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6 July 2011
Mr Guy Dickson
Secretary to the Committee
Select Committee on Marine Parks in South Australia
c/- Parliament House
GPO Box 572
Adelaide 5001
South Australia
SUBMISSION
TO THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON MARINE PARKS IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA
Dr Jonathan Nevill, policy analyst
Director, OnlyOnePlanet Consulting
PO Box 106
Hampton Victoria 3188 Australia
Phone 0422 926 515
SUMMARY
The marine environment is in great danger, both in Australia and around the world. Section
One below lists the five main threats. Of these threats, the most significant are fishing and
increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide. In many parts of the world, and in some parts of
Australia, marine ecosystems, or significant components of these ecosystems, have
collapsed, and collapses like these are increasing in frequency and severity worldwide.
Section Two below outlines this disturbing situation.
A huge body of scientific evidence is available to guide the design and management of
marine parks (Terms of Reference part (a)). Section Three below lists a small sample of the
peer-reviewed literature relevant to the design and management of marine protected areas.
At a general level, international law also offers policy guidance on the design and
management of marine protected areas. As a nation signatory to the international
Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 Australia has endorsed a formal agreement to
develop networks of marine protected areas, having sanctuary (or no-take zones) at their
core. The details of this agreement are contained in the CBD Jakarta Mandate. Section Four
of this submission takes an overview of the literature supporting the design and management
of marine protected areas, and includes a discussion of key policy issues – relevant to
scales from international to local. Section Five below includes an indication of the support
given to marine protected areas by Australian scientists.
This submission does not discuss Terms of Reference (b), (c) or (d).
With regard to Terms of Reference (e), I am aware that there have been moves in NSW,
particularly sponsored by the NSW branch of the Shooters Party, to limit or reduce the extent
of no-take sanctuary zones. However the general trend world-wide has been to expand
sanctuary zones not to limit them. Member states of the European Union have been
expanding no-take zones under an EU Directive dating back about a decade. The USA,
particularly under the leadership of George Bush, designated huge expansions of no-take
marine protected areas in Alaska and in the USA’s Pacific Ocean jurisdictions. Pacific
nations, including Fiji, Palau and the states of Micronesia (as examples) have hugely
increased no-take zones in recent years. South Africa too has added large additions to its
no-take zones.
Terms of Reference (f) considers the correct balance of general marine park areas to notake sanctuary zones. Section Six of this submission reviews scientific literature on this
subject, and concludes that, as far as the conservation of marine biodiversity is concerned, a
huge increase on no-take zones is required, both in Australia and overseas. Most of the
studies reviewed conclude that sanctuary zones occupying 20% to 50% of marine habitats
1
are required to stem the current erosion of biodiversity values. As far as support for the
fishing industry (both commercial and recreational) studies find that no-take zones can
provide protection for critical spawning, nursery and feeding areas, thus providing fished
populations with buffers against both fishing mortality and environmental variations. The
result is more stable and reliable fisheries from year to year. However if these effects are
considered alone (ie not considering other biodiversity values) current science suggests that
fishery benefits can be gained from carefully placed sanctuary zones occupying around 10%
to 20% of habitats.
Given the very serious threats facing marine ecosystems, I strongly support the model
provided by Queensland’s Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, where around 33% of the park is
designated as no-take zones. I recommend that common ecosystem types which are not
under significant threats be protected at a rate of at least 20% of the total area under that
habitat type in the jurisdiction under discussion. However, where ecosystem types are rare
or under threat, much greater protection is needed, up to 100% where very rare or highly
endangered ecosystem types are concerned. It should be noted, as an example, that coral
ecosystems are highly threatened by both fishing and climate change, where the latter threat
will become increasingly severe over coming years. Yet only around 10% of coral habitats off
the Queensland coast (including offshore and in the Gulf of Carpentaria) are protected in notake zones. This situation is entirely inadequate.
I wish to conclude with two points about the management of fisheries in Australia. It is
sometimes said that Australian fisheries management is so good that further protection of
the marine environment from fishing impacts is unnecessary. This is certainly not the case.
My first point concerns the way Australian governments, both State and Commonwealth,
define “overfishing”. Fifty years ago it seemed logical to define overfishing solely on the
basis of the health of the stock being fished – in other words taking no regard of the effects
of fishing the stock on the marine environment broadly. Consequently the practice grew up
where fisheries management agencies would define overfishing relative to the stock’s
maximum sustainable yield (MSY). Unfortunately, this approach is still in use, even though
during the last 50 years Australia has made important commitments to protect marine
ecosystems (eg: through the Convention on Biological Diversity process, and at a general
level through the Law of the Sea).
In my view a logical modern definition of overfishing is a level of fishing which puts at risk
values endorsed either by the fishery management agency, by the nation in whose waters
fishing takes place, or within widely accepted international agreements. This definition would
take into account damage caused by fishing to the surrounding ecosystem, and a fishery
would be defined as ‘overfished’ if significant damage had occurred, irrespective of the
health of the fish stock in question. Technically, this definition is a good deal more sensitive
than the old-fashioned definition, so it is likely that most major Australian fisheries would be
defined as overfished using this definition – and this sadly reflects the reality. At present
fishing levels are usually so high that ecosystem damage is evident, and so high that the
long term futures of the fisheries themselves are at risk. Management against this new
definition would have the added advantage of protecting important fish stocks by imposing
lower fishing mortality, thus providing a buffer against unpredictable natural variations –
which over the years have seen many important fish stocks collapse (eg the recent collapse
of the Western Rock Lobster fishery in WA).
My second point relates to the way that two modern management techniques, the ecosystem
approach and the precautionary approach, are applied by Australian fisheries management
agencies. I spent four years (2005 to 2009) conducting in-depth reviews of several important
Australian fisheries. This is a difficult and time-consuming task, given the amount of
managerial and scientific literature which must be considered. The conclusion I reached, set
out in detail in my book Overfishing Under Regulation, is that, at least in the fisheries I
studied, these modern approaches are not competently applied, in spite of policy assurances
to the contrary. In some cases important information was excluded from public reports,
apparently to create the impression that the approaches were being successfully applied.
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This can only be described as dishonest, and reflects badly on the caliber of senior
management within the agencies.
It seems likely that my findings apply broadly across fisheries management in Australia. The
existence of organisational cultures within fisheries agencies which condone incompetence
and encourage dishonest reporting could go a long way to explaining the poor track record of
the agencies, even assessed by old-fashioned criteria. Here I refer to the ability of the
agencies to manage fisheries for sustained harvest levels over periods of decades.
To recapitulate:
1. There is a huge body of scientific evidence supporting the creation of very large marine
protected area networks, centred around core sanctuary zones. The creation of such
networks has been a central part of international efforts to protect marine biodiversity for
many years.
2. The value of sanctuary zones has been clearly documented in the scientific literature, and
the Australian science community strongly supports the expansion of no-takes zones (see
Sections 4 and 5 of this submission).
3. Internationally, there are many programs, begun over the last decade and continuing, to
support a massive expansion of no-take zones and networks built around such zones. These
programs rest on important international agreements, such as the Jakarta Mandate, which
guides the implementation of the international Convention on Biological Diversity 1992.
4. No-take zones are essential to protect marine biodiversity values against fishing effects.
Worldwide, fishing at the present time represents the greatest threat to marine biodiversity,
although the threats posed as a result of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide will become
dominant in the near future.
5. Substantial no-take zones, strategically placed over key spawning, nursery and feeding
areas, can boost and stabilize fisheries.
6. Blanket no-take area targets relating to large marine jurisdictions are of little value. Area
targets should be set for all major habitat types. Common types under little threat should be
protected with no-take areas covering at least 20% of the total area under that habitat type.
Uncommon or highly threatened habitats should be protected at greater levels, with 100%
protection for extremely rare or highly threatened habitat types. Examples of such rare and
vulnerable habitats can be found on seamounts and steep deep canyons crossing the
continental slope.
7. At present fisheries in Australia are assessed against a definition of overfishing which
takes no account of the damage the fishery causes to impacted ecosystems. This
unfortunately reflects the real priorities of Australian fisheries management agencies –
priorities which are in urgent need of change.
8. All Australian fisheries agencies have made policy commitments to apply both the
precautionary approach and the ecosystem approach to fisheries management. In-depth
study of the application of these approaches however reveals reluctance to apply the
approaches in practice, and dishonesty in reporting fishery outcomes. In many cases fishing
represents the greatest danger to Australian marine ecosystems at a local and sometimes
regional level.
Further contact:
I would be pleased to talk with the Committee in person if the Committee could fund a oneway budget airfare to Adelaide. I would pay the return flight. Alternatively I could address the
committee through a telephone link. My number is 0422 926 515.
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Contents:
Section One:
Threats to marine environments…………………………………………………………… 4
Section Two:
The marine environment in crisis………………………………………………………….. 10
Section Three:
A sample of scientific papers to guide design and management of MPAs………… 23
Section Four:
An overview of the science relating to marine protected areas……………………… 49
Section Five:
Scientific support for networks of MPAs around core sanctuary zones…………… 85
Section Six:
The balance between sanctuary zones and other managed areas………………….. 93
Section Seven:
Additional references…………………………………………………………………..……114
Endnotes………………………………..……………………………………………………..133
4
Section One:
Threats to marine environments.
1.1 Introduction:
In broad terms, the living inhabitants of the marine realm face five major threats:

climate change: changes to oceanic temperatures, acidity, patterns of water
movement (including currents, eddies and fronts), storminess and sea level, largely
caused by increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide, as well as impacts from damage
to the ozone layer;

overfishing with attendant bycatch problems, both from commercial fishing,
recreational fishing, illegal unregulated or unreported fishing (IUU), and ghost
fishingi;

habitat damage largely caused by fishing gear, especially bottom trawling, but also
including the effects of coastal development: destruction of coral reefs, mangroves,
natural freshwater flows (and passage), coastal foreshores, coastal wetlands and
sometimes entire estuaries – which all support coastal marine ecosystems;

pollution (in-sea and land-based, diffuse and point source) including nutrients,
sediments, plastic litter, noise, hazardous and radioactive substances; discarded
fishing gear, microbial pollution, and trace chemicals such as carcinogens,
endocrine-disruptors, and info-disruptors; and

ecosystem alterations caused by the introduction of alien organisms, especially
those transported by vessel ballast water and hull fouling.
Amongst these five major threats to marine biodiversity, fishing has, until the present time,
been the most damaging on a global scale. The destructive impacts of fishing stem chiefly
from overharvesting, habitat destruction, and bycatch. Over the coming century the threats
posed by increasing atmospheric greenhouse gases pose huge dangers to the marine
environment (Veron 2008, Koslow 2007, Turley et al. 2006). At smaller scales, other threats
(particularly pollution and habitat damage) are dominant at different localities. Coral reef,
mangrove, estuarine, seagrass, mud-flat, and sponge-field habitats have been (and are
being) extensively damaged. River passage, essential for anadromous and diadromous
species, has been impaired or destroyed around the globe.
Overharvesting is probably as old as human civilization. There is evidence that ancient
humans hunted many terrestrial animals to extinction (eg: Alroy 2001). Historically, fishing
has rarely been sustainable (Pauly et al. 2002). On the global scene, modern fishing
activities constitute the most important threat to marine biodiversity (Hiddink et al. 2008,
Helfman 2007:8; MEA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005a:67, 2005b:8, 2005c:12;
Crowder & Norse 2005:183; Kappel 2005:275; Myers & Worm 2003; Pauly et al. 2002;
Reynolds et al. 2002; Jackson et al. 2001; Leidy & Moyle 1998 - noting contrary views from
Gray 1997). Of all recently documented marine extinctions, the most common cause has
been excessive harvesting activities (Malakoff 1997, Carlton et al. 1999, VanBlaricom et al.
2000).
Fisheries in the deep sea have "undoubtedly had the greatest ecological impact to date" of
all known threats (Thiel & Koslow 2001:9). Fishing was identified as the main threat to
marine ecosystems in the northwest Atlantic over the period 1963-2000 (Link et al. 2002).
The fisheries of the Bering Sea have long been recognised as among the world’s best
managed (Aron et al. 1993); however Greenwald (2006) in a study of the region’s
vertebrates, identified commercial fishing as the most important threat, followed by climate
change, habitat degradation, ecological effects and pollution.
Historically, the impacts of fishing activities, even when regulated by governments, have in
many cases caused major, often irretrievable damage to marine ecosystems (Jackson et al.
2001, Ludwig et al. 1993). The benthic ecosystems of large areas of the ocean seabed have
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been destroyed or damaged (Watling & Norse 1998, Watling 2005). The genetic effects of
fishing may be substantial, yet are commonly ignored (Law & Stokes 2005). The failure of
managers to learn from past mistakes appears to be a notable feature of the history of
fisheries management (Mullon et al. 2005) in what Agardy (2000) has called the "global,
serial mismanagement of commercial fisheries".
"In many sea areas, the weight of fish available to be harvested is calculated to be less than
one tenth or even one one-hundredth of what it was before the introduction of industrial
fishing." ( MEA 2005c:16)
On the Australian scene, fishing activities appear to be the primary threat to fishes
(Pogonoski et al. 2002) and the second most important threat to marine invertebrates
(Ponder et al. 2002) after habitat degradation.
Overfishing is defined in this discussion as a level of fishing which puts at risk values
endorsed either by the fishery management agency, by the nation in whose waters fishing
takes place, or within widely accepted international agreements. A point of critical
importance in this regard is that a level of fishing intensity which successfully meets
traditional stock sustainability criteria (for example fishing a stock at maximum sustainable
yield) may well be considerably higher than a level of fishing intensity which meets criteria
designed to protect marine biodiversity (Jennings 2007). The wide endorsement of the
Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 implies that the latter level is the critical level by
which overfishing should be measured.
Amongst fishery scientists (and to lesser extent fishery managers) it is widely believed that
“governance, and not science, remains the weakest link in the [fisheries] management chain”
(Browman & Stergiou 2004:270). To a large extent fisheries managers, like bankers, do not
learn the lessons of the past, they simply repeat them.
The core impacts of climate change are caused by:

an increase in the temperature of ocean waters - causing, for example, coral
bleaching (Veron 2008);

the increase in the acidity of ocean waters, causing a rising aragonite saturation
horizon, particularly in the North Pacific and Southern Ocean - with resulting impacts
on organisms using calcium carbonate body structures (Turley et al. 2006), and

a reduction in ocean overturning circulation, risking, for example, impacts on deep
ocean oxygen content (Koslow 2007).
Important reviews of pollution in the marine environment are provided by:

nutrients – a general review: Rabalais (2005), Carpenter et al. (1998); – in the
Caribbean: Siung-Chang (1997); – on shallow coral reefs: Koop et al. (2001); – on
the Great Barrier Reef: Alongi & McKinnon (2005); – on the Gulf of Mexico:
Rabalais et al. (2002)

plastic litter – Derraik (2002); Goldberg (1997); Koslow (2007); Gregory (1991, 1999)

noise – Cummings (2007); Firestone & Jarvis (2007); NRC (2005); Koslow (2007)

radioactive waste – Koslow (2007)

armaments – Koslow (2007)

heavy metals – Islam & Tanaka (2004); Hutchings & Haynes (2005)

discarded fishing gear – Matsuoka et al. (2005); Brown & Macfadyen (2007)

microbial pollution – Islam & Tanaka (2004)

endocrine disruptors – Lintelmann et al. (2003); Porte et al. (2006)

info-disruptors – Lurling & Scheffer (2007)

other hazardous materials – Islam & Tanaka (2004); Koslow (2007).
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Important papers on marine and estuarine habitat damage include:

estuaries and rivers – Ray (1996, 2004, 2005), Jackson et al. (2001), Blaber et al.
(2000), Lotze et al. (2006), Collett & Hutchings (1978), Kappel (2005); Drinkwater &
Frank (1994);

impacts of bottom trawling – Koslow (2007), Gray et al. (2006), Jones (1992), NRC
(2002), Gianni (2004);

coral ecosystems – Aronson & Precht (2006), Pandolfi et al. (2003), Gardiner et al.
(2003), Hughes et al. (2003), McClanahan (2002), Jackson et al. (2001), McManus
(1997);

mangroves – Duke et al. (2007), Alongi (2002), Valiela et al. (2001); Ellison &
Farnsworth (1996);

seagrasses – Orth et al. (2006), Duarte (2002);

kelp – Steneck et al. (2002), Dayton et al. (1998).
For a general introduction to the problem of alien species, see Mooney & Hobbs (2000),
McNeely (2001), and Mack et al. (2000). General references on marine issues include Hewitt
& Campbell (2007), Streftaris & Zenetos (2006), Carlton & Rutz (2005), Bax et al. (2003),
and Rutz et al. (1997).
1.2 Threats and controls:
Over the last thirty years, broad controls have been proposed or developed relating to the
five major threats. Controls can be categorised with threats (Table 2.1 below). Many nations
have commendable statutes and policies; however implementation failures are widespread.
Table 2.1 Threats and controls: overview of general strategies:
Threats
Controls
Overfishing
and
bycatch
Restricted entry to fishery, catch quotas, limits or requirements on gear,
limits on fishing seasons, limits on fishing areas, no-take areas,
prohibitions on dumping or discarding gear.
Attempts to reduce or eliminate government subsidies contributing to
fishing over-capacity.
Control by flag States of high seas fishing particularly in regard to
compliance with international and regional fishing agreements.
Market-based fishery accreditation systems such as that of the Marine
Stewardship Council.
Government control programs based on minimising ecosystem effects.
Surveillance and compliance programs including VMSii and remote
surveillance (video surveillance, and electronic catch recording and
tracking, for example).
Habitat
damage
Limits on gear, limits on fishing areas, no-take areas.
Fixed mooring systems in sensitive (eg coral) environments. Surveillance
and compliance programs.
Land-based zoning schemes combined with project assessment and
approval provisions aimed at minimising the loss of coastal habitat
resulting from land-based developments. Special protection for high
conservation value estuaries. Zoning of key migration rivers to exclude
dams, weirs and other impediments to fish passage. Protection of the
catchment of high conservation value estuaries and rivers to maintain
natural water flows and water quality.
7
Threats
Controls
Climate
change
International agreements, such as those focussed on greenhouse
gasses or chlorofluorocarbons or (eg: the Kyoto Protocol, Montreal
Protocol) - and the implementation programs which follow, including
incentives, prohibitions and market-based schemes aimed at reducing
greenhouse gas emissions.
Pollution
Controls focussed on fixed point sources, mobile point sources and
diffuse terrestrial sources – including dumping and emissions to air and
water. Controls on marine noise.
Controls focused on specific pollutants, such as plastics or highly toxic or
radio-active substances.
Integrated coastal and river basin planning, including objectives to limit
the passage of nutrients and other pollutants to the marine environment.
Surveillance and compliance programs.
Alien
organisms
Controls on ballast water and hull fouling based on risk minimisation
rather than prevention. Import prohibitions relating to aquaculture stocks.
Infestation monitoring and removal programs.
Surveillance and compliance programs.
Good general references covering threats and management options are Koslow (2007) and
Norse & Crowder (2005).
1.3 Three core management concepts of modern marine
management
Any overview of threat control programs would be incomplete without mentioning the
evolution of three core concepts which have been endorsed (at least in principle) by most
national marine conservation policy frameworks, and (at least in the case of protected area
networks) many practical control programs:



