daniel R. Weinberger, M.D., NIH-NIMH/ NSC
157
The Psychological
Therapies
Module 40
Psychoanalysis: Methods
During free association, the patient edits his
thoughts, resisting his or her feelings to express
emotions. Such resistance becomes important in
the analysis of conflict-driven anxiety.
Eventually the patient opens up and reveals his
or her innermost private thoughts. Developing
positive or negative feelings may be
transference towards the therapist.
Behavior Therapy
Therapy that applies learning principles to the
elimination of unwanted behaviors.
To treat phobias or sexual disorders, behavior
therapists do not delve deeply below the
surface looking for inner causes.
Classical Conditioning Techniques
Counterconditioning is a procedure that
conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger
unwanted behaviors.
It is based on classical conditioning and
includes exposure therapy and aversive
conditioning.
Exposure Therapy
Through repeated
exposures, anxiety
lessens because they
habituate to the things
feared.
The Far Side © 1986 FARWORKS. Reprinted with Permission. All Rights Reserved.
Expose patients to
things they fear and
avoid.
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning procedures enable
therapists to use behavior modification, in
which desired behaviors are rewarded and
undesired behaviors are either unrewarded or
punished.
Drug Therapies
Psychopharmacology is the study of drug effects
on mind and behavior.
With the advent of drugs, hospitalization in mental
institutions has rapidly declined.
Brain Stimulation
Electroconvulsive Therapy
(ECT)
ECT is used for severely
depressed patients who do
not respond to drugs.
Focuses in Social Psychology
Social psychology scientifically studies how we
think about, influence, and relate to one another.
“We cannot live for ourselves alone.”
Herman Melville
Attributing Behavior to Persons or to
Situations
http://www.stedwards.edu
Attribution Theory: Fritz
Heider (1958) suggested
that we have a tendency
to give causal
explanations for
someone’s behavior,
often by crediting either
the situation or the
person’s disposition.
Fritz Heider
Fundamental Attribution Error
Fundamental Attribution Error. The tendency to
overestimate the impact of personal disposition
and underestimate the impact of the situations
in analyzing the behaviors of others.
We see Joe as quiet, shy, and introverted most of
the time, but with friends he is very talkative,
loud, and extroverted.
Actions Can Affect Attitudes
Why do actions affect attitudes? One
explanation is that when our attitudes and
actions are opposed, we experience tension.
This is called cognitive dissonance.
To relieve ourselves of this tension we bring our
attitudes closer to our actions (Festinger, 1957).
Social Influence
Module 44
170
Group Pressure & Conformity
Suggestibility is a subtle type of conformity,
adjusting our behavior or thinking toward
some group standard.
Group Pressure & Conformity
Informational Social Influence: An influence
resulting from one’s willingness to accept
others’ opinions about reality.
William Vandivert/ Scientific American
Milgram’s Study: Results
Milgram on Youtube
Lessons from the Conformity and
Obedience Studies
In both Asch's and Milgram's studies,
participants were pressured to choose between
following their standards and being responsive
to others.
Individual Behavior in the Presence
of Others
Social facilitation: Refers
to improved
performance on tasks in
the presence of others.
Michelle Agnis/ NYT Pictures
Triplett (1898) noticed
cyclists’ race times were
faster when they
competed against others
than when they just
raced against the clock.
Social Loafing
The tendency of an individual in a group to
exert less effort toward attaining a common
goal than when tested individually (Latané,
1981).
Deindividuation
The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in
group situations that foster arousal and
anonymity.
Mob behavior
Psychology of Attraction
4. Similarity: Similar views among individuals
causes the bond of attraction to strengthen.
Similarity breeds content! The more people are
alike the more their liking endures. (Byrne 1971)