ecosystem-based fishery management (EBM);
the precautionary principle (PP) and the closely-related precautionary approach
(PA); and
the strategic development of networks of marine protected areas (MPAs).
Active adaptive management, although the subject of much academic discussion for over 20
years, has yet to appear in operational fisheries management programs in any substantial
way (see Chapter 9).
Several fishery experts made comments during the nineteenth century to the effect that the
resources of the ocean were so vast as to defy any possible damage from human activities.
These views, although proved incorrect more than a century ago, still linger on, particularly in
fisher cultures. Within government fishery agencies and academic circles, the need to take
into account the effects of fishing for particular species on marine ecosystems has been
accepted for several decades. Promotion of ecosystem-based management was a core
feature of the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries 1995. Although the concept is
now embedded in key international and national law, fishery agencies have generally been
slow to incorporate EBM in fishery controls, often citing the need for more research as the
primary reason for the delay.
The precautionary principle, and its ‘softer’ version the precautionary approach, appeared in
international discussions some decades ago iii, and have been accepted, like EBM, into
international and national law. Article 174 of the Treaty establishing the European
Community requires, inter-alia, that Community policy on the environment be based on the
8
precautionary principle. The principle was one of the core environmental principles contained
in the Rio Declaration 1992 (UN Conference on Environment and Development) as well as
the earlier World Charter for Nature 1982. A generic definition of the principle may be stated
as follows:
Where the possibility exists of serious or irreversible harm, lack of scientific
certainty should not preclude cautious action by decision-makers to prevent such
harm. Decision-makers needs to anticipate the possibility of ecological damage,
rather than react to it as it occurs.
Like EBM, use of the precautionary principle in practical control strategies has lagged behind
its adoption in policy, not only in the EU but around the world. This remains the case, in spite
of the prominence given to the principle on the FAO Code of Conduct.
Marine protected areas were largely unknown in an era when it was generally considered
that the oceans needed no protection. However, as the damage to the marine environment
became more widely understood, marine protected area programs have featured in
international agreements as well as national conservation programs. The FAO Code of
Conduct stresses the need to protect critical habitat in aquatic environments, for example.
One of the most widely quoted international statements calling for the acceleration of marine
protected area programs around the world is that from the World Summit on Sustainable
Development (WSSD) (Johannesburg 2002). The marine section of the WSSD Key
Outcomes Statement provides basic benchmarks for the development of marine protected
areas as well as other key issues of marine governance:
Encourage the application by 2010 of the ecosystem approach for the
sustainable development of the oceans.
On an urgent basis and where possible by 2015, maintain or restore depleted
fish stocks to levels that can produce the maximum sustainable yield.
Put into effect the FAO international plans of action by the agreed dates:
 for the management of fishing capacity by 2005; and
 to prevent, deter and eliminate illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing by
2004.
Develop and facilitate the use of diverse approaches and tools, including the
ecosystem approach, the elimination of destructive fishing practices, the
establishment of marine protected areas consistent with international law and
based on scientific information, including representative networks by 2012.
Establish by 2004 a regular process under the United Nations for global reporting
and assessment of the state of the marine environment.
Eliminate subsidies that contribute to illegal, unreported and unregulated
fishing, and to over-capacity.
The same statement also contains a commitment: “Achieve by 2010 a significant reduction in
the current rate of loss of biological diversity.”
Two years later the 2004 Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biodiversity 1992
agreed to a goal of: “at least 10% of each of the world’s marine and coastal ecological
regions effectively conserved” (by 2012) (UNEP 2005:44).
1.4 Protection of representative marine ecosystems:
Attention needs to be given to the use of the word “representative” in the WSSD text above.
Requirements to provide adequate and comprehensive protection for representative
9
examples of all major types of ecosystems date back many years. Clear requirements for
action are contained in:

the 1972 Stockholm Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment.

the 1982 World Charter for Nature (a resolution of the UN General Assembly); and

the 1992 United Nations international Convention on Biological Diversity;
Principle 2 of the Stockholm Declaration 1972 states: “The natural resources of the earth,
including the air, water, land, flora and fauna and especially representative samples of
natural ecosystems, must be safeguarded for the benefit of present and future generations
through careful planning or management, as appropriate.”
The 1982 World Charter for Nature states: “Principle 3: All areas of the earth, both land and
sea, shall be subject to these principles of conservation; special protection shall be given to
unique areas, to representative samples of all the different types of ecosystems, and to the
habitat of rare or endangered species.”
An examination of the wording of both the Charter and the Declaration reveals that they
place wide obligations, not only on governments, but on all agencies of governments as well
as individuals. These instruments are however soft law, and as such carry no explicit
reporting requirements or sanctions for non-compliance.
1.5 Summary
The oceans of the world are being severely damaged. Five major threats continue to
undermine biodiversity values across the marine realm. According to a United Nations
advisory committee (GESAMP 2001):
The state of the world’s seas and oceans is deteriorating. Most of the problems
identified decades ago have not been resolved, and many are worsening. New
threats keep emerging. The traditional uses of the seas and coasts – and the
benefits that humanity gets from them – have been widely undermined.
Damage identified in 2001 has generally worsened. Since the 2001 report was written, a
major new threat has emerged: ocean acidification. The international goal of ‘at least 10% of
the world’s ecological regions effectively protected’ by 2010 will almost certainly not be met
(Wood 2005).
It is generally believed that the major failings of national programs to protect marine
biodiversity rest on failures of governance rather than failures of science. The three core
governance concepts discussed above are crucial to all serious attempts to address marine
conservation issues in a strategic way. However, in general, attempts to apply them have
often been poorly resourced, badly planned and ineffectually implemented.
The primary ingredient missing from national programs across the globe is political
commitment to address the issues in the face of short-sighted resistance from vested
interests, such as polluters, fishers and coastal developers. This failure in turn rests on
widespread ignorance of the severity of the issues amongst the general community in all
nations, rich and poor alike.
In many cases, the degradation which is occurring now cannot be reversed within the
timescale of a human life. Decisive and intelligent action by politicians and community
leaders is urgent. Such action must be underpinned by programs aimed at developing an
increased awareness of the issues amongst the general population.
10
Section Two:
The marine environment in crisis: ethics, fisheries, and the
role of marine protected areas.
A system of conservation based solely on economic self-interest is hopelessly
lopsided. It tends to ignore, and thus eventually to eliminate, many elements in
the … community that lack commercial value, but are (as far as we know)
essential to its healthy functioning. It assumes, falsely I think, that the
economic parts of the biotic clock will function without the uneconomic parts”
Aldo Leopold 1948
Learning to coexist with the rest of nature presents us with a huge challenge,
requiring not only technical solutions but more importantly a profound shift in
our own attitudes and philosophy.
Nik Lopoukhine, Chair of the World Commission on Protected Areas (Dudley et al. 2005:2)
2.1 Introduction
The planet’s biodiversity is in decline, and marine ecosystems are in urgent need of
protection. Fishing (in its many manifestations) is currently the single most important threat
to marine biodiversity – from a global perspective (Chapter 2). In the coming decades the
destruction caused by fishing will almost certainly be overshadowed by ocean acidification.
The creation of marine protected areas is usually justified in terms of utilitarian needs relating
to the conservation of biodiversity or the protection and enhancement of fish stocks. Could
such reserves also be justified in terms of ethics? In spite of the general absence of
discussion of ethics within areas of marine science or fisheries management, a substantial
and long-standing literature exists from which an ethical basis for the establishment of
protected areas could be drawn. This chapter briefly reviews some of the landmarks within
this literature, and  without apology for an explicit ethical position  recommends increased
discussion and use of ethical arguments within the marine community. Far from harvesting
other life forms in a sustainable way, humans are gradually but inexorably killing the wild
living inhabitants of our planet, and destroying the places in which they live. It can be argued
that the time to adopt a new ethical position has already passed with some talk but almost no
action.
Many factors affect human behaviour, and to a large extent the remaining chapters of this
thesis consider the reaction of fishery scientists and managers to knowledge about fish
populations and the ecosystems in which they reside. However, the cultures in which people
work are also important determinants of action, and this chapter explores ethical questions
which permeate, or are excluded from, organizational cultures. This chapter argues that
humans need to accord a right to ‘peaceful coexistence’ to at least a fair proportion of the
other living residents of the planet – an approach which in fact aligns with the scientific
recommendations of many conservation biologists. I argue that the matter is now so urgent
that it requires the attention of every marine scientist.
Australia has declared its entire Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) as a whale sanctuary, and
has proposed the creation of a South Pacific Whale Sanctuary at meetings of the
International Whaling Commission (IWC). Australia’s international stance on whaling rests
partly on two government-funded investigations: the Frost Inquiry (Frost 1978) and the
National Task Force on Whaling (NTFW 1997) – both relying partly on ethical arguments to
support their anti-whaling recommendations. These ethical arguments related to the
perceived ‘special nature’ of whales and other cetaceans: their intelligence, their family
behaviours, their ability to communicate, and their occasional voluntary contacts with
humans. Both inquiries drew the conclusion that we should accord these animals greater
rights than other sentient animals – essentially a ‘right to life’ and a right to a peaceful home.
11
However, while the Australian government supported the recommendations of both inquiries,
it appears noticeably reluctant to engage in any direct discussions of an ethical nature iv.
The Australian Government and Australian scientists have criticised Japan’s scientific
whaling program (Gales et al. 2005). Interviewed in a Australian Broadcasting Commission
(ABC) ‘Four Corners’ program screened in July 2005, a Japanese government spokesman
asked a very reasonable question: “Australians eat cows, pigs and sheep. Why shouldn’t we
eat whales?”. Although this question was tangential to the immediate discussion, I found it
interesting that it remained without discussion or reply, although it lies at the heart of the
Japanese position. An ethical position underlies the Australian point of view, yet Australians
seem reluctant to talk about it. In discussing the issue later with a colleague (a marine
scientist) I asked: “have you ever heard a marine scientist talk about environmental ethics?”
The reply was negative.
In this chapter I examine the reluctance of marine scientists to involve themselves with
questions of ethics. I suggest that many marine scientists may be ignorant of the extensive
environmental ethics literature, or see it as irrelevant. I argue that, while this is entirely
understandable, it is now counter-productive. It is not un-scientific to adopt an explicitly
ethical position, and I argue that discussion of ethics within the community involved in the
management of marine resources should be strongly promoted until it seeps through to the
level of the general community and thus to political decision-making.
2.2 Justifying marine protection
Terrestrial scientists do have a track record, if somewhat uneven, in using ethical arguments
to justify the creation of protected areas – with Aldo Leopold being one of the most
celebrated (more below). A well known example from more recent times is the controversial
judgement of Justice Douglas (US Supreme Court) who argued that the moral rights of
nature should be given legal recognition – based partly on the arguments of terrestrial
ecologists (see Stone 1996). Jim Chen, a prominent academic US lawyer, continues to
press such arguments (Chen 2005) again based on the findings of terrestrial biologists.
As a fairly typical example of a marine scientist arguing for the creation of marine protected
areas, Professor Terry Hughes argued that a substantial proportion (30% or more) of coral
reef ecosystems need to be protected from harvesting pressures in order to ensure
ecosystem stability. According to Hughes (2004) (my emphasis): “Our final recommendation,
the most challenging, is for the creation of institutional frameworks that align the marketplace
and economic self-interest with environmental conservation. The ultimate aim is to secure
future options for social and economic development” (my emphasis). It should be noted,
however, that Professor Hughes on other occasions has adopted an explicitly ethical position
in arguing for the need for major change in reef management around the world (Hughes et
al. 2002) – unlike most other marine scientists who generally avoid taking ethics into public
discussions.
The reliance on utilitarian arguments is of course not restricted to discussions of marine
protected areas. Alfred Duda and Kenneth Sherman, in calling for urgent changes to existing
fishery management strategies, state (my emphasis): “Fragmentation amongst institutions,
international agencies and disciplines, lack of cooperation among nations sharing marine
ecosystems, and weak national policies, legislation and enforcement all contribute to the
need for a new imperative for adopting ecosystem-based approaches to managing human
activities in these systems in order to avoid serious social and economic disruption” (Duda &
Sherman 2002).
Verity et al. 2002, in a review of both the status of pelagic ecosystems and the scientific and
political paradigms underpinning resource exploitation, conclude that “use of resources for
the benefit of humanity” is the prime driver. In spite of finding the paradigms of resource
exploitation unsustainable, Verity et al., in recommending paradigm changes, do not attempt
to expand this narrow ethic (2002:226).
12
Sissenwine and Mace (2001) in defining ‘responsible fisheries’ state: “…we believe
‘responsible’ means sustainable production of human benefits, distributed fairly, without
causing unacceptable changes in marine ecosystems.”
In their review of marine pollution, Islam & Tanaka (2004) stated: “Effective and sustainable
management of coastal and marine environments should be initiated… to ensure .. the best
possible utilization of resources for the broader interest and benefit of mankind.”
The FAO published a report Ethical issues in fisheries in 2005. The words “deep ecology”
and “humanism” are not mentioned in the entire document, which revolves almost
completely around the ethics of distributing fishery benefits between existing and future
human populations (FAO 2005a). While these are important issues, they are not the subject
of this chapter.
All these human-focused views are expressed by eminent and well-respected scientists, and
their reliance on utilitarian motives, and their avoidance of any discussion of ethical motives
is typical of the approach of marine scientists generally. Almost certainly each of these
scientists speaks from an underlying ethical position; however this is seldom or never
articulated.
There are, thankfully, exceptions. Unusual papers by Balon (2000) and de Leeuw (1996)
take a strongly ethical position in opposing recreational fishing - based partially on
arguments of unnecessary cruelty and the trivial destruction of life.
Coward et al. (2000) discuss fisheries ethics at length, focussing on “four kinds of justice:
distributive, productive, restorative and creative.” Of these, the most relevant to the present
discussion is “restorative justice” which refers to a need to restore degraded ecosystems,
both for the benefits of the plants and animals which live in the ecosystem, and the humans
which depend on the ecosystem for food and livelihood. In conclusion, they suggest:
“Recognizing that we have the right to use our environment as a necessary resource… we
must also recognize the concurrent responsibility not to abuse that right by taking more than
we need, or more than the ecosystem can sustain…” Their recommendations include
promotion of the precautionary principle, and promotion of marine protected area
development.
Another important exception (directly relevant to the subject of this chapter) is a paper by
Bohnsack (2003), while the well-respected American philosopher Callicott has specifically
addressed the ethics of marine resource use (Callicott 1991, 1992). After examining the roll
of shifting baselines in undermining public expectations of what constitutes a healthy marine
environment, Bohnsack concludes: “marine reserves not only protect marine resources but
can help restore human expectations and provide a basis for new conservation ethics by
providing a window on the past and a vision for the future.” These thoughts are echoed by
Safina (2005) in an eloquent plea to extend Leopold’s land ethic to the ocean.
2.3 Environmental ethics and the development of an ecological
conscience
Many religions contain concepts of care which extend beyond responsibilities to other
humans. As Bohnsack (2003) points out, indigenous people in many parts of the world have
strong beliefs that man is a part of, and not dominant over, nature. Traditional belief systems
in many parts of Oceania, for example, have emphasised cultural and social controls and
taboos on fishing, with strict and enforced codes of conduct (Johannes 1984). Buddhism
combines a core ‘ecological’ concept, the ‘inter-connectedness of all things’ with an
admonition to avoid causing suffering to any sentient being (BDK 1966). Hill (2000:161) has
argued that Judeo-Christian teaching contains the concept that “nature serves something
beyond human purposes, and as such it must be respected and honoured”. The recentlydeveloped Baha’i faith advocates responsibilities relating to maintaining the health of the
planet, while Pantheism is more explicit in it’s ‘unity of all life’ teaching (refer
www.comparative-religion.com). More contemporary authors such as Birch (1965, 1975,
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1993) argue for the recognition of intrinsic values in nature, rather than its purely
instrumental value to mankind.
These concepts have appeared in popular western literature for well over 100 years (see for
example Tolstoy 1903), without significant influence on government or corporate decisionmaking, which are pervaded (globally) by John Stuart Mill’s anthropocentric ‘enlightened selfinterest’ (Mills 1863). Callicott traced the roots of the now widely held ‘resource conservation’
ethic, which essentially aims at “the greatest good for the greatest number for the longest
time” (Callicott 1991:25). Bohnsack (2003) provides an excellent summary of Callicott’s
detailed chronology of schools of resource ethics.
In a classic essay “The historical roots of our ecologic crisis” Lynn White (1967) argues that
modern technology and its application, the immediate cause for the twentieth century’s
environmental problems, emerged from an anthropocentric culture of thought which rests in
large part on Judaism. The particular passage cited is the ‘dominion’ passage of the Book of
Genesis 1:26,28):
Then God said "Let us make man in our image, in our likeness,
and let them rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air,
over the livestock, over all the earth, and over all the creatures
that move along the ground". So God created man in his own
image, in the image of God he created him: male and female he
created them. God blessed them and said to them, "Be fruitful
and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over
the fish of the sea and the birds of the air and over every living
creature that moves along the ground.”
White’s essay continues to create discussion and controversy. Many support his basic
contention (eg: McKibben 1989). Christian writers (eg: Birch 1993, Hill 2000) inheriting in
part a Judaic foundation, have argued for the expansion of Christian philosophy to
encompass strong environmental stewardship ethics. However, such arguments appear to
have limited sway over the bulk of the Christian churches or their leaders. Consider, for
example, the Christian ‘Cornwall Declaration on Environmental Stewardship’ 2000, which
criticises “unfounded and undue concerns [including] fears of destructive manmade global
warming, overpopulation, and rampant species loss”. The evidence suggests that these
three issues are in fact three of the most important facing the immediate future of our planet
(MEA 2005, Novacek & Cleland 2001). On July 14, 2008, the Catholic Archbishop of
Sydney, Cardinal Pell, appeared on the ABC TV Seven O’clock News, calling on people in
countries where the birth rate was slowing to “have more babies”. It is also noticeable that
modern Buddhist leaders, in spite of the inherent environmental concepts within their
philosophy, do not speak strongly for comprehensive environmental stewardship concepts
(see for example The Dalai Lama 1995 and other works by the same author). For a detailed
discussion of various religious positions on the environment, see Nash (1990).
Henry James Thoreau, John Muir and Aldo Leopold (referred to by Callicott 2003 as “the
three giants of American environmental philosophy) all advocated a reverence for nature,
and argued the need to set aside large areas away from human impact (wilderness areas) in
order to preserve intrinsic natural values.
2.4 Aldo Leopold’s “land ethic”
Of the writings of these three, Aldo Leopold’s ‘Land ethic’ (Leopold 1948) has made perhaps
the most lasting impression, and continues to be extensively quoted. I consider his views to
be powerful and coherent, and warrant examination in more detail.
Suppose no law prevented you from killing your neighbour and taking his land – would you
do it? Hopefully not. Suppose your ‘neighbour’ belonged to a different racial or cultural
group, and lived in another land. Would you kill him and take his land? Would you enslave
him? Again, hopefully not. Yet that is exactly what our forefathers did – and what they did
seemed ‘right’ within the moral framework of the time. In certain parts of the modern world,
slavery still continues (www.antislavery.org). These questions are not far-fetched. If you
14
discovered an uncharted island, populated only by a forest and its animals, would you take
possession, clear the land, kill the animals, build a house and plant crops? Maybe you
would. If everyone else acted in the same way, where would it end? With increasing human
domination of the planet’s ecosystems (MEA 2005; Vitousek et al. 1997) that end is now in
sight.
I agree with Balint’s view (2003:14): “Scientists often do not recognize, or hesitate to raise
relevant ethical issues when participating in environmental policy debates, relying instead on
scientific theories, models, and data.”
As Balint also points out, Leopold urges humanity to undergo a change of heart towards the
environment and extend society’s ethical structure to include the natural world. Leopold
reminds us that slavery, including the killing of slaves as property, was once considered
normal and right. Leopold equates movement towards a ‘‘land ethic’’ with previous cultural
changes that led, for example, to abolishing slavery and recognizing the rights of women. In
contrast to anthropocentric utilitarian views of nature, in which morally right acts are those
that protect or increase human well-being, Leopold offers the following recommendation:
…quit thinking about decent land-use as solely an economic problem. Examine
each question in terms of what is ethically and esthetically right, as well as what is
economically expedient. A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity,
stability and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise
(Leopold 1948:240 – my emphasis).
In a rare paper focused directly on fishery ethics, Callicott (1991:25) called Leopold’s words
(quoted above) “the golden rule of the land ethic”.
Leopold wrote, ‘‘There is as yet no ethic dealing with man’s relation to the land and to the
animals and plants which grow upon it … The land-relation is still strictly economic, entailing
privileges but not obligations.’’ Movement toward such an ethic, he suggested, is “…an
evolutionary possibility and an ecological necessity …Individual thinkers since the days of
Ezekiel and Isaiah have asserted that the despoliation of land is not only inexpedient but
wrong. Society, however, has not yet affirmed their belief. I regard the present conservation
movement as the embryo of such an affirmation.” (Leopold 1948:218)
Apart from the immediate issue of technological capability, the planet’s environmental crisis
stems from the way humans act as if they own the planet – dubbed by Ehrenfeld (1981) the
“arrogance of humanism”. Balint concludes (2003:22) “Leopold argued that the unlimited
prerogative to own nature  defined to include ‘soils, waters, plants, and animals, or
collectively: the land’  that humans have bestowed upon themselves should be replaced by
a constrained set of rights and an expanded set of responsibilities founded on principles of
membership and citizenship in  rather than domination and exploitation of  the community
of nature.”
It is this concept of mankind as part of a ‘community of nature’ which provides the essential
basis for the ethic we now so badly need.
It is one thing to catch a fish and eat it, but it is another to over-fish that species to extinction,
and yet another to destroy the place where that species lives. Do humans have the right to
do all three?
2.5 Contemporary environmental ethics
Why are contemporary biologists and ecologists generally unwilling to engage in discussions
of ethics? There are, of course, exceptions. According to Balint (2003:21): “Michael Soule
has listed the postulate ‘‘Biodiversity has intrinsic value,’’ as one of four key tenets in the field
of conservation biology, which he helped found, giving the idea that all life has intrinsic value
the status of a first principle.”
15
Like White, David Ehrenfeld, in his critique of humanism (1981) argues that management of
the planet’s resources is almost universally founded on the idea that the features and objects
of the natural world were created primarily for the benefit of humanity, and that it is the
responsibility of humanity to accept this gift and accept stewardship of the natural world.
Stanley (1995) in applying Ehrenfeld’s arguments to ecosystem-based management, finds
ample evidence that humanity’s belief that effective ecosystem management is both possible
and necessary lacks a strong factual basis – the history of such management being paved
with failures. Stanley suggests that such failures will continue without a change in underlying
ethics: “Humanity must begin to view itself as part of nature rather than the master of nature.
It must reject the belief that nature is ours to use and control” (Stanley 1995).
Arne Naess and George Sessions are often seen as the founding fathers of ‘deep ecology’ –
an ecology explicitly based on ethics which acknowledge the intrinsic value of non-human
life forms. According to Naess & Rothenburg (1989:c1) ”The inability of the science of
ecology to denounce such processes as the washing away of the soil of rainforests suggests
that we need another approach which involves the inescapable role of announcing values,
not only ‘facts’.” Deep ecology is based on a ‘deep’ consideration of the values behind
human use and abuse of the natural environment.
James Lovelock proposed the ‘Gaia hypothesis’ which sees the entire planet as resembling
a single organism in the inter-connection of its biological components: "the self-regulation of
climate and chemical composition is a process that emerges from the tightly coupled
evolution of rocks, air, and ocean - in addition to that of organisms. Such interlocking selfregulation, while rarely optimal - consider the cold and hot places of the earth, the wet and
the dry - nevertheless keeps the Earth a fit place for life" (Lovelock 1995). The ethical
extension of this concept involves care of the planet as a living organism – with, Lovelock
argues, reverence, humility and caution.
These ethical positions are broadly termed “biocentric”. Those opposing the extension of
such ethics to the management and protection of planetary ecosystems are apt to highlight
extreme versions as manifestly unworkable. For example, according to Hill (2000:161):
[T]he effort to move beyond an anthropocentric to a biocentric view neither fits with
our moral sensibilities nor yields useful policy prescriptions. First of all, the various
attempts to derive a biocentric theology have been stymied in determining agreedupon stopping points for the rights of nature. Although early efforts concentrated on
the concept of sentience, philosophers and theologians have been unable to
present a workable definition of what sentience includes. Edward Abbey, a leading
deep ecologist, has said, “unless the need were urgent, I could no more sink the
blade of an axe into the tissues of a living tree than I could drive it into the flesh of a
fellow human.” Rene Dubos, a prominent bacteriologist, believes that just as people
and wolves should coexist, so should people and germs. Philosopher Paul Taylor
argues, “The killing of a wildflower, then, when taken in and of itself, is just as much
a wrong, other-things-being-equal, as the killing of a human.” But even granting
rights to living creatures does not solve the problem, since several leading figures in
the environmental movement now argue, in the words of Michael J. Cohen, that
“rocks and mountains, sand, clouds, wind, and rain, all are alive. Nothing is dead…”
Most environmental philosophers, however, take more defensible, moderate positions. Stone
(1987, 1996) in addressing questions relating to the standing of those without voices, argues
for increasing weight to be placed on intrinsic biological values in reducing further erosion of
natural ecosystems, as well as the need (Stone 1995) to develop institutional protection for
the rights of future generations of humans. Chen (2005) argues within a traditional but
precautionary ethical framework for the development of stronger legal mechanisms to protect
global biodiversity. The modern philosopher Peter Singer (1993) echoes the earlier approach
by Passmorev (1974) in grounding his ethical framework largely on enlightened self-interest
informed by long-term and precautionary ecological science, with a generally accepted need
to reduce suffering of sentient beings vi. Such views are anything but radical.
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2.6 Ethics in international instruments and government policy
With a few environmental philosophers expressing apparently extreme views, perhaps the
reluctance of marine scientists and managers to adopt explicit ethical positions is in some
way understandable. The university courses in marine biology that I am familiar with contain
little or no formal exposure to issues of environmental ethics – which seem generally left
within social science faculties. Keeping up with current science, past graduation, is a
demanding task, and practising scientists mostly have little time to explore ethical issues.
Where a scientist holds an ethical position (as many, even most perhaps do) it will often
seem more useful to couch arguments about ecosystem protection in terms which are clearly
understandable within the utilitarian framework of politics and economics. I argue, however,
that this approach is now unnecessarily conservative. We can, in fact, look to international
agreements and documents to legitimise an explicit ethical position.
The World Charter for Nature 1982 (a resolution of the United Nations General Assembly)
was supported by the Australian Government in its development through the UNGA.
Although hortatory and without compliance provisions, and thus non-binding, the Charter
nevertheless represents an important commitment. Commitment obligations apply not only to
government agencies, but, through article 24, to corporations and individuals.
In the preamble, the Charter notes that “civilization is rooted in nature… and living in
harmony with nature gives man the best opportunities for the development of his creativity,
and for rest and relaxation”. Importantly, the Charter also notes “Every form of life is unique,
warranting respect regardless of its worth to man, and, to accord other organisms such
recognition, man must be guided by a moral code of action”.
Foreshadowing the Convention on Biological Diversityvii which was to develop a decade
later, Article 1 of the Charter requires that “Nature shall be respected, and its essential
processes shall not be impaired”. Article 2 focuses on the protection of genetic diversity, and
article 3 requires that “all areas of the earth, both land and sea, shall be subject to these
principles of conservation; special protection shall be given to unique areas, to
representative samples of all the different types of ecosystems, and to the habitat of rare or
endangered species.” Article 10, perhaps particularly relevant to fishery management, states
in part: “Living resources shall not be utilized in excess of their natural capacity for
regeneration”. I suggest that flagrant violation of these principles has become such common
practice that we now think of these transgressions as ‘normal’.
The Earth Charter was developed to extend the World Charter for Nature by adding social
objectives, including the eradiation of poverty and the universal adoption of democracy. The
Earth Charter was developed over many years following a 1987 initiative of the United
Nations. An Earth Charter Commission was formed in 1997 with help from influential UN
figures and funds from the Dutch Government. After many years and much consultation, the
Charter was endorsed by the Commission in 2000, and was put to the 2002 World Summit
on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg - with a view to it being endorsed by the
United Nations General Assembly.
The Earth Charter is important, as it embodies an explicit ethic of respect for the planet. The
preamble states: “The protection of Earth’s vitality, diversity and beauty is a sacred trust”.
Both Taylor (1999) and Bosselmann (2004) consider the Charter to be of considerable
significance in regard to its long-term ability to influence both international law, and
environmental law in generalviii. According to Bosselmann (2004): “Among its groundbreaking principles are ecologically defined concepts of sustainability, justice, rights and
duties.”
Article 1 advocated the recognition “that all beings are interdependent, and every form of life
has value regardless of its worth to human beings”, and article 15 requires that “all living
beings” be treated with respect and consideration. Many fishery practices flagrantly violate
these requirements – consider, for example, the habitat damage routinely caused by trawling
operations (Appendix 4) or the incidental kill caused by prawn fisheries (Chapter 11).
17
Although it is a conservative document, shying away from important issues such as the need
to reduce the human population of the planet, and the need to reform democratic
governance, the Earth Charter has nevertheless failed  so far  to get widespread
government endorsement. It has, however, considerable support amongst the global
community (including the scientific community) within many nations, and remains open for
public endorsement. Over three thousand organisations worldwide have endorsed the
Charter, including UNESCO and the World Conservation Union (IUCN)
(www.earthcharter.org).
Writing shortly before the UN Johannesburg summit, Callicott had high hopes for the Earth
Charter: “The prospective adoption of the Earth Charter by the General Assembly of the
United Nations may have an impact on governmental environmental policy and performance
similar to the impact on governmental social policy and behaviour of the adoption by the
same body in 1948 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.” (Callicott 2002). It is to be
hoped that Callicott’s expectations in this regard will ultimately be fulfilled  however for this
to happen there will need to be a growing awareness, particularly within agencies which
provide direct advice to politicians, of the need to articulate the policy implications of ethical
positions.
Australia’s National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia’s Biological Diversity (DEH
1996:2) underwent wide agency consultation prior to publication, and, in its final form, was
endorsed by the Australian (Commonwealth) Government, all State and Territory
Governments, and by Local Government’s peak body. In it we find an articulate ethical
statement:
There is in the community a view that the conservation of biological diversity
also has an ethical basis. We share the earth with many other life forms which
warrant our respect, whether or not they are of benefit to us. Earth belongs to
the future as well as the present; no single species or generation can claim it as
its own.
This clear expression (in a widely-endorsed government policy document) of the beginnings
of a ‘land ethic’ provided Australian scientists with an opportunity to build discussion and use
of deeper ethical positions, yet almost nothing has happened, and nearly a decade has
passed, since this statement was published.
2.7 Oceans in crisis
Global trends:
Driven by the demands of an expanding human population combined with increasing per
capita resource consumption, global ecological assets and processes are being seriously
eroded. As the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment puts it: “Human activities have taken the
planet to the edge of a massive wave of species extinctions” (MEA 2005c:3). Outside
protected areas (IUCN categories I-VI) which cover about 12% of the terrestrial areas and
about 1.4% of the marine realm (www.unep-wcmc.org) humans have already affected almost
all terrestrial and freshwater habitats (Cracraft & Grifo 1999, Wilson 2002). About half of all
natural terrestrial ecosystems have been destroyed or severely damaged, with this
percentage escalating (Vitousek et al. 1997). Most of the remaining terrestrial natural habitat
is significantly degraded (MEA 2005a, 2005b), and major degradation is occurring inside
many protected areas, particularly in underdeveloped countries (Carey et al. 2000).
About one-quarter of the Earth’s ‘modern’ bird species have already been driven to extinction
(Vitousek et al. 1997), with notable marine species such as albatrosses currently on
extinction trajectories (Baker et al. 2002, Dulvy et al. 2003). Of the planet’s vertebrates,
amphibians are the most threatened, followed by freshwater fishes (Helfman 2007). Helfman
estimates one quarter to one third of all freshwater fish species are threatened. Marine fishes
are the least endangered, with possibly 5% threatened (Leidy & Moyle 1998).
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Considerable uncertainty surrounds estimates of threatened terrestrial plants, as poor data
exists for the tropical regions where the bulk of plant species reside. Estimates by Pitman
and Jorgensen (2002) suggest that “as many as half of the world’s plant species may qualify
as threatened with extinction under the IUCN classification scheme”. Recent anthropogenic
changes to the earth’s atmosphere may not produce smooth changes in the earth’s major
ecosystems or the processes which underpin climate itself (such as the global thermohaline
circulation – Koslow 2007). The resilience of the planet is being undermined; abrupt changes
could occur and could prove to be both damaging and effectively irreversible (Steffen 2004).
The oceans as well as the planet’s terrestrial areas are being severely damaged. According
to a United Nations advisory committee (GESAMP 2001):
The state of the world’s seas and oceans is deteriorating. Most of the
problems identified decades ago have not been resolved, and many are
worsening. New threats keep emerging. The traditional uses of the seas and
coasts – and the benefits that humanity gets from them – have been widely
undermined.
After two intensive workshops examining global fisheries, the FAO editors concluded:
Over the last 15 years, the marine fishery resources of the world have been
increasingly subjected to overexploitation, detrimental fishing practices, and
environmental degradation. The phenomenon now affects a majority of
fisheries worldwide, with very severe consequences in terms of resource
unsustainability, massive economic waste, increasing social cost and food
insecurity (Swan & Greboval 2003:1).
The workshops found that “poor governance” – including importantly a lack of political and
managerial will – was the “major cause for the inability to achieve sustainable fisheries”
(Swan & Greboval 2003:2).
Winter & Hughes(1997:22) characterised loss of biodiversity as “one of the four greatest
risks to natural ecology and human well-being”.
Overfishing
Overfishing is one of the greatest threats to the marine environment (GESAMP 2001:1) –
and fishing overall is the greatest threat when attendant effects of habitat damage,
overfishing, IUUix fishing and bycatch are taken into account (Dulvy 2003, MEA 2005).
Overfishing, far from being a modern phenomenon, has been occurring in certain regions for
a considerable time. Overfishing has been the rule rather than the exception, even in
artisanal fisheries. As Jackson (2001) points out: “Untold millions of large fishes, sharks, sea
turtles and manatees were removed from the Caribbean in the 17th to 19th centuries. Recent
collapses of reef corals and seagrasses are due ultimately to the losses of these large
consumers as much as to more recent changes in climate, eutrophication, or outbreaks of
disease.” According to Pauly et al. 2002: “Fisheries have rarely been ‘sustainable’. Rather,
fishing has induced serial depletions, long masked by improved technology, geographic
expansion and exploitation of previously spurned species lower in the food web”.
Populations of ocean fishes have been hugely reduced over the last two centuries. Historical
evidence suggests that earlier stocks may have been an order of magnitudex greater than
stocks in the last half-century (Steele and Schumacher 2000) – which themselves have now
often been reduced by another order of magnitude (see below). The last few decades have
witnessed accelerating inroads into marine habitats, which in many instances are now
broadly approaching ecological collapse. Many coastal ecosystems have already passed the
point of collapse when compared with their pristine state – some well past, like the Black Sea
(Daskalov 2002, Daskalov et al. 2007) and the Baltic Sea (Osterblom et al. 2007). The
dramatic decline of coastal fisheries is the signal we see (Jackson et al. 2001) – masked to
some extent by shifting baselines (Pauly 1995) where each generation of fisheries scientists
forgets (or never learns) about the state of the oceans before their own lifetimes.
19
According to Jackson (2001): “Ecological extinction caused by overfishing precedes all other
pervasive human disturbance to coastal ecosystems, including pollution, degradation of
water quality, and anthropogenic climate change”. Duda & Sherman (2002) express similar
concerns: “Continued over-fishing in the face of scientific warnings, fishing down food webs,
destruction of habitat, and accelerated pollution loading  especially nitrogen export  have
resulted in significant degradation to coastal and marine ecosystems of both rich and poor
nations.”
Subsidization of national fishing fleets continues, in spite of warnings by scientists (eg: Pauly
1995) and the FAOxi (www.fao.org) that excessive fishing pressures are the primary cause of
fisheries collapse. Global fishing fleets are two or three times the size necessary to harvest
the approximate reported annual global catch of around 90 million tonnes. Many fisheries
have “staggering levels of discarded bycatch” which, when combined with unreported,
unregulated and illegal fishing, pushes the true global annual catch to around 150 million
tonnes (Pauly & Christensen 1995). These figures, although a decade old, are still roughly
accurate if Chinese reports of fishing take are excluded. This estimate does not include
‘ghost fishing’  the take by lost or abandoned fishing gear. While difficult to estimate, ghost
fishing may be causing significant damage. The plastics used in many nets, once removed
from the effects of UV radiation in sunlight, last virtually indefinitely.
Many marine animals have suffered dramatic declines due to over-fishing. Roman & Palumbi
(2003) estimate that “pre-whaling populations [of fin and humpback whales in the northern
Atlantic] [were] 6 to 20 times higher than present-day population estimates”. Jennings and
Blanchard (2004) in their study applying macro-ecological theory to the North Sea, suggest
that the current biomass of large fishes is over 97% lower than it had been in the absence of
fisheries exploitation.
Dayton et al. (1998) describing the kelp forest communities of western USA, state:
“…fisheries have had huge effects on the abundances, size-frequencies, and/or spatial
distributions of sheephead, kelp bass, rays, flatfish, rock fish, spiny lobsters and red sea
urchins. Now even sea cucumbers, crabs and small snails are subject to unregulated fishing.
…most of the megafauna have been removed with very little documentation or historical
understanding of what the natural community was like.”
Studies by Myers and Worm (2003) have estimated “that large predatory fish biomass today
is only about 10% of pre-industrial levels”. This decline may have caused serious damage to
ocean ecosystems, and species extinction is a real possibility (Malakoff 1997). Baum and
Myers (2004) estimate that oceanic whitetip and silky sharks, formerly the most commonly
caught shark species in the Gulf of Mexico, “have declined by over 99% and 90%
respectively”. Grey nurse sharks were the second most commonly caught shark on
Australia’s eastern seaboard in the early 1900s (Roughley 1951); today their total population
is estimated at 400 individuals and is continuing to decline (Otway et al. 2004). Worm et al.
(2005) confirms the generality of declines in large predators across the world’s oceans.
As Botsford et al. (1997) point out, it is abundantly clear that, at a global level, “[fishery]
management has failed to achieve a principal goal, sustainability”.
Habitat damage
In spite of the admonitions of many international agreements and national policies aimed at
the protection of habitats and ecosystems, trawling continues to cause massive damage to
fragile benthic communities (Dayton 1998, Koslow et al. 2000, NRC 2002, Koslow 2007).
The advent of recent technologies in navigation, sonar and deep fishing gear have permitted
damaging fishing of the deep sea (Roberts 2002). Due to very slow recovery times in deep
sea ecosystems, damage already caused by deep sea trawling is likely to take many
hundreds of years to repair, if full recovery is possible at all.
Vulnerable coastal habitats, such as mangrove, salt marsh, seagrass, and coral reefs have
been seriously – in many cases irrevocably – damaged by human activities through pollution,
20
alteration of tidal flows, and deliberate damage (e.g. from blast fishing or mining operations –
Oakley 2000).
Coral, global warming and biogeochemistry
Coral reef ecosystems have been declining globally for many decades (Wilkinson 2004,
Pandolfi et al. 2003, Jackson 1997). Average coral cover in the Caribbean region has
declined from about 50% to 10% in the last 30 years (Gardner et al. 2003), and similar
declines are common in heavily fished reef ecosystems globally. Even given these dramatic
declines, for coral ecosystems the worse is yet to come.
The concentration of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere has increased by about 30%
since the beginning of the industrial revolution (Vitousek et al. 1997) with a continued
massive increase effectively unavoidable over the coming decades. Carbon dioxide levels
are now higher than any time in the last 400,000 years, and possibly the last 50 million years
(Koslow 2007, Veron 2008).
According to the Royal Society (2005) many marine organisms dependent on calcium
carbonate structures, including corals, are unlikely to survive increases in ocean acidity
predicted at the close of the next century, if global emission rates of carbon dioxide continue
along current trajectories. Coral reefs are already degrading under the effects of overfishing,
increasing sea surface temperatures, and nutrient-laden runoff from the agricultural and
urban development of nearby coasts (Bellwood et al. 2004, Hughes et al. 2003). According
to Pandolfi et al. (2003): “[Coral] reefs will not survive without immediate protection from
human exploitation over large spatial scales”. Veron (2008) is even more pessimistic.
Pollution
Excessive anthropogenic nitrogen inputs to coastal marine ecosystems are causing ‘dead
zones’ (oxygen-depleted zones) of substantial size. Moffat (1998) reported a zone “the size
of the State of New Jersey, expanding westward from the coast of Louisiana into Texas
waters”. Since then other similar zones have been identified (Diaz & Rosenberg 2008). As
mentioned above, shallow coral ecosystems are readily damaged by nutrients (Harrison &
Ward 2001) sediment, and pesticides in runoff from adjacent agricultural land (Hutchins et al.
2005). Trace metal pollution may also be important; copper for example has been found to
inhibit coral spawning even at very low concentrations (Reichelt-Brushett & Harrison 2005).
Pollution from plastic litter has reached epidemic proportions (Islam & Tanaka 2004).
Ingested plastics accumulate in the guts of some marine animals, causing starvation. Most
plastics do not degrade once removed from UV radiation, making the problem of plastic
accumulation particularly severe in marine environments.
According to Islam & Tanaka (2004): “Coastal and marine pollution has already caused
major changes in the structure and function of phytoplankton, zooplankton, benthic and fish
communities over large areas… Most of the world’s important fisheries have now been
damaged to varying extents…”.
Trophic cascades: catastrophic shifts in ecosystems
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment biodiversity synthesis (2005a:25) highlights damage
which can occur to ecosystems by removing species which supply local services critical to
key ecosystem processes, such as grazing in coral reefs, or pollination in terrestrial
ecosystems. Examples of damaging trophic cascades in the marine environment listed in
MEA include overharvesting of Californian sea otters, Alaskan sea lions, Kenyan trigger fish,
and Caribbean reef fish (MEA 2005a:27).
2.8 Conclusion
Human activities are undermining the biological fabric of planet Earth. Critical problems
identified decades ago by the international community have not been addressed in any
21
effective way, and are worsening. “Business as usual” – resting on existing anthropocentric
cultures within science, government and the community at large – is not working.
As Callicott (1991:27) argued more than ten years ago: “The public conservation agencies
[read: fishery management agencies] are still ruled by the 19th century Resource
Conservation Ethic, but as Aldo Leopold realized some 40 years ago, the Resource
Conservation Ethic is based upon an obsolete pre-ecological scientific paradigm. Since the
Land Ethic is distilled from contemporary evolutionary and ecological theory it should,
therefore, be the new guiding principle of present and future conservation policy.”
The single most important issue the world faces today is the need to develop an ecocentric
ethic of planetary stewardship, based on notions of participation in the community of nature
rather than domination of it – as advocated by Leopold (1948). Such ethics need to be
underpinned by a reverence for the beauty and complexity of our "water planet" and its
diversity of life forms. Without this ethic, the forces behind our industrial-consumer society
are pushing global resource consumption to higher and higher levels, eroding the essential
life support systems of the planet. The expansion of ‘human habitats’ is now so pervasive
that it is quite simply destroying the homes of other inhabitants of our planet on a massive
scale.
Much is at stake. The human onslaught on the marine environment has, until the last few
decades, been concentrated in estuaries and coastal oceans – through overfishing, habitat
damage, pollution and the introduction of invasive species. This has, however, changed
dramatically in recent times. While coastal marine areas continue to suffer, massive damage
is now being inflicted over oceanic environments, primarily by industrial over-fishing (Gianni
2004).
As Ludwig et al. (1993:17) argued: “There are currently many plans for sustainable use or
sustainable development that are founded upon scientific information and consensus. Such
ideas reflect ignorance of the history of resource exploitation and misunderstanding of the
possibility of achieving scientific consensus concerning resources and the environment.
Although there is considerable variation in detail, there is remarkable consistency in the
history of resource exploitation: resources are inevitably over-exploited, often to the point of
collapse or extinction.” In the decade since Ludwig wrote, evidence is still accumulating that
over-exploitation of marine resources remains the rule rather than the exception (Koslow
2007; Kieves 2005; Verity et al. 2002; Wilson 2002).
A voluminous and long-standing literature on environmental ethics exists, but is seldom
referred to by marine scientists. While little of this discussion has permeated international
and national policies, a few notable documents, such as the UN World Charter for Nature
1982, the Earth Charter, and Australia’s national biodiversity strategy (Commonwealth of
Australia 1996) do contain statements reinforcing the idea of respect and reverence for
nature. But where is this concept being expressed? What part should it play in strategies and
programs to protect natural ecosystems which continue to be exploited and degraded by the
incremental expansion of human activities?
Over the thousands of years of human civilization, it is only recently that a ‘right to life’ has
become a universally accepted part of the way humans treat each other – along with rights
to property and ownership of land. At present we humans accord the rest of the living world
scant rights. Fish, for example, are not even accorded the right to a humane death, nor have
we provided a right to an undisturbed home: no-take reserves (as of 2004) amount to only a
miniscule proportion of the marine realm. Humans, like other predators, have always eaten
plants and animals; however humans are now destroying both species and ecosystems.
A few nations are, at present, moving along a path which would accord a ‘right to life’ to
whales and other cetaceans (Commonwealth of Australia 2002, 2004). However this
extension of rights is hotly debated by other nations, and international agreement (even in
the long-term) seems unlikely (Danaher 2002, Molenaar 2003).
22
Given the pressing need to put ethics into action to protect the planet’s ecosystems, a
search for a right to life for particular species – resting as it does on highly controversial
arguments – is a path which we have no time to explore. However, I believe scientists and
the community generally need to extend the concepts of respect for and community with
nature (concepts which have at least some wide general acceptance) to rights of peaceful
coexistence. This concept, in practice, means setting aside large parts of the planet where
human impacts are kept to a minimum, and consumptive harvesting does not occur.
There is scope to do this in the marine realm – if we are willing to pay for it. At present only
1.5% of the oceans have protective management regimes (meeting the IUCN protected area
criteria I-VI), and only 0.18% of the ocean is protected to the criteria I level (no-take zones).
The World Parks Congress 2003 (WPC) recommended the establishment of national
networks of marine no-take areas (NTAs) covering 20-30% of habitats by 2012. Many
scientists support such a target purely on ecosystem management grounds
(www.onlyoneplanet.com.au). As Pimm et al. (2001) have said: “Enforceable protection of
remaining natural ecosystems is an overarching recommendation”.
Providing refuges for at least a substantial part of marine biota is an idea that finds support
amongst many conservation biologists. Browman & Stergiou (2004:270) ask “…why is it so
difficult to recognize the inherent rights that marine fauna have to a safe haven?”. The fact
of the matter is that the establishment of marine protected areas will place short-term costs
on those who have traditional (or formal) rights to harvest from the sea. These rights must be
recognised and compensation must be paid.
Victoria (Australia) established no-take areas over 5.3% of its coastal seas (to 3 nm) in 2002.
The program of establishing these protected areas nearly failed due to intense political
pressure applied by fishers incensed by the government’s lack of compensation provisions.
The State government was at first unwilling to formalise a compensation program for fear of
excessive costs – which no-one had bothered to estimate in any detail. Three years later, the
lesson from the Victorian program is that compensation costs need not be high: claims have
in fact amounted to only half a million dollars (Phillips 2005), much less than many had
predicted, and trifling in the circumstancesxii.
There is a desperate need to protect marine environments. While utilitarian arguments must
continue to be used, I believe it is now essential that scientists and policy-makers enter into
ethical debate. Our species is gradually but inexorably killing the other wild living inhabitants
of our planet, and destroying the places in which they live. The time to adopt a new ethical
position has already passed with some talk but no action. The matter is now so urgent that it
demands the attention of every marine scientist. In Callicott’s words: “we … must rise to the
challenge of our time” – requiring an explicit change of the underlying ethics of our use of
marine ecosystems (Callicott 1991:27).
My conclusion is that biological scientists are amongst the few residents of the Earth who
can appreciate the gravity of the changes which are taking place. We need to speak for the
planet, and we need to use ethical as well as scientific arguments to do so. The ‘right to
peaceful coexistence’ is a concept in need of urgent and widespread discussion. We need to
discuss “the arrogance of humanism” and the ethics of resource use on a planet whose
ecosystems are in crisis. Marine protected areas need to be developed for many reasons,
one of which is to provide peaceful and secure homes to other living residents of this planet,
in addition to their role in safeguarding the integrity of ecosystem processes we barely
understand.
23
Section Three:
A sample of peer-reviewed scientific papers relevant to the
design and management of MPAs.
areas', Environmental Conservation 33(03): 26373.
Aswani, S, Albert, S, Sabetian, A & Furusawa, T (2007)
'Customary management as precautionary and
adaptive principles for protecting coral reefs in
Oceania', Coral Reefs 26(4): 1009-21.
Auster, PJ & Langton, RW (1998) The effects of fishing on
fish habitat, University of Connecticut, Groton
Connecticut USA.
Auster, PJ (1998) 'A Conceptual Model of the Impacts of
Fishing Gear on the Integrity of Fish Habitats',
Conservation Biology 12(6): 1198-203.
Ayling, AM & Choat, HJ (2008) Abundance patterns of reef
sharks and predatory fishes on differently zoned
reefs in the offshore Townsville region: final
report to the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park
Authority, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park
Authority, Townsville.
Babcock, RC, Kelly, S, Shears, NT, Walker, JW & Willis, TJ
(1999) 'Changes in community structure in
temperate marine reserves', Marine Ecological
Progress Series 189: 125-34.
Babcock, RC, Kelly, S, Shears, NT, Walker, JW & Willis, TJ
(1999) 'Large-scale habitat change in temperate
marine reserves', Marine Ecology Progress
Series 189: 125-34.
Babcock, RC (2003) 'The New Zealand marine reserve
experience: the science behind the politics', in
PA Hutchings & D Lunney (eds), Conserving
marine environments: out of sight, out of mind?,
Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales,
Mossman New South Wales.
Babcock, RC, Shears, NT, Alcala, A, Barrett, N, Edgar, GJ,
Lafferty, KD, McClanahan, TR & Russ, GR
(2010) 'Decadal trends in marine reserves reveal
differential rates of change in direct and indirect
effects', Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences online 30 March 2010: 1-6.
Badalamenti, F, Ramos, AA, Voultsiadou, EA, Nchez
Lizaso, JL, D'Anna, G, Pipitone, C, Mas, J,
Fernandes, JAR, Whitmarsh, D & Riggio, S
(2002) 'Cultural and socio-economic impacts of
Mediterranean marine protected areas',
Environmental Conservation 27: 110-25.
Baelde, P (2005) 'Interactions between the implementation
of marine protected areas and right-based
fisheries management in Australia', Fisheries
Management and Ecology 12(1): 9-18.
Baird, AH, Campbell, SJ, Anggoro, AW, Ardiwijaya, RL,
Fadli, N, Herdiana, Y, Kartawijaya, T, Mahyiddin,
D, Mukminin, A, Pardede, S, Pratchett, M, Rudi,
E & Siregar, A (2005) 'Acehnese reefs in the
wake of the Asian tsunami', Current Biology
15(21): 1926-30.
Baker, JL, Shepherd, SA & Edyvane, KS (1996) 'The use of
marine reserves to manage benthic fisheries,
with emphasis on the South Australian abalone
fishery', in R Thackway (ed.), Developing
Australia’s Representative System of Marine
Protected Areas. Criteria and guidelines for
identification and selection. Workshop at South
Australian Aquatic Sciences Centre Adelaide,
22-23 April 1996, Australian Government
Publishing Service, Canberra, pp. 103-13.
Baker, JL (2000) Guide to marine protected areas,
Department for Environment and Heritage South
Australia, Adelaide.
Bakun, A & Weeks, SJ (2006) 'Adverse feedback sequences
in exploited marine systems: are deliberate
interruptive actions warranted?' Fish and
Fisheries 7(4): 316-33.
Baldwin, C (1990) Impact of elevated nutrients in the Great
Barrier Reef, GBRMPA, Townsville.
Balint, PJ & Mashinya, J (2008) 'CAMPFIRE during
Zimbabwe's national crisis: local impacts and
broader implications for community-based
wildlife management', Society and Natural
Resources 21: 783-96.
Abesamis, RA & Russ, GR (2005) 'Density-dependent
spillover from a marine reserve: long-term
evidence', Ecological Applications 15(5): 1798812.
Adam, D (2002) 'Fire from ice', Nature 415(29 August): 9134.
Adrianov, AV (2004) 'Current problems with marine
biodiversity studies', Russian Journal of Marine
Biology 30(Supplement 1): S1-S6.
Agardy, T (2000) 'Effects of fisheries on marine ecosystems:
a conservationist's perspective.' ICES Journal of
Marine Sciences 57: 761-5.
Agardy, T, Bridgewater, P, Crosby, MP, Day, J, Dayton, PK,
Kenchington, R, Laffoley, D, McConney, P,
Murray, PA, Parks, JE & Peau, L (2003)
'Dangerous targets? Unresolved issues and
ideological clashes around marine protected
areas.' Aquatic Conservation: Marine and
Freshwater Ecosystems 13(4): 353-67.
Agrawal, A (2002) 'Common property institutions and
sustainable governance of resources', World
Development 29(10): 1649-72.
AHTEG Ad Hoc Technical Expert Group on Marine and
Coastal Protected Areas (2004) Technical
advice on the establishment and management of
a national system of marine and coastal
protected areas, Secretariat (Executive
Secretary) to the Convention on Biological
Diversity, Montreal Canada.
Aiken, JJ, Godley, BJ, Broderick, AC, Austin, T, EbanksPetrie, G & Hays, GC (2001) 'Two hundred
years after a commercial marine turtle fishery:
the current status of marine turtles nesting in the
Cayman Islands', Oryx 35(2): 145-51.
Alpine, J (2007) 'Spatial management of the open ocean',
Marine and Freshwater Research.
Alpine, J & Hobday, AJ (2007) 'Area requirements and
pelagic protected areas: is size an impediment to
implementation? ' Marine and Freshwater
Research 58: 558-69.
Andelman, S & Willig, MR (2003) 'Present patterns and
future prospects for biodiversity in the western
hemisphere', Ecology Letters 6: 818-24.
Anderson, PK (2001) 'Marine mammals in the next one
hundred years: twilight for a Pleistocene
megafauna?' Journal of Mammalogy 82(3): 6239.
ANZECC Task Force on Marine Protected Areas (1999)
Understanding and applying the principles of
comprehensiveness, adequacy and
representativeness for the National
Representative System of Marine Protected
Areas; version 3.1 - report prepared by the
Action Team for the ANZECC TFMPA, Marine
Group, Environment Australia, Canberra.
Apitz, SE, Elliott, M, Fountain, M & Galloway, TS (2006)
'European Environmental Management: Moving
to an Ecosystem Approach', Integrated
Environmental Assessment and Management
2(1): 80-5.
Arlinghaus, R, Cooke, SJ, Schwab, A & Cowx, IG (2007)
'Fish welfare: a challenge to the feelings-based
approach, with implications for recreational
fishing', Fish and Fisheries 8(1): 57-71.
Arlinghaus, R, Schwab, A, Cooke, SJ & Cowx, IG (2009)
'Contrasting pragmatic and suffering-centred
approaches to fish welfare in recreational
angling', Journal of Fish Biology 75: 2448-63.
Arnason, R (2000) 'Marine reserves: is there an economic
justification?' paper presented to the Conference
on the Economics of Marine Protected Areas,
Vancouver, July 6-7, 2000.
Ascher, W (2006) 'Long-term strategy for sustainable
development: strategies to promote far-sighted
action', Sustainability Science 1(15-22).
Aswani, S & Lauer, M (2006) 'Benthic mapping using local
aerial photo interpretation and resident taxa
inventories for designing marine protected
24
Ball, I & Possingham, HP (2000) MarXan marine reserve
design using spatially explicit annealing: a
manual, University of Queensland, Brisbane
Australia.
Ballantine, W (1989) 'Marine reserves: lessons from New
Zealand', Progress in Underwater Science 13(114).
Ballantine, W & Langlois, T (2008) 'Marine reserves: the
need for systems', Hydrobiologia 606(1): 35-44.
Ban, NC, Adams, V & Pressey, RL (2010) 'Promise and
problems for estimating management costs of
marine protected areas: a case study in the
Coral Sea', Conservation Letters 12: 34.
Barrett, JH, Locker, AM & Roberts, CM (2004) 'The origins
of intensive marine fishing in medieval Europe:
the English evidence', Proceedings of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences 271(1556): 241721.
Bascompte, J, Melian, CJ & Sala, E (2005) 'Interaction
strength combinations and the overfishing of a
marine food web', Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 102: 5443-7.
Baskett, ML, Yoklavich, MM & Love, MS (2006) 'Predation,
competition, and the recovery of overexploited
fish stocks in marine reserves', Canadian
Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 63:
1214-29.
Bastyan, GR & Cambridge, ML (2008) 'Transplantation as a
method for restoring the seagrass Posidonia
australis', Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science
79: 289-99.
Bax, N & Williams, A (2002) 'Designing representative and
adequate MPAs in a structured environment',
paper presented to the ASFB Conference on
Aquatic Protected Areas, August 2002, Cairns
Australia.
Beck, MW, Heck, KL, Able, KW, Childers, DL, Eggleston,
DB, Gillanders, BM, Halpern, B, Hays, CG,
Hoshino, K, Minello, TJ, Orth, RJ, Sheridan, PF
& Weinstein, MP (2001) 'The Identification,
Conservation, and Management of Estuarine
and Marine Nurseries for Fish and
Invertebrates', BioScience 51(8): 633-41.
Beger, M, Jones, GP & Munday, PL (2003) 'Conservation of
coral reef biodiversity: a comparison of reserve
selection procedures for corals and fishes',
Biological Conservation 111: 53-62.
Bene, C & Tewfik, A (2003) 'Biological evaluation of marine
protected areas: evidence of crowding effect on
a protected population of Queen Conch in the
Caribbean', Marine Ecology 24(1): 45-58.
Benton, MJ & Twitchett, RJ (2003) 'How to kill (almost) all
life: the end-Permian extinction event', Trends in
Ecology & Evolution 18(7): 358-66.
Bianchi, G, Gislason, H, Graham, K, Hill, L, Jin, X,
Koranteng, K, Manickchand-Heileman, S, Paya,
I, Sainsbury, K, Sanchez, F & Zwanenburg, K
(2000) 'Impact of fishing on size, composition
and diversity of demersal fish communities',
ICES J. Mar. Sci. 57(3): 558-71.
Bjørndal, T, Kaitala, V, Lindroos, M & Munro, GR (2000)
'The management of high seas fisheries', Annals
of Operations Research 94(1): 183-96.
Blaber, SJM, Cyrus, DP, Albaret, J-J, Day, J, Elliot, M,
Fonseca, MS, Hoss, DE, Orensanz, JML, Potter,
IC & Silvert, W (2000) 'Effects of fishing on the
structure and functioning of estuarine and
nearshore ecosystems', ICES Journal of Marine
Sciences 57: 590-602.
Blanchard, F, LeLoc'h, F, Hily, C & Boucher, J (2004)
'Fishing effects on diversity, size and community
structure of the benthic invertebrate and fish
megafauna on the Bay of Biscay coast of
France', Marine Ecology-Progress Series 280:
249-60.
Bleakley, C (2004) A review of critical marine habitats and
species in the Pacific Islands region, SPREP,
Apia Samoa.
Blyth-Skyrme, RE, Kaiser, MJ, Hiddink, JG, Edwards-Jones,
G & Hart, PJB (2006) 'Conservation Benefits of
Temperate Marine Protected Areas: Variation
among Fish Species', Conservation Biology
20(3): 811-20.
Bohnsack, JA (1998) 'Application of marine reserves to reef
fisheries management', Australian Journal of
Science 23: 298-394.
Bohnsack, JA (1999) 'Incorporating no-take marine reserves
into precautionary management and stock
assessment.' in VR Restrepo (ed.), Providing
scientific advice to implement the precautionary
approach under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery
Conservation and Management Act. NOAA
Technical Memorandum NMFS-FF/SPO-40.,
National Oceans and Atmospheric
Administration, Washington.
Bohnsack, JA (2003) 'Shifting baselines, marine reserves
and Leopold's biotic ethic', Gulf and Caribbean
Research 14(2): 1-7.
Bohnsack, JA, Ault, JS & Causey, BD (2004) 'Why have notake marine protected areas?' American
Fisheries Society Symposium 42: 185-93.
Botsford, LW, Hastings, A & Gaines, SD (2001)
'Dependence of sustainability on the
configuration of marine reserves and larval
dispersal distance', Ecology Letters 4: 144-50.
Botsford, LW, Micheli, F & Hastings, A (2003) 'Principles for
the design of marine reserves.' Ecological
Applications 13(1): S25-S31 (Supplement).
Botsford, LW, Brumbaugh, DR, Grimes, CB, Kellner, JB,
Largier, JL, O'Farrell, MR, Ralston, S, Soulanille,
E & Wespestad, V (2008) 'Connectivity,
sustainability, and yield: bridging the gap
between conventional fisheries management
and marine protected areas', Reviews in Fish
Biology and Fisheries .
Bowen, BW (1999) 'Preserving genes, species, or
ecosystems? Healing the fractured foundations
of conservation policy', Molecular Ecology 8(s1):
S5-S10.
Bowen, BW, Bass, AL, Chow, S-M, Bostrom, M, Bjorndal,
KA, Bolten, AB, Okuyama, T, Bolker, BM,
Epperly, S, Lacasella, E, Shaver, D, Dodd, M,
Hopkins- Murphy, SR, Musick, JA, Swingle, M,
Rankin-Baransky, K, Teas, W, Witzell, WN &
Dutton, PH (2004) 'Natal homing in juvenile
loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta)', Molecular
Ecology 13(12): 3797-808.
Bowen, BW, Bass, AL, Soares, L & Toonen, RJ (2005)
'Conservation implications of complex population
structure: lessons from the loggerhead turtle
(Caretta caretta)', Molecular Ecology 14(8):
2389-402.
Bowen, BW, Grant, WS, Hillis-Starr, Z, Shaver, DJ, Bjorndal,
KA, Bolten, AB & Bass, AL (2007) 'The advocate
and the scientist: debating the commercial
exploitation of endangered hawksbill turtles',
Molecular Ecology 16(17): 3514-5.
Branch, TA, Stafford, KM, Palacios, DM & Allison, C (2007)
'Past and present distribution, densities and
movements of blue whales Balaenoptera
musculus in the Southern Hemisphere and
northern Indian Ocean', Mammal Reviews 37(2):
116-75.
Breen, DA, Avery, R & Otway, NM (2004) Broad-scale
biodiversity assessment of the Manning Shelf
Marine Bioregion, Marine Parks Authority New
South Wales, Sydney.
Brewer, D, Heales, D, Milton, D, Dell, Q, Fry, G, Venables, B
& Jones, P (2006) 'The impact of turtle excluder
devices and bycatch reduction devices on
diverse tropical marine communities in
Australia's northern prawn trawl fishery',
Fisheries Research 81(2-3): 176-88.
Bridgewater, PB & Cresswell, ID (1999) 'Biogeography of
mangrove and saltmarsh vegetation: implications
for conservation and management in Australia',
Mangroves and Salt Marshes 3(2): 117-25.
Broadhurst, MK, Suuronen, P & Hulme, A (2006) 'Estimating
collateral mortality from towed fishing gear', Fish
and Fisheries 7(3): 180-218.
Brodziak, J & Link, J (2002) 'Ecosystem-Based Fishery
Management: What is it and how can we do it?'
Bulletin of Marine Science 70: 589-611.
Browman, HI & Stergiou, KI (2004) 'Marine protected areas
as a central element of ecosystem-based
management: defining their circulation, size and
location', Marine Ecological Progress Series
274: 271-2.
Browman, HI & Stergiou, KI (2005) 'Introduction to theme
section: Politics and socio-economics of
ecosystem-based management of marine
25
resources', Marine Ecology Progress Series 300:
241-96.
Brown, I (2002) 'Oldest marine protected area in the world:
Royal National Park, New South Wales
Australia, designated 1879.' MPA News 3(6): 5.
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49
Section Four:
An overview of the science relating to marine protected
areas.
The Australian Marine Science Association’s Position Paper on Marine Protected Areas
2008 provides a good overview of the science: (subsections renumbered):
4.1 Preamble:
Australia is at the forefront of marine conservation internationally, both in terms of legislation
enacted to protect the marine environment, and in terms of the spatial extent of proclaimed
marine reserves. The Australian (Commonwealth) Government, and all State and Territory
Governments, are committed to the development of a national system of representative
marine protected areas (NRSMPA) by 2012 (ANZECC 1999).
AMSA is Australia’s largest professional association of marine scientists with over 900
members nationally. The AMSA mission is to advance marine science in Australia. AMSA’s
objectives are to:
 promote, develop and assist in the study of all branches of marine science in
Australia;
 provide for the exchange of information and ideas between those concerned with
marine science; and
 engage in public debate where we have specialist knowledge.
Marine scientists are not only participants in the NRSMPA through delivering scientific
information and advice to assist with the development and evaluation of the protected area
network, they are also a key stakeholder group since they use the marine environment for
research. AMSA wishes to emphasise the importance of this dual role for marine scientists,
because a special effort by governments is needed to include them as stakeholders in the
NRSMPA process.
Marine protected areas are areas of the ocean or coastal seas, securely reserved and
effectively protected from at least some threatsxiii. “Effective protection” focuses on identified
values, and a management plan (and budget) should be in place. The level of protection,
and the intent of protection can both vary. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP) in
Queensland is an example of a large protected area (345,000 km 2) which contains extensive
multiple-use areas (covering 66.6% of the marine park) where a variety of fishing activities
are allowed, as well as core areas (covering 33.4% of the marine park) which are protected
from all extractive activities. In addition, approximately 45% of the multiple use areas are
closed to the most ecologically damaging form of fishing – bottom trawling.
The most widely accepted definitions of protected areas are those recommended by the
World Conservation Union, or IUCN (Dudley 2008). In their original form they are discussed
in an Australian context in IUCN Australia (2000). IUCN categories Ia and Ib are strict notake areas or sanctuaries, with the categories grading to category VI, incorporating
“traditional natural resource management” (Dudley 2008:22). In this paper the word ‘reserve’
is taken to include protected areas in the first four categories, whose purpose is primarily
nature conservationxiv. Areas protected from all harvesting are referred to here as “no-take
areas”.
Marine reserves must not be seen as a substitute for well-managed fisheries – we need
both. The use of marine protected areas to protect biodiversity values is well documented,
and MPAs have been accepted at the international level as essential marine conservation
tools for nearly three decades. Statements suggesting that the biodiversity conservation
benefits of no-take marine protected areas have not been demonstrated are incorrect and
misguided – as are statements suggesting fishing activities do not present significant threats
to marine ecosystems. Moreover, long-established marine reserves, such as major reserves
in tropical Queensland and Western Australia, or the Leigh (Goat Island) and Poor Knights
50
reserves in New Zealand, are important tourist attractions, and produce substantial
economic benefits for local and regional communities.
There are two parts to this document (apart from the preamble). The position statement is
the first part, and is intended to be a clear statement of AMSA’s position on marine protected
areas – with recommendations. The second part of the paper provides both background and
rationale supporting the statement, and is referenced to scientific and policy literature.
4.2 Position statement
4.2.1 AMSA endorses the government’s national representative system of marine
protected areas (NRSMPA) program, and encourages its timely completion. This should be
done for both present and future generations of Australians, as well as to provide
undisturbed habitat for at least a proportion of the plants and animals with which we share
this planet. AMSA also identifies (below) key areas where further government efforts are
urgently needed to maximise the benefits of the NRSMPA to all Australians.
4.2.2 When an MPA is declared, AMSA believes there should be clearly articulated aims for
the MPA, and that the specific MPA be planned for, and managed accordingly.
4.2.3 Australia’s marine biota are poorly studied and in spite of efforts such as the global
census of marine life, there are few comprehensive data sets that can be used for MPA
design and performance measurement purposes. AMSA encourages governments to invest
in taxonomic support and training, ecological modelling studies and especially building
national and regional biological data sets, including habitat mapping, to support MPA design,
performance measurement and evidence-based decision making. Baseline monitoring
before, or at the time of MPA creationxv is a vital tool for the study of long-term MPA effects,
and such ongoing studies must be adequately funded.
4.2.4 Similarly, the physical aspects of Australia’s marine environment are poorly studied.
For example, modern multibeam sonar bathymetry data have been collected (at mid-2008)
over less than 10% of Australia’s EEZ (and over less than 1% of the continental shelf).
AMSA encourages governments to invest in building better marine environmental data sets
to support all forms of marine management.
4.2.5 In establishing and expanding networks of marine protected areas, consultation with
all stakeholders is vital, combined with adequate education, information and awareness
programs. Stakeholders should be able to provide a variety of inputs including both baseline
information on ecosystemxvi values and usage, as well as the expression of preferences for
reservation options. The selection of options, however, must be framed within Australia’s
national and international commitments to the protection of biodiversity, and must be based
on the best scientific evidence available. Where evidence is inadequate, a precautionary
stance must be taken, in line with Australia’s commitment to the precautionary principle
(Government of Australia 1992).
4.2.6 Where declaration of MPAs removes substantial and valuable legal entitlements, and
where stakeholders suffer significant financial hardship as the result of reserve proclamation,
adequate compensation should be paid.
4.2.7 Networks of marine protected areas must be adequately resourced from the start to
ensure they are properly maintained and managed, and to protect them from illegal
harvesting and other threats. Well-designed scientific monitoring programmes should be part
of their management. It is important to document ecosystem changes following protection to
provide information to managers and the wider community on their performance. Such
baseline information will also help improve our ability to manage the wider marine
environment in a productive and sustainable way.
4.2.8 AMSA believes that MPAs are vital for the conservation of Australia’s marine
environment and threatened species. AMSA recommends the following:
51
a) Given national commitments set out within the NRSMPA strategy, we urge all
Australian governments to establish networks of marine protected areas, with the
objective of comprehensive, adequate and representative protection of Australia’s
marine biodiversity assets. National or State marine reserve area targets are only
useful in the absence of systematic regional conservation plans. Where detailed
planning has not been undertaken, a goal should aim to protect all major marine
ecosystems, with a minimum target of 10% of all habitat types under full no-take
protectionxvii by 2012. Rare and vulnerable ecosystems or communities should be
provided with greater protection – up to 100% where an isolated ecosystem or
habitat type is endangered. Such no-take reserves should lie within larger multi-use
protected areas, designed to provide limited harvesting opportunities which will not
prejudice biodiversity assets, especially those within the core no-take zones. A
figure of 10% under no-take protection would slow but not prevent loss of
biodiversity: the current no-take level in the GBRMP of 33% is more likely to achieve
substantial and sustained biodiversity benefits.
b) To be effective, MPA designation should be accompanied by a net reduction in
fishing effort for affected fisheries which are at or near full exploitation xviii, and AMSA
endorses Commonwealth and State use of structural adjustment and industry
buyout packages where appropriate (eg: Government of Australia 2004).
c)
Although MPAs are an essential tool for marine conservation, AMSA emphasises
that MPAs must be complemented by effective management strategies across the
marine environment, including (urgently) climate change impact programs, wellmanaged fisheries, control of spread of invasive species, and control of pollutants,
especially nutrients and sediments.
d) AMSA stresses the importance of MPA planning principles set out in several
important government documents, especially documents a,c,f,h,q,s,x & y listed
under the ‘guidelines’ heading in section 3 below. Several of these documents
stress the role and importance of stakeholder consultation, which should take place
within a framework of alternative approaches constrained by the essential goals and
objectives of the NRSMPA.
4.2.9 There are (and will continue to be) costs in establishing the NRSMPA, and it is proper
that efforts should be taken to minimise these costs. However these costs are predominantly
short-term, and should not overshadow the long-term benefits accruing from an effective
national MPA network. It is essential that alternative options put to stakeholders do not
compromise the fundamental goals, and essential design principles of the network.
4.2.10 Australia’s marine environment has been impacted by a range of human activities.
AMSA considers that the cumulative impact of multiple stressors on the marine environment
constitutes a key knowledge gap not adequately addressed by existing scientific
programmes. A quantitative assessment of cumulative human impacts is required to
underpin comprehensive evidence-based decision making.
4.2.11 While most attention has focussed on the ecological and fisheries values of MPAs, it
is also possible that in future MPAs could be created to protect sites of geological or physical
oceanographic significance. AMSA encourages consideration of these values.
4.2.12 AMSA has been disappointedxix by the small portions of MPAs zoned as totally
protected (no-take) particularly on the continental shelf. Only 0.75% of the South East
Region shelf is protected by Commonwealth no-take MPAs, noting that about 6% of the SE
Region is shelf (on average around 22% of Australia’s EEZ is continental shelf). The shelf
contains important habitats not found elsewhere. AMSA encourages the inclusion of more
shelf areas within existing and future MPA networks, and increased use of full (no-take)
protection as the main tool to achieve high-quality conservation outcomes.xx
4.2.13 AMSA encourages improved coordination between Commonwealth and StateTerritory governments in the design of the NRSMPAs. There is a risk that poor coordination
will result in inadequate protection of some ecosystems, particularly those situated near
52
jurisdictional boundaries. Without coordination the placement of MPAs is unlikely to be
optimised in terms of cost or effectiveness.
4.2.14 Systematic network design must be based on biological complementarity, and must
consider issues of connectivity, efficiency, uncertainty, replication and effectiveness on a
regional basis. Issues relating to rare or endangered species, habitats or ecosystems must
be considered, as well as critical habitat, and migratory pathways.
4.2.15 Good fisheries management is essential to the protection of marine biodiversity.
AMSA supports improved fisheries management in conjunction with the development of
MPA networks. Of particular importance is the wide application of the ecosystem and
precautionary approaches to the management of both commercial and recreational fisheries.
AMSA also notes that Australia is committed to the phase-out of all destructive fishing
practices by 2012.
4.2.16 It is unfortunate that Australia lacks an up-to-date consolidated reporting mechanism
on protected areas. The collaborative Australian protected area database (CAPAD),
maintained by the Commonwealth (at mid-2008) lacked comprehensive information on State
marine protected areas past 2004. Further, the database lacks reporting on the extent of
protection of marine habitat, ecosystem, geomorphic province, or even bioregion. These are
important gaps and should be addressed by the Commonwealth Government as a matter of
urgency.
4.2.17 Marine protected areas assist in maintaining healthy ecosystems. Important
ecosystem services supplied by the marine environment include the supply of seafood,
passive and active recreational opportunities, dilution and assimilation of wastes (including
greenhouse gases), the regulation of coastal climate, and vessel passage – almost all
depending heavily on healthy marine ecosystems.
4.3 Supporting material: protecting marine biodiversity
The following sections provide summary information on:
 important principles and guidelines relating to marine protected areas;
 Australia’s marine biodiversity values,
 threats to marine biodiversity values,
 national and State commitments to protect marine biodiversity values,
 general management strategies for protecting marine biodiversity values, and
 the specific role of MPA networks in protecting those and associated values (eg
fisheries, scientific and recreational values).
Biodiversity is one of the key conservation values that marine protected areas aim to protect.
Other conservation values vary between particular regions and may include key ecological
features (eg. upwelling zones), threatened-endangered-protected species (TEPS),
geomorphological features having conservation interest (eg. submarine canyons,
seamounts, reefs, banks), iconic features (eg. Perth Canyon, Macquarie Island),
archaeological or cultural features (eg. historic shipwrecks), and rare or vulnerable marine
ecosystems (RVMEs).
Guideline documents
A variety of documents have been published in recent years which seek to provide advice to
governments, scientists and stakeholders in respect to the establishment and management
of marine reserve networks. Among the most important (from an Australian viewpoint) are (in
chronological order – italics mark documents of special note):
a) Goals and principles for the establishment of the National Representative System of
Marine Protected Areas in Commonwealth waters (Government of Australia 2008) –
noting that these represent a revision of the goals originally stated in Government of
Australia (1998);
53
b) Establishing marine protected area networks: Making it happen: Full technical
version (Laffoley et al. 2008);
c) Guidance on achieving comprehensiveness, adequacy and representativeness in
the Commonwealth waters component of the National Representative System of
Marine Protected Areas (SPRPNRSMPA 2006);
d) Establishing representative no-take areas in the Great Barrier Reef: large-scale
implementation of theory on marine protected areas (Fernandes et al. 2005);
e) The international legal regime of the high seas and the seabed beyond the limits of
national jurisdiction and options for cooperation for the establishment of marine
protected areas (MPAs) in marine areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction
(Kimball 2005);
f)
Marine protected areas and displaced fishing: a policy statement (Government of
Australia 2004);
g) Designing marine reserves for fishery management (Meester et al. 2004);
h) Technical advice on the establishment and management of national systems of
marine and coastal protected areas (SCBD 2004);
i)
Marine protected areas as a central element of ecosystem-based management:
defining their circulation, size and location (Bowman & Sergio 2004);
j)
Incorporating marine protected areas into integrated coastal and ocean
management: principles and guidelines (Ehler et al. 2004);
k) Reserve selection in regions with poor biological data (Gaston & Rodrigues 2003);
l)
Towards a strategy for high seas marine protected areas: proceedings of the IUCN,
WCPA and WWF Experts Workshop on High Seas MPAs, January 2003 (Gjerde &
Breide 2003);
m) Principles for the design of marine reserves (Botsford et al. 2003);
n) A user’s guide to identifying candidate areas for a regional representative system of
marine protected areas: south-east marine region (Government of Australia 2003);
o) Population models for marine reserve design: a retrospective and prospective
synthesis (Gerber et al. 2003);
p) Application of ecological criteria in selecting marine reserves and developing reserve
networks (Roberts et al. 2003);
q) Biophysical Operational Principles (Great Barrier Reef RAP) (SSC 2002);
r)
Marine protected areas: tools for sustaining ocean ecosystems (NRC 2001);
s) Australian IUCN reserve management principles for Commonwealth marine
protected areas: Schedule 8 of the EPBC Regulations 2000 (Government of
Australia 2000);
t)
Fully-protected marine reserves: a guide (Roberts & Hawkins 2000);
u) Marine and coastal protected areas: a guide for planners and managers (Salm et al.
2000);
v) Selecting marine reserves using habitats and species assemblages as surrogates
for biological diversity (Ward et al. 1999);
w) Guidelines for marine protected areas (Kelleher 1999);
x) Australia’s Oceans Policy 1998: Policy guidance for oceans planning and
management (Government of Australia 1998).
y)
Guidelines for establishing the national representative system of marine protected
areas (ANZECC 1998);
z)
Guidelines for establishing marine protected areas (Kelleher & Kenchington 1991)
54
In 1995 the Jakarta Mandate of the Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 (CBD)
established a program within the CBD Secretariat specifically to pursue the protection of
marine and coastal biodiversity. Each year the CBD Conference of Parties (CoP) considers
this program, and issues a decision statement. These statements are important documents,
and Australia (as a strong supporter of the CBD) is committed to their implementation within
Commonwealth and State programsxxi.
4.3.1 Australia’s marine biodiversity:
Australia’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) obtains its legal validity from our ratification of
the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea in 1994. Australia’s EEZ is the world’s
third largest, with a total area of 11.38 million km 2 (excluding the EEZ attached to Australia’s
Antarctic Territory). The oceans surrounding Australia are mostly oligotrophic and relatively
unproductive. However, the biodiversity of Australia’s EEZ is amongst the highest in the
world.
Australia’s marine flora and fauna encompass a very broad range of latitudes and include
tropical, temperate and sub-Antarctic bioregions. These bioregions contain ecosystems
which are:

highly endemic, particularly in the southern temperate zone;

highly diverse and less damaged when compared to many other places in the world;
and

still poorly documented.
Australia’s marine biota also belong to three oceanic systems, including assemblages from
the Indo-West Pacific marine fauna, which is of high taxonomic and evolutionary
significance, the Indian Ocean, and those of the Southern Ocean (polar) seas.
Given the lack of available information on marine biodiversity, the design of MPAs to date
has been substantially based on IMCRAxxii bioregions, with the aim of having representative
portions of each bioregion contained within the MPA network for each planning region.
Zoning will need to be re-visited in future decades as more information comes to light.
Australian seas are home to marine biodiversity of great international significance. These are
assets of great environmental, economic and moral importance, to us and to future
generations.
All Australian States endorsed the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia’s
Biological Diversity 1996xxiii. This strategy includes an important paragraph acknowledging
the intrinsic value of our biodiversity:
There is in the community a view that the conservation of biological diversity
also has an ethical basis. We share the Earth with many other life forms that
warrant our respect, whether or not they are of benefit to us. Earth belongs to
the future as well as the present: no single species or generation can claim it as
its own.
We have a moral duty to provide undisturbed habitat for at least a proportion of the plants
and animals with which we share this planet.
4.3.2 Threats to marine biodiversity:
Broadly speaking, the living inhabitants of the marine realm face five major threats:

climate change: changes to oceanic temperatures, acidity, patterns of water
movement (including currents, eddies and fronts), storminess and sea level, largely
caused by increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide, as well as impacts from damage
to the ozone layer;
55

overfishing with attendant bycatch problems, both from commercial fishing,
recreational fishing, illegal unregulated or unreported fishing (IUU), and ghost
fishing;

habitat damage largely caused by fishing gear, especially bottom trawling, but also
including effects often associated with coastal development: destruction of coral
reefs, mangroves, natural freshwater flows (and passage), coastal foreshores,
coastal wetlands and sometimes entire estuaries – which all support coastal marine
ecosystems;

pollution (in-sea and land-based, diffuse and point source) including nutrients,
sediments, plastic litter, noise, hazardous and radioactive substances; discarded
fishing gear, microbial pollution, and trace chemicals such as carcinogens,
endocrine-disruptors, and info-disruptors; and

ecosystem alterations caused by the introduction of alien organisms, especially
those transported by vessel ballast water and hull fouling.
Amongst these five major threats to marine biodiversity, fishing has, until the present time,
been the most damaging on a global scale (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005a:67,
2005b:8, 2005c:12, 2006). The destructive impacts of fishing stem chiefly from
overharvesting, habitat destruction, and bycatch. Over the 21st century the threats posed by
increasing atmospheric greenhouse gases pose huge dangers to the marine environment
(Veron 2008, Koslow 2007, Turley et al. 2006). At smaller scales, other threats (particularly
pollution and habitat damage) are dominant at different localities. Coral reef, mangrove,
estuarine, seagrass, mud-flat, and sponge-field habitats have been (and are being)
extensively damaged. River passage, essential for anadromous and diadromous species,
has been impaired or destroyed around the globe.
In Australia, fishing activities appear to be the primary threat to fishes (Pogonoski et al.
2002) and the second most important threat to marine invertebrates (Ponder et al. 2002)
after habitat degradation.
4.3.3 Commitments to protect marine biodiversity:
Australia, and Australian States, have made many strong commitments to protect marine
biodiversity.
Principle 2 of the Stockholm Declaration (UN Conference on the Human Environment 1972)
states: “The natural resources of the earth, including the air, water, land, flora and fauna and
especially representative samples of natural ecosystems, must be safeguarded for the
benefit of present and future generations through careful planning or management, as
appropriate” (emphasis added).
The emphasised section provides, essentially, a commitment to the development of
protected area networks focused in large part on the conservation of representative
examples of major natural ecosystems. An examination of the wording of the Declaration
reveals that it places wide obligations, not only on governments, but on all agencies of
governments as well as individuals to act so as to achieve the stated objectives.
Australia was one of many nations endorsing the Stockholm Declaration. Australia later
endorsed other important international agreements which reaffirmed our nation’s
commitment to the development of networks of protected areas – placing particular
emphasis on the protection of representative samples of all major ecosystem types:

the World Charter for Nature 1982;

the Rio Declaration 1992 (UN Conference on Environment and Development);

the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 1992; and

the Johannesburg Declaration 2002 (UN World Summit on Sustainable
Development);
56
Australia ratified the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1993, and in
1999 the Government enacted the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act
(EPBC Act) which promotes the conservation of biodiversity by providing protection for
threatened species and ecological communities, migratory birds, marine mammals and other
protected species.
A key requirement of the CBD is for all member nations to establish systems of protected
areas, and to develop guidelines for the selection, establishment and management of
protected areas. Australia’s support of the CBD extends to subsequent agreements under
the Convention, in particular the Jakarta Mandate on Marine and Coastal Biological Diversity
(1995) which provides a strong commitment to the development of marine protected area
networks incorporating core no-take reserves within larger multi-use MPAs.
At the seventh meeting of the CBD CoP (Conference of Parties), in Decision VII/30 Annex II
(UNEP 2004) the Parties adopted a target: “at least 10% of each of the world’s ecological
regions effectively conserved”. Through Decision VII/5:18-19, the parties also agreed to
establish (by 2012) and maintain a network of marine and coastal protected areas that are
representative, effectively managed, ecologically based, consistent with international law,
based on scientific information, and including a range of levels of protection.
At the tenth meeting (2005) of the CBD Subsidiary Body on Scientific Technical and
Technological Advice (SBSTTA) an ‘application of the targets to the CBD programme of
works on marine and coastal biodiversity’ repeated this target in the marine context: “At least
10% of each of the world’s marine and coastal ecological regions effectively conserved” (by
2012) (UNEP 2005:44).
Australia, and all Australian States are committed to the establishment of networks of marine
protected areas representing all major marine ecosystems within Australian jurisdiction. This
fundamental commitment is spelt out in increasing detail in three major policy statements: (a)
the InterGovernmental Agreement on the Environment 1992 (Government of Australia 1992),
(b) the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia’s Biological Diversity (Government
of Australia 1996) and, most importantly (c) the Strategic Plan of Action for the National
Representative System of Marine Protected Areas 1999 (ANZECC TFMPA 1999).
The goal of the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia's Biological Diversity is “to
protect biological diversity and maintain ecological processes and systems”. Principle 8 of
the strategy states: “Central to the conservation of Australia's biological diversity is the
establishment of a comprehensive, representative and adequate system of ecologically
viable protected areas integrated with the sympathetic management of all other areas,
including agricultural and other resource production systems.”
Commonwealth, State and Territory governments are committed to create a national
representative system of Marine Protected Areas (NRSMPA) for the conservation of marine
ecosystems by 2012. As at 2004 the CAPADxxiv database listed 200 MPAs in Australian
waters covering approximately 648,000 km 2 or ~ 5.7% of Australia's marine jurisdiction,
excluding the Australian Antarctic Territoryxxv. The MPAglobal websitexxvi, checked in
September 2008, listed 359 Australian MPAs, of which 310 were reserves xxvii, and 81 were
no-takexxviii.
4.3.4 Protection strategies
What practical steps are available to protect marine biodiversity values in line with existing
commitments? Where do MPAs lie in this suite of protective strategies?
Each Australian jurisdiction (at the State and Commonwealth levels) has a relatively similar
set of tools at their disposal that are used (to varying extents and effectiveness) for the
purposes of management and protection of marine biodiversity. Note here that we use, for
the sake of convenience, the term “State” to include the Northern Territory. These tools fall
into the three general categories of environment protection, natural resource management,
and conservation. The main exceptions to this are the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage
57
Area which is managed under its own Commonwealth Act, and the intertidal areas that are
contiguous with aboriginal lands which fall under indigenous management arrangements.
The systems of environment protection include controls on point source pollution as well as
diffuse broad-scale pollution of watersheds, estuaries, and coastal foreshores/wetlands;
controls on development/disturbance, alienation and modification of estuarine, wetland and
shallow marine water habitats; and controls on developments of structures to be placed in
deeper waters, including aquaculture facilities, oil exploration/production structures, and
tidal/wave/wind energy facilities. These forms of environment protection provide a critical
framework to reduce and constrain the pressures imposed by human development on the
natural systems of the estuaries and coastal waters, and the structure and processes of
marine biodiversity.
Natural resource management principally involves the management of wild capture fisheries,
both commercial, recreational, and indigenous. Some harvesting of marine vegetation
occurs, but this is mostly beach-cast, and has insignificant effects. Virtually no seabed
mining, other than drilling for oil and gas, some sand dredging, and mining of seagrass beds
in Cockburn Sound WA for calcareous sand, takes place in Australian waters at the present
timexxix.
The States are almost wholly responsible for the management of recreational and
indigenous fisheries, as well as fisheries substantially confined to State waters. The
Commonwealth manages fisheries in Australia’s Exclusive Economic Zone, off-shore from
the three nautical-mile State limit. This includes the larger of the commercial fisheries, some
of which overlap State waters. However, there is a complex set of arrangements between
the States and the Commonwealth for delegated management of many fisheries that overlap
State and national jurisdictions (noting that the State-waters boundary, aka the 3-nm limit,
may be many kilometres offshore in some parts of Australia due to coastal contortions or
islands)xxx.
Each of the jurisdictions imposes spatial and temporal closures for specific gear types as
one aspect of their management system (typically in support of other tools such as minimum
and maximum size limits, closed seasons, and controls on bycatch) but the forms of
space/time closure normally deployed are both focused on production objectives and are
easily revoked should a commercial or recreational need arise. The one dominant exception
to this is the protection of coastal wetlands habitats such as mangrove and seagrass beds,
which are now more or less well protected (physically) under fisheries management systems
because of their important role as spawning, nursery and feeding grounds for targeted
species. Overall, the natural resource management systems provide little real protection or
commitment to the conservation of marine biodiversity, with (amongst other key biodiversity
issues) target stocks being routinely fished down to very low levels within fisheries
management systems (so-called ‘regulatory over-fishing’) leading to likely major ecological
consequences for species that are dependent on populations of the various target species.
In addition, fisheries-related bycatch and habitat damage are real and significant threats.
Marine protected areas almost invariably fall within the conservation toolkit in Australia (in
other countries they are also used for sustainable fishing purposes). In Australia, MPAs may
comprise a number of different zones, from total protection for strict conservation purposes
to sustainable use zones where controls on activities are typically minimal (derived from the
tools discussed above). To ensure adequate protection of marine biodiversity values, either
MPAs with a high level of protection need to be large, or MPA sustainable use zones need to
be very large with strict constraints on the type of permitted uses (eg: bans on trawling).
Overall, conservation of Australia’s marine biodiversity requires a mix of all the tools and
measures discussed above. Both off-reserve and on-reserve tools and constraints need to
be applied to cater for the conservation needs of the vast diversity of life-history strategies,
feeding, reproduction, migration and recruitment requirements, and to provide for resilience
in the face of the broad-scale pressures being applied by changes in ocean conditions.
58
MPAs may be deployed at a number of spatial scales, providing a number of types/levels of
protection. However, where MPAs provide protection for only a small proportion of the
ocean habitats, the importance of off-reserve protective measures becomes critical to the
overall conservation of marine biodiversity. Where the MPAs are large relative to their local
biogeographic region (currently the only examples are the GBR, Ningaloo, and Heard &
McDonald Islands) such areas should be zoned to include both substantial no-take areas
(the GBR figure of 33% is a good guideline) as well as multi-use areas permitting activities
such as low impact tourism, or small scale wilderness fishing activities. Destructive fishing
practices should be entirely excluded. Rare or vulnerable biological communities or habitats
within such large multi-use MPAs should be fully protected.
Marine protected areas, no matter how well policed or managed, can be degraded by landbased pollutants, such as nutrients, sediments or pesticides. Estuaries can be degraded by
inappropriate land filling or drainage, or the effects of polluted or overdrawn aquifers or
rivers. Dams across rivers and creeks can block the spawning pathways of fish. Integrated
coastal management programs should be developed to manage the effects of coastal
development on the marine environment (see “threats” discussed above). Land use
planning, water resource legislation, and pollution controls are key tools in developing such
integrated programs.
Of the tools available and used in Australia, only MPAs with high levels of protection (such
as no-take or no-access zones) can provide effective conservation that takes into account
the high levels of uncertainty that surround our present-day knowledge of the structure, the
functional relationships, and the ocean and land-based processes that maintain marine
ecosystems (Lester & Halpern 2008, Lubchenco et al. 2007). Small MPAs will provide
protection for only a very limited suite of species, noting that even small sedentary species
may require secure habitats over large geographic ranges to support their meta-populations.
Large MPAs (relative to their bioregion) with large areas of high protection provide the least
risk that the MPAs will fail to provide adequate protection for both the known diversity of
species and those that have yet to be discovered or understood (Lubchenco et al. 2007).
Systematic conservation planningxxxi, where conservation objectives are expressly
articulated, provides the most robust planning and design of MPAs in the face of limited
existing knowledge and high levels of risk. See comments under ‘History’ below.
4.3.5 Marine protected area networks
4.3.5.1 Introduction
Like terrestrial parks, MPAs have important recreational, aesthetic and educational benefits,
and can protect important cultural sites such as shipwrecks. In some cases tourism
generated by MPAs can have substantial local and regional economic benefits.
Overall, the most general values of MPA networks are those relating to biodiversity
conservation, fisheries, and as research and management tools. MPA networks can help to
protect rare, vulnerable or threatened species or communities. Protection of community
diversity within healthy ecosystems should increase the resilience of these ecosystems, and
should offer protection against invasive species. Substantial MPA networks should be able to
assist marine communities adapt to some aspects of climate change.
Conservation benefits within MPAs are evident through increased habitat heterogeneity at
the seascape level, increased abundance of threatened species and habitats, and
maintenance of a full range of genotypes. Fisheries can benefit through protection of
spawning populations, spillover, increased dispersal of egg and larval propagules, and as
insurance against stock collapse. Scientific benefits primarily relate to the use of MPAs as
reference areas to assess the scale of human impacts on the environment, and as locations
for the collection of data that are unobtainable in fished systems. Nevertheless, MPAs can
also involve costs to human society through displaced fishing effort, short-term reductions in
catches, and through creating a false sense of security. MPAs do not represent a universal
panacea for all threats affecting marine ecosystems, but are an important tool in the marine
manager's toolbox. For marine conservation biologists, they are the most important tool.
59
It has been estimated that a global MPA network covering 20-30% of the seas would cost
$5-19 billion per year to maintain (Balmford et al. 2004). However, returns on this investment
would be substantial. Such reserves would promote continued delivery of largely unseen
marine ecosystem services with an estimated gross value of $4.5-6.7 trillion each year and
have the potential to lead to financial gains from both increased catches and tourism
(Badalamenti et al. 2002, Balmford et al. 2004). Marine ecosystem services include the
supply of seafood, passive and active recreational opportunities, dilution and assimilation of
wastes (including greenhouse gases) and vessel passage – almost all of which depend
entirely on healthy marine ecosystems.
On a local scale, the implementation of MPAs can have major social, cultural and economic
impacts on communities, which vary considerably according to site and wider social factors
within industrialized, developing, or underdeveloped nations (Badalamenti et al. 2002).
Careful consideration of socio-economic factors is now considered to be an integral and
essential part of MPA network planning and implementation.
4.3.5.2 History
Marine protected areas have been used by traditional cultures, for example around the
Pacific, for hundreds if not thousands of years (Johannes 1978). In fifteenth century Europe
trawling was banned in Flanders, with a clear ecological rationale. Different types of trawling
were banned throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in other parts of Europe.
Trawling in prohibited areas was made a capital offence in France (WHOI 2002:s1). Clearly,
potential damage to marine environments by fishing has been widely recognised for a long
time.
In the late nineteen century, concerns over damage caused by fishing led to a decade-long
experiment starting in 1885 in Scotland, where open and closed areas were implemented in
the Firth of Forth in St. Andrews Bay, with the idea of testing the impacts of fishing on these
ecosystems. The final conclusion of that study was that there were serious impacts of
harvesting on these ecosystems, and that protection was required (WHOI 2002:s1). Since
these early days the concept of marine reserves has received much academic and political
scrutiny, and MPAs are now accepted worldwide as a essential marine management tool
(see above).
The design and implementation of MPAs has also evolved. Historically the designation of
marine reserves was carried out on a site-by-site ‘ad hoc’ basis, with location, size and
spacing of MPAs primarily based on opportunistic socio-economic factors rather than a
systematic consideration of the conservation requirements of marine ecosystems or
organisms (Stewart et al. 2003, McNeill 1994). It is now recognized that good taxonomic and
ecological data are imperative for the systematic design of comprehensive, adequate and
representative networks of MPAs (Margules & Pressey 2000, Roberts et al. 2003), and there
has been considerable discussion on the types of data required (Palumbi 2003, Roberts et
al. 2003, Parnell et al. 2006, Gladstone 2007). There has also been a steady increase in
studies which collect and interpret data in this context, including the application of
mathematical algorithms to reserve system design (Possingham et al. 2000, Curley et al.
2002, Griffiths & Wilke 2002, Stewart et al. 2003, Gladstone 2007).
It is now considered that systematic network design must be based on biological
complementarity, and must consider issues of connectivity, efficiency, uncertainty, replication
and effectiveness (Laffoley et al. 2008, Halpern et al. 2006, Carwardine et al. 2006, Stewart
& Possingham 2005, Fernandes et al. 2005, Pillans et al. 2003). Issues relating to rare or
endangered species, habitats or ecosystems must also be considered, as well as critical
habitat and migratory pathways (Dobbs et al. 2008, Fernandes et al. 2005; Shaugnessy
1999). Consideration of boundary effects and compliance issues is also necessary in the
design phase.
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4.3.5.3 Biogeographic issues
A critical step in the NRSMPA was the development of a national bioregionalisation, which
divides Australia’s marine environment into unique bioregions, each characterised by
endemic species and distinguishing ecological attributes (Government of Australia 2005).
The national bioregionalisation complements the Interim Marine and Coastal Regionalisation
of Australia (IMCRA V.3.3; Thackway and Cresswell, 1998) management framework by
extending the system of bioregions beyond the continental shelf to cover all of Australia’s
EEZ. The Interim Marine and Coastal Regionalisation of Australia (IMCRA V.4.0; 50),
divides the Australian EEZ into 24 separate Provinces that are separated by 17 Transition
Zones making a total of 41 different bioregions. The Provinces are characterised by endemic
species, as determined from the distribution of demersal fish. The Transition Zones contain
overlapping populations that occur in adjacent Provinces. Distributions of fish species were
recorded as ‘strings’ along the 500 m depth contour. For the analyses, the string was
partitioned into smaller segments of about one degree latitude length (about 120 km) into
which tabulations of species occurrences were maintained. The similarity or difference
between adjacent string segments was measured using the Jaccard statistic , which
identified boundaries between different provinces (Government of Australia 2005).
Boundaries between Provinces are locally highly complex because they are based on
biophysical information from the lower orders of the classification hierarchy (biomes and, in
particular, geomorphological units). Biome boundaries include the shelf break and foot of
slope whereas geomorphological units are based on an analysis of seabed geomorphic
features (Heap & Harris, 2008).
Following the completion of the South East Regional Marine Plan and declaration of 13 new
MPAs in that region, the Australian Government has reviewed the goals and principles that
will be used to establish MPAs in Commonwealth waters in the remaining planning regions.
The 4 goals and 20 guiding principles specify the criteria that will be used to choose MPA
locations, design the MPA boundaries and classify the MPAs into different zoning categories
(Government of Australia 2008).
4.3.5.4 Benefits and costs of MPAs for marine conservation
A primary objective of most MPAs declared to date is the conservation of biological diversity.
This may be expressed in terms of the conservation of representative ecosystems, or the
protection of important ecological processes, rare or vulnerable habitats, or threatened or
important species.
Reserve network area targets
The essential purpose of area targets is to identify the approximate extent of reserves
necessary to insure the persistence of both a region’s biodiversity, and the processes on
which that biodiversity depends. While ‘scientific’ targets can be developed for single species
and areas for which extensive information is available, most studies of targets applying to
broader measures of biodiversity, such as habitats or ecosystems, rely on a variety of
assumptions and surrogates in the absence of detailed information. In this context a broad
arbitrary national target has strengths and weaknesses. In the absence of detailed regional
studies it can set a minimum benchmark if applied at a sufficiently fine scale (eg habitat
type). However there is also the likelihood that a low target will create false expectations
about sufficient reserve areas (Rodrigues & Gaston 2001), and the risk that a target applied
at too coarse a scale (e.g. state or national waters) will lead to no-take areas that are not
representative of marine regions and habitats, and ineffective at promoting the persistence of
important processes.
Such national targets are only useful in the absence of detailed conservation planning at the
regional level – once this process has begun a national area target should be abandoned
(for that region). Defensible regional targets are an essential component of systematic
conservation planning (Pressey et al. 2003:101) The Great Barrier Reef Representative
Areas Program (Fernandes et al. 2005) is a good example of such a regional planning
exercise. According to Pressey et al. (2003:102) “a basic requirement of [regional] targets is
61
that they should not be constrained or revised downward to accommodate perceived
limitations on the feasible extent of conservation areas”. The areas important for
conservation and areas important for extractive uses need to be explicitly identified so that
trade-offs are transparent to both decision-makers and stakeholders.
As at 2006 around 0.65% of the global marine realm was classified as protected area, with
no-take areas accounting for only a small fraction of thisxxxii. The World Parks Congress 2003
(WPC) recommended the establishment of national networks of marine no-take areas
(NTAs) covering 20-30% of habitats by 2012, a recommendation in marked contrast to the
general target set by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity
in 2004, which requires (from participating nations) 10% of all bioregions under protection by
2012. Agardy et al. (2003) however argued against the over-zealous application of the WPC
target, suggesting that haste leads to poor planning, and that a focus on targets does little to
convince sceptical stakeholders including fishers and politicians xxxiii.
However, while the targets proposed by the WPC remain controversial (Ray 2004) the
biodiversity crisis affecting the planet leaves little doubt that an urgent expansion of marine
no-take areas is necessary if the global loss of biodiversity is to be addressed in an effective
way. This reality is the backdrop against which arguments over marine protected area
network targets take place. Soule & Sanjayan (1998) make the point that fully protecting
10% of habitats will not stop biodiversity loss – the target is far too small.
Although Soule & Sanjayan focus mainly on the plight of tropical forests, their discussion of
the dilution of scientific reserve selection criteria applies strongly in the marine realm, as
recently witnessed in Australia with regard to the protection of Commonwealth waters in
Australia’s southeast region. Here important representative areas, like the Cascade Plateau,
were identified in the initial scoping phase, but later excluded from protection apparently on
account of their perceived value to fisheries. A tiny proportion of shelf area was protected
within no-take zones (Edgar et al. 2008). The trade-offs made between fisheries and
conservation values were not described or justified in any government report, providing the
lack of transparency which all too often cloaks poor government decision-making.
Some scientists have proposed reversing the current situation – closing most of the seas,
with only a small proportion, perhaps ~ 20%, open to intensive fishing (Walters 1998, 2000).
According to Walters (2000): “A revolution is underway in thinking about how to design safe
and sustainable policies for fisheries harvesting”. Fish stocks repeatedly declining in the
face of modern management, major ecosystem damage, and an awareness of the
degradation of global biodiversity resources call for a new approach. According to Walters:
“Sustainable fisheries management may eventually require a reversal of perspective, from
thinking about protected areas as exceptional to thinking about fishing areas as exceptional.
This perspective is already the norm in a few fisheries, such as commercial salmon and
herring net fisheries along the British Columbia coast”. Walters points out that, historically,
many apparently sustainable fisheries were stabilised by the existence of ‘effective’
protected areas, and the erosion of these areas through adoption of new technology
subsequently resulted in the collapse of the fishery. Russ & Zeller (2003), in their call for
ocean zoning, reinforce Walters ideas.
Literature reviewed by Nevill (2007) reveals a general consensus amongst marine scientists
that a massive increase in no-take areas will be necessary if agreed international
conservation goalsxxxiv are to be met. Many modelling studies included in this review
recommended that targets of 20-40% of habitat should be fully protected. A common
assumption in these modelling studies is that fish stocks outside no-take zones are seriously
over-exploited, and that these areas essentially provide no protection. While fishery
scientists often argue that this need not be the case (Grafton et al. 2007, Hilborn 2007) in
practice it remains, unfortunately, all too common worldwide (Pauly & Palomares 2005,
Pauly 2005).
It should be noted that Australian governments have, at this stage, not set marine reserve
area targets. However a number of nations have set targets. According to Nevill (2007),
62
targets (commonly applying to a proportion of marine ecosystems or habitats) used
internationally include:

South Africa – an official government target of 10% under marine reserves
(referenced to the international goal) by 2012. A South African biodiversity protection
strategy, released in 2001, recommended 20% under protection by 2010; this
recommendation does not appear to have been adopted;

New Zealand – 10% of marine areas under protection within a network of
representative marine protected areas – by 2010;

Brazil – 10% of each major ecosystem under no-take protection by 2015;

Fiji – 30% within a representative reserve network by 2020;

the Bahamas, the Galapagos Islands, Guam – targets of 20% under no-take
protection;

Micronesia – 30% within a marine reserve network by 2020;

Grenada – 25% within a marine reserve network by 2020;
AMSA endorses the following extract from the Ecological Society of Australia’s Position
Statement on Protected Areas (2003):
Australian governments have produced and endorsed numerous policies and
conventions relating to the conservation of biodiversity. These documents promote
broad goals such as comprehensiveness, adequacy, representativeness,
persistence and sustainability. Planning and management of protected areas
require these goals to be translated into quantitative targets for conservation
action on the ground. Targets developed for the Regional Forest Agreements
remain controversial scientifically and, in any case, have questionable relevance
to agricultural and pastoral regions or marine environments. The more recent
retention target of 30% of the pre-1750 extent of ecological communities, even
where achieved, will result in further loss of biodiversity in many regions.
The ESA considers that quantitative targets for retention and restoration of
biodiversity pattern and process should be the subject of ongoing research,
debate and improvement. Targets framed as percentages of regions, subregions
or jurisdictions, because of their broad scale, are not useful for planning new
protected areas or reviewing established ones. Targets are necessary for land xxxv
types and species at finer scales. Targets should not be constrained by political or
economic considerations because meaningful tradeoffs between nature
conservation and competing land uses require areas important for both to be
identified and compared.
Conservation of ecosystems
Substantial no-take MPAs can increase ecosystem diversity at large geographical scales.
The tools available to modern fishers have created the situation where fish and large
invertebrates are captured from virtually all open-access coastal areas of the planet plus
trawlable seabeds to over 2000 m depth. The removal of large carnivorous species targeted
by fishers in turn affects populations of prey species, with consequent flow-on effects
throughout the food web (Pauly et al. 1998, 2000; Okey et al. 2004). Creation of an effective
MPA thus adds a new ecosystem component to the regional seascape mosaic in the form of
a patch that is ecologically structured by the large commercially exploited fishes that are
virtually absent elsewhere.
A second conservation benefit of MPAs is that they protect habitats from physical damage
caused by fishing gear. Trawls and dredges, in particular, and to a lesser extent anchors,
traps and pots, directly damage the seabed (Watling 2005). Scarring by propellers, boat hulls
and anchor chains can also degrade shallow seagrass beds and sandbanks. Until recently,
impacts of trawls and dredges were largely out-of-sight and overlooked; however, these
fishing techniques are now known to affect huge areas of seabed (Jenkins et al. 2001; HallSpencer et al. 2002; Thrush & Dayton 2002).
63
An extreme example of physical damage to seabed habitats relates to the trawl fishery for
orange roughy on deepwater seamounts off south-eastern Tasmania. The complex coral
matrix that provided habitat for numerous species on all investigated seamounts shallower
than 1000 m depth has been found destroyed by trawl chains and nets, with some small
seamounts trawled up to 3000 times during the initial 'goldrush' period (Koslow & GowlettHolmes 1998; Koslow et al. 2001). Similar destruction has been documented in New
Zealand (Clark & O’Driscoll 2003) and has presumably occurred world-wide.
Another impact of fishing excluded from MPAs is the effect of bycatch and bait discards.
Populations of some scavenging species increase significantly in fishing grounds as a
consequence of the capture and discard from boats of dead unwanted organisms, plus
animals killed or wounded by trawls or dredges passing over the seabed (Wassenberg & Hill
1987; Bradshaw et al. 2002).
In theory, MPAs should also assist efforts to safeguard biodiversity through increasing local
ecosystem resilience to invasive species and climate change. Human-induced stresses that
affect biological communities rarely operate on their own but often act in a synergistic
manner, such that the net impact of threats such as fishing plus catchment nutrification,
sedimentation, invasive species and climate change is greater than the sum of these threats
if acting individually. Modelling studies support this view, indicating that communities with the
full complement of species should possess greater stability and resistance to threats such as
invasive species than disturbed communities (Case 1990; Stachowicz et al. 1999, 2002;
Occhipinti-Ambrogi & Savini 2003) including those affected by intense fishing.
Field studies on this topic are, however, limited; hence general support for theoretical
predictions that MPAs increase ecosystem resistance requires more data, particularly on the
scale of ecosystem response to threats. Work from the California coast has shown that
fished areas are less stable than adjacent marine reserves, since high density populations of
urchins are much more susceptible to disease epidemics (Behrens & Lafferty 2004). In
another example, populations of the invasive, habitat-modifying sea urchin Centrostephanus
rodgersii appear to be rapidly expanding through the eastern Tasmanian region as a
consequence of warming water temperatures (Crawford et al. 2000); however, the presence
of high densities of predatory lobsters has the potential to constrain recruitment and survival
within the Maria Island MPA. Thus, the Maria Island MPA is likely to resist sea urchin
invasion better than adjacent fished coasts (Buxton et al. 2005). Because of a paucity of sea
urchin barrens, this MPA is also likely to better resist invasion by the exotic kelp Undaria
pinnatifida (Valentine & Johnson 2003; Edgar et al. 2004a).
Highly protected areas do not operate in isolation and external pressures
must also be managed. The protected areas will remain as dynamic
ecological systems after their change in zoning status. Apart from natural
variation, biological populations in highly protected areas can become
depleted under the influence of disturbances emanating from outside the
zone, whether they are caused by humans (e.g. pollution, global warming) or
by nature (a cyclonic storm), or by events whose cause is debateable (crown
of thorns starfish)xxxvi. There should be more than one protected area
declared for each major ecosystem type (ie: replication).
Conservation of species
The most obvious conservation benefit of MPAs is the protection of exploited animals,
including both targeted and bycatch species. For the majority of exploited species, this
benefit translates to increased local abundance inside MPAs relative to outside rather than
the persistence of a species that is fished elsewhere to extinction. Increases inside reserves
in both fish abundance and biomass are regularly reported (eg: Pande et al. (2008) and
discussion elsewhere in this paper). Once populations of targeted fishery species decline
below a certain point then continuation of the fishery is no longer economically viable
('commercial extinction'), and that species generally continues to persist at low levels.
64
Nevertheless, extinction of local populations and even species is possible in circumstances
where the target is highly valuable and lacks a refuge from hunting, as in the case of Steller's
sea cow, or where an animal concentrates in a small area to breed. For this reason,
boundaries of MPAs are often delineated to include and protect spawning aggregations of
fishes, such as Nassau grouper (Chiappone & Sealey 2000; Sala et al. 2001).
A major conservation benefit of MPAs at the species level relates to bycatch. Exploitation of
species caught incidentally during fishing operations does not necessarily decline as their
populations decline, providing that the fishery for the main target species remains
economically profitable. Thus, populations of albatross caught incidentally in the tuna longline fishery (Brothers 1991) for example, could decline to extinction, as long as the tuna
population persists and fishers actively continue to set baited lines.
Perhaps the most effective use of MPAs to protect bycatch species relates to trawling
grounds, where the ratio of target to non-target species killed by fishing can exceed 1:10
(Andrew &.Pepperell 1992). Shark and ray species appear particularly vulnerable to trawl
bycatch threats because of very low fecundity, slow growth, and late onset of sexual
maturity. During the first 20 years of fishing on the New South Wales continental slope trawl
grounds, for example, the catch per unit effort declined from 681 to 216 kg hour1 (68%) for
all fish species combined, but from 139 to 0.6 kg hour1 (99.6%) for slow-growing dogshark
(Centrophorus spp.) (Graham et al. 2001). Populations of dogshark continue to decline
towards extinction because the NSW trawl fishery remains viable for other species.
MPAs will also indirectly benefit some species because of the complexity of food-web
interactions. Declaration of the Leigh Marine Reserve (NZ) indirectly benefits Sargassum
plants, for example, because sea urchin grazing pressure has declined as a consequence of
increased numbers of lobsters and other predators within the MPA, which have consumed
most local sea urchins (Shears & Babcock 2002). Similarly, predation pressure exerted by
abundant lobsters in a South African protected area caused a major ecosystem shift, with
resultant higher abundance of some invertebrate species (Barkai & Branch 1988).
On the other hand, some species will decline in population numbers following the declaration
of MPAs. In general, for every positive response shown by species to protection from fishing,
some prey species will show a negative response, with ripple effects through the ecosystem.
As a consequence of summing up negative as well as positive responses, changes in
species richness measured at the site scale are rarely predictable, other than the minor
increase caused by the addition to fish and invertebrate counts of large exploited species
that become common in the seascape, and species greatly affected by fishing-related
damage to habitat structures.
The prevalence of indirect effects within MPAs highlights the importance of ecological
monitoring programs for assessing MPA effectiveness. As an example, MPAs may not
provide the best mechanism to protect critically endangered white abalone (Haliotis
sorenseni) in California (Tegner 2000) because of increased predation risk from sea otters
and other shellfish consumers. Abalone populations declined following declaration of
Tasmanian MPAs (Edgar & Barrett 1999) probably as a result of increase in abundance of
rock lobsters and other large predators of juvenile abalone.
Protection from the effects of recreational fishing can provide some species with important
benefits (Cooke & Cowx 2004). The grey nurse shark, once the second most commonly
caught shallow-water shark off Australia’s eastern seaboard, is now under serious threat,
partly from recreational angling and spearfishing (Nevill 2005).
Conservation of genotypes
When fishing mortality is greater than natural mortality, as occurs for the majority of fished
stocks, then fishing exerts a strong evolutionary pressure on populations (Law & Stokes
2005). For example, individuals of fished populations that grow slowly and reach maturity at
a relatively small size, particularly if that size is below the minimum legal size of capture, will
have a greater chance of spawning and passing their genetic code to the next generation
than fast growing individuals. Fishing mortality can cause the mean size of maturity of fished
65
populations to decline significantly within less than four generations (Conover & Munch
2002; Conover et al. 2005).
Because declining growth rate and size at maturity negatively affects fishery production,
fishery-induced selection is sometimes counterbalanced by specific management actions,
such as maximum as well as minimum size limits, which allow some large spawners to pass
on their genes. However, new regulations directed at individual species cannot counteract
the full range of selective pressures induced by fishing, such as behavioural adaptations that
decrease probability of capture.
Effective no-take MPAs provide the best management tool for conserving genetic diversity
because populations within MPAs are not affected by fishing mortality or fishery-induced
evolutionary pressures. In most situations, populations within MPAs will be genetically fitter
than fished populations because through millennia the population has evolved specific
characteristics that maximise long-term survival of the species in the natural environment.
Populations consisting of slow-growing individuals as a result of fishing selection, for
example, will suffer higher rates of natural mortality than populations of fast-growing
individuals because animals take longer to reach spawning size. Populations with reduced
size at maturity tend to have lower total egg production than an unfished population where
individuals spawn at a large size with many more eggs released per female. Populations
where individuals forage less often because they stay longer in crevices to avoid capture by
divers will have reduced food consumption rates, growth rates and net egg production.
Maintenance of genetic diversity within a network of MPAs should prove particularly
important for the persistence of species in the face of changing environmental conditions,
such as during a period of rapid climate change.
Costs of no-take marine protected areas for biodiversity conservation
As well as providing benefits, MPA establishment can negatively affect biodiversity in some
circumstances, and managers should try to minimise any such losses. As discussed above,
populations of species such as abalone may decline within MPAs as a result of increases in
populations of fished predatory species. More importantly, the declaration of MPAs results in
changed human behaviour, with potential negative consequences.
The exclusion of fishers from MPAs will, unless action is taken to reduce overall fishing
effort, result in displacement of fishing effort and greater fishing pressure within open-access
areas outside the MPA network. If the total fishing catch is finely regulated using total
allowable quotas, then such displaced effort could potentially cause overfishing and a
gradual decline in fish populations within the open-access areas, ultimately resulting in
protected 'islands' of high biodiversity that are surrounded by a 'sea' of low fish production
(Buxton et al. 2005). Such a scenario is clearly undesirable from a resource management
perspective, and also from a conservation perspective for species with little connectivity
between the MPAs.
The declaration of MPAs can also concentrate divers and other users of the marine
environment into localised areas. Whereas accidental damage to corals and other organisms
caused by diver contact may have little environmental impact when spread over a large area,
such impacts can be catastrophic when localised along popular dive trails. Clearly,
management prescriptions within MPAs must take into account the potential impacts on
marine biodiversity of concentrations of 'passive' users. Management planning should also
pre-empt any race by fishers to extract as many fish as possible before MPA regulations
come into force, and recognise that spawning aggregation and other important sites may be
targeted for illegal fishing if locations are advertised within MPAs.
One pervasive threat to biodiversity that accompanies MPA creation is a false sense of
security. The general public frequently assume all necessary protection is in place once a
MPA network is declared regardless of the size or spread of the reserves, the level of
protection, or the level of poaching. Well designed and executed field monitoring studies
should indicate whether MPAs are actually working or not.
66
Scientific and tourism benefits of marine reserves
Marine protected areas generate economic benefits. The tourism economy of Queensland’s
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, including flow-on effects, exceed $5 billion pa. These
revenues, of course, include recreational fishing – an important activity within the multi-use
park. The Leigh (Goat Island) no-take reserve in New Zealand attracts over 300,000 visitors
each year – generating significant benefits to the local economy.
In addition to economic impacts, MPAs provide opportunities and potential benefits for
education and recreation. They also generate scientific benefits of importance to fishery and
conservation managers, and to the wider community.
The immediate scientific value of effective MPAs is that they act as reference areas for
understanding effects of fishing on marine communities (Dayton et al. 2000). Our present
understanding of this topic is poor, hence information on the unexpected population changes
that almost inevitably occur within MPAs greatly enhances our understanding of ecosystem
processes. To date, a general understanding of the effects of fishing has been severely
compromised by complexities of interactions between species and by the 'sliding baseline
syndrome' – the phenomenon whereby slow incremental changes may amount to massive
environmental changes over several human generations but are not noticed because each
generation starts with a different, albeit slightly worse, conception of the 'natural' state of the
environment (Dayton et al. 1998).
In this context, it is important to recognise that the study of MPAs not only provides
information on how fishing affects the environment, but can also alleviate concerns about
fishing where this activity has little effect. For example, fisheries for a variety of southeastern Australian species – including school shark, striped trumpeter, jack mackerel,
barracouta, gemfish and warehou – collapsed during the second half of the twentieth
century. In some cases the collapse was probably due to overfishing; however, fisheries may
also have declined as a consequence of increasing water temperatures, coastal degradation,
or a combination of factors. Without MPAs as reference areas, the contributing factors can
only be guessed, and fishing possibly blamed in some cases when not a major contributing
factor.
An additional scientific benefit of MPAs is that they provide access to subjects that are so
rare that they cannot be rigorously studied elsewhere. For example, if large predators have
been overfished across the coastal seascape, then without study of protected populations
their potential role in the ecosystem cannot be assessed. Similarly, without MPAs it is often
impossible to accurately measure basic parameters used for modelling stock dynamics of
fished species, such as rates of natural mortality, growth rates of large individuals, and size
at maturity for unfished stocks.
MPAs are also useful in providing a controlled environment for scientific experiments,
particularly when public access is restricted and experiments can be undertaken without
interference. The Leigh (Goat Island) Marine Reserve in New Zealand was originally planned
with this scientific aim as its primary goal, although the reserve was subsequently found to
also generate many conservation-, fishery- and recreation-related benefits over the long
term.
From an ecological perspective, MPAs represent a large-scale manipulative experiment
where predation by humans is excluded from particular plots (Walters & Holling 1990). If
appropriately monitored, results can provide profound insights into structural connections
within food webs at regional, continental and global scales. These spatial scales differ
markedly from those traditionally studied in ecological investigations, such as when plant and
animal densities are modified at the scale of metres on patches of shore. Processes
operating at small scales often differ from those operating at larger scales (Andrew & Choat
1982; Andrew & MacDiarmid 1991; Babcock et al. 1999) so conclusions reached cannot be
extrapolated to the more interesting larger domains without validation (Eberhardt & Thomas
1991; Menge 1992). MPAs provide prime opportunities to validate experiments at scales
relevant to management intervention.
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4.3.5.5 Significance of no-take MPAs in fisheries management
Most marine protected areas globally are established to conserve biodiversity through the
protection of ecosystems, habitats, and species (Roberts et al. 2005). The majority are not
declared with fisheries enhancement as a primary goal. While the biodiversity benefits of
marine protected area networks are accepted worldwide through (for example) international
agreements and the resolutions of the United Nations General Assembly, the fishery benefits
of marine reserves are not as well documented, and are more hotly debated.
High levels of uncertainty characterise fisheries management. Uncertainty stems from many
factors, including environmental fluctuations over short, medium and long time periods, lack
of knowledge of the dynamics of single species, and their role and relationship to the
ecosystems which support them, data uncertainties from statistical and sampling bias, and
uncertainties in predicting of the activities of fishers. When some of these uncertainties are
included in modelling studies, results indicate that the establishment of significant areas
under no-take protection can result in increased fish catches in adjacent areas (Grafton et
al., 2005; 2006).
Australia’s best-known MPA is the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP) in Queensland
(Day et al. 2003). In 2004 the GBRMP was rezoned under the Representative Areas
Program (RAP), a Commonwealth Government initiative. The objective of RAP was to
protect at least 20% of each of 70 bioregions in the GBRMP (Day et al. 2003). While the
RAP was not established for fisheries management purposes, which are the responsibility of
the Queensland State Government, it increased the no-take (no fishing) zones from 4.5% to
33.4% of the GBRMP, closing an area of approximately 115,000 km 2. At the time this was
the largest single spatial closure to fishing in the world. Furthermore, for the first time, many
of the no-take zones are now close to the coast, where many people fish, particularly for
recreation. Not surprisingly, the public debate over the implementation of RAP centred on
fishing, not biodiversity, issues. The debate helped to bring into sharper public focus the
potential benefits of no-take zones as fisheries management tools, particularly the potential
benefits for reef fisheries.
Many fish stocks worldwide are currently over-exploited by marine capture fisheries (Pauly et
al. 2002). To many people no-take reserves represent one potential solution to enhance the
long-term sustainability of many of these fisheries. To others they represent a 'fencing off of
the seas' attitude, a denial of people's 'rights' to fish. Thus, the use of no-take reserves as
fisheries management tools is a highly controversial topic in fisheries science and fisheries
management.
The popularity of marine reserves as fisheries management tools, at least in the literature,
stems partly from a frequent failure of ‘traditional' catch and effort controls to prevent
overfishing in many developed nations, and the difficulty in applying such 'traditional' options
in many developing nations. It also reflects a growing interest in a more holistic approach to
fisheries management, particularly the concept of protecting the habitats and ecosystems on
which fish productivity depends. MPAs have attracted a great deal of interest from a
remarkably broad cross-section of disciplines, for example conservation, ecology,
economics, environmental science, fisheries science, fisheries management, mathematical
modelling, and social science. The topic is popular since it offers, simultaneously,
conservation and sustainable exploitation, two objectives that many have viewed in the past
as often conflicting. It proverbially offers us a chance to have our fish and eat them too.
Expectations of no-take marine protected areas as fisheries management tools
There are seven expectations of the effects of no-take marine reserves on organisms
targeted by fisheries (Russ 2002):
Effects inside reserves
 lower fishing mortality
 higher density
 higher mean size/age
 higher biomass
68

higher production of propagules (eggs/larvae) per unit area.
Effects outside reserves
 net export of adult (post-settlement) fish (the 'spillover' effect)
 net export of eggs/larvae ('recruitment subsidy').
Good evidence indicates that the abundance and average size of organisms targeted by
fisheries increases inside no-take marine reserves. However, to be useful as fisheries
management tools, no-take marine reserves need to become net exporters of targeted fish
biomass (export of adults and/or propagules) to fished areas or provide other forms of
benefit for fisheries management (such as increased profits, or reduced levels of
uncertainty). The use of marine reserves as fisheries management tools remains
controversial, since clear demonstrations of such export functions and benefits are
technically and logistically difficult to demonstrate. However, the potential remains for a wide
array of benefits to be secured by fisheries from carefully designed and strategically located
MPAs (Ward 2004).
Protection of aggregations, and stock recovery
Marine animals aggregate for a variety of reasons, most commonly to do with spawning,
feeding, ‘safety in numbers’ and migration (Allee 1931). Many such aggregations occur at
predictable times and places. Such aggregations are often targeted by fishers, and many
important aggregations have been so heavily harvested that they have been effectively
eliminated. Populations and sub-populations are sometimes at great risk, and the scale of
damage to date suggests that genetic variation within many populations has been lost –
however evidence for this is lacking, and the extent of damage may never be assessed
(Sadovy 2003).
In Australia, for example, spawning populations of orange roughy have been decimated
across its Australian range, with the Cascade Plateaux population the only one remaining
above 10% of its virgin biomass (Nevill 2006). Protection of spawning sites, and curtailment
of fishing effort was instigated only after populations had crashed. In South Australia, a
massive spawning aggregation of giant Australian cuttlefish near Whyalla was almost
extirpated before fishing effort was restricted by a temporary reserve.
The protection of critical spawning areas and populations, and nursery habitat is of particular
importance. The protection of such areas are important commitments under the Rio
Implementation Statement 1992 and the UN FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible
Fisheries 1995 – both endorsed by the Australian Government.
With respect to the general issue of recovery of depleted stocks, there is a growing scientific
literature which supports the notion that MPAs, and particularly fully-protected (no-take)
MPAs, can be effective in promoting the recovery of stressed ecosystems and of depleted
fish-stocks (eg. Lindholm et al. 2004; Wooninck and Bertrand, 2004; Bohnsack et al.,
2004). Crowder et al. (2000) found in a review of 28 MPAs that most exhibited increased fish
density, biomass, average fish size and diversity after the MPA was declared. Similarly, in an
analysis of 89 studies of fully-protected reserves, Halpern (2003) showed that, in almost
every case, the creation of a reserve promoted increases in abundance, biomass, size and
diversity of organisms. Furthermore, these increases appeared to be (contrary to the
predictions of modelling studies) independent of the size of the reserve (i.e. small reserves
appeared to be as effective as large reserves), suggesting that the biological benefits of
declaring reserves are directly proportional to the amount of area protected rather than the
size of individual reserves (Roberts et al., 2003). This is an issue which needs further study,
as both species/area relationships, as well as our understanding of habitat complexity and
the movements and habitat needs of large marine animals, argue that large reserves should
be more effective than small reserves in several important respects (Laffoley et al. 2008:5861; Lubchenco et al. 2007:13-15).
Compelling evidence of the effectiveness of one MPA network comes from recent reports on
the status of the George’s Banks MPA (Murawski et al. 2004; Fogarty and Murawski 2005)
69
which had been heavily overfished and largely closed to fishing in 1994. The MPA is
concluded to have had the following affects over a ten-year period:
 the biomass (total population weight) of a number of commercially important fish
species on Georges Bank has sharply increased, due to both an increase in the
average size of individuals and, for some species, an increase in the number of
young surviving to harvestable size;
 some non-commercial species, such as longhorn sculpin, increased in biomass;
 by 2001, haddock populations rebounded dramatically with a fivefold increase;
 Yellowtail flounder populations have increased by more than 800 percent since the
establishment of year-round closures;
 Cod biomass increased by about 50 percent by 2001; and
 Scallop biomass increased 14-fold by 2001, an unintended benefit of the
establishment of closed areas to protect groundfish.
Examples of expected effects of no-take marine protected areas
Higher density, average size and biomass
Williamson et al. (2004) demonstrated that no-take zones on inshore coral reefs of the Great
Barrier Reef (GBR) increased the density and biomass of coral trout, the major target of the
recreational and commercial line fisheries on the GBR, two- to four-fold over a period of
around 13 years. Coral trout were, on average, much larger in no-take zones. No-take
zoning was the likely cause of these differences between no-take and fished areas, since
Williamson et al. (2004) had data on density, biomass and average size before zoning was
implemented in 1987. Edgar and Barrett (1999) surveyed reef biota in four Tasmanian notake marine reserves, and at various control (fished) sites. They also collected data at the
time these reserves were established and then monitored the changes over a six-year
period. In the largest of these reserves, Maria Island (7 km in length), rock lobsters increased
in biomass tenfold, and trumpeter (a reef fish) a hundredfold. The number of fish, densities of
larger fish, mean size of blue-throat wrasse and mean size of abalone, increased in this
reserve. Such changes were not as obvious in the smaller reserves studied. Similar large
increases in abundance of spiny lobster and snapper have been recorded in northern New
Zealand no-take reserves over more than two decades (Babcock 2003).
A key question regarding no-take marine reserves is what duration of protection is required for
full recovery of abundance of species targeted by fishing. Some authors have suggested that
many targeted species may display significant levels of recovery in no-take reserves in just a
few years (Halpern & Warner 2002). Other evidence suggests that duration to full recovery of
large predatory reef fish in Philippine no-take reserves may take three to four decades (Russ
& Alcala 2004; Russ et al. 2005).
Higher propagule production
A key requirement for no-take reserves to become net exporters of propagules (and thus net
exporters of potential recruits to fisheries) is that the per unit area production of propagules is
substantially higher in reserves well protected in the long term. Since density and average size
of targeted species should increase in well-protected reserves, egg production per unit area
also should increase. Evidence for this simple expectation remains fairly limited, despite it
being reasonable (even obvious). Some of the best evidence for this comes from New
Zealand no-take reserves. Snapper (Pagrus auratus) egg production was estimated to be 18
times higher inside than outside three New Zealand reserves over three years (Willis et al.
2003a). Kelly et al. (2002) used empirical data to predict that egg production of lobster,
Jasus edwardsii, would be 4.4 times higher in New Zealand no-take reserves after 25 years
of protection. Paddack & Estes (2000) showed that egg production of rockfish were often two
to three times higher in no-take compared with fished reefs in California. While these
differences in egg production are substantial it is less clear whether they translate into
measurable differences in recruitment, either locally or to the wider stock. Further study is
needed.
70
Spillover
Do no-take reserves, well protected in the long term, become net exporters of adult targeted
organisms? Some of the best evidence for such export (spillover) comes from studies that
have demonstrated increased abundance of targeted fish inside reserves and in adjacent
fished areas over time (McClanahan & Mangi 2000; Roberts et al. 2001; Russ et al. 2003;
Abesamis & Russ 2005). Many of these studies report the development of gradients (from
higher inside reserves to lower outside reserves) of abundance and catch rates. However,
not all studies indicate the potential for spillover. Kelly et al. (2002), for example, could not
detect any enhanced catch rate of lobsters adjacent to a well-protected marine reserve in
New Zealand; however, their results also showed that there was no reduction in catch in the
region. This suggests that conservation goals were being achieved without negatively
affecting local fisheries.
A substantial literature on movements of marine fish and some invertebrates establishes the
strong potential for spillover (Gell & Roberts 2003). Computer modelling studies suggest that
if spillover occurs, its contribution to overall fishery yield will likely be modest (Russ 2002).
Most models of spillover suggest that such a process will rarely, if ever, compensate for the
loss of fishery catch caused by the loss of fishing area required to set up the reserve in the
first place.
The key question is what happens to local fishery catch, in both the short and long term,
when part of the area is declared no-take? One of the few studies to address this question
was that of Alcala et al. (2005) at two small Philippine islands. They demonstrated that
closure to fishing of 10-25% of fishing area of these two islands did not reduce total fishery
catch at the islands in the long term (two decades), similar to the results for lobsters in New
Zealand (Kelly et al. 2002). On the contrary, the experimental evidence suggested that the
total catch was sustained, or even enhanced, in the long term. These results are particularly
significant, given that municipal (subsistence) fishing is such a major human activity at each
island.
Where spillover does occur, although it may have a fairly modest impact on local fish yields,
commercial fisheries stand to secure a range of other benefits, including higher monetary
returns from fewer but larger individuals, and long term stability of yields (Ward 2004,
Grafton et al. 2006, 2004). In addition, the potential also exists for net export of propagules
from reserves to fished areas, the 'recruitment subsidy' effect.
Recruitment subsidy
Evidence for recruitment subsidy (net export of propagules from no-take marine reserves) is
still extremely limited. The main reasons for this are that propagules (eggs, larvae) are
extremely difficult to sample, tag, and track. Marine ecologists still have very limited
knowledge of the 'dispersal kernels' of most marine larvae. Furthermore, recruitment of
marine organisms is notoriously variable, making both the identification and statistical testing
of trends in recruitment difficult.
Some empirical evidence for recruitment subsidy comes from a scallop fishery in the
northern hemisphere, although a good deal of disagreement remains about the interpretation
of the evidence. The abundance of scallops (Placopecten magellanicus) increased
substantially following the 1994 closure to fishing of three large areas of the Georges Bank,
north-eastern USA (Murawski et al. 2000). Total catch of the scallop fishery increased
between 1994 and 1998, despite the reduced fishing area. Fishing effort concentrated
outside the boundaries of the closed areas, particularly in places most likely to receive
scallop larvae exported from the closed areas (Gell & Roberts 2003). These results suggest
that the no-take reserves have had a positive effect on total yield of scallops on the Georges
Bank, by exporting propagules to fished areas. Recruitment subsidy from no-take reserves to
fished areas is by far the most likely mechanism to sustain, or even enhance, fisheries
outside the boundaries of the no-take reserves. While many marine ecologists believe that
such an expectation is reasonable, given that marine larvae can often disperse distances
much greater than the spatial scale of most no-take marine reserves (Baker et al. 1996),
empirical evidence in support of this export process is still rare.
71
Insurance against management failure and unpredictable stochastic events
A particularly powerful argument in support of establishing no-take marine protected areas or
reserves is that they serve as insurance against future fisheries management failure and
unpredictable stochastic events (Grafton et al. 2006). The record of 'traditional’ fisheries
management to maintain spawning stocks of exploited organisms at levels most marine
scientists would consider to be sufficient to ensure long-term sustainable harvest is fairly
dismal (Pauly et al. 2002).
Many people now argue that the only way to ensure sufficient spawners is to set aside a
reasonable proportion of the stock in no-take zones (Grafton et al. 2005). Others argue that
the economic and social cost of such an insurance policy is too high. Such arguments have
to be weighed against the considerable economic and social hardships that occur if a fishery
is so depleted that it is no longer economically viable. Such a debate is one of the trade-offs
between short- and long-term costs and benefits, and the ability of 'traditional' fisheries
management to maintain enough spawning fish in the water.
Information on important parameters for stock assessment
A clear benefit of no-take reserves, protected properly in the long term, is that they provide
scientists with sites for study of unexploited populations, communities, and ecosystems.
They are some of the few places where scientists can directly make reasonable estimates of
such key parameters as natural mortality rates or growth rates (Buxton et al. 2005). They are
also places that show us what natural marine communities and ecosystems actually look
like, and how they function. No-take reserves can also provide novel means of independently
estimating parameters, such as fishing mortality, that are vital for the effective management
of fisheries. For example, by comparing seasonal fluctuations in abundance of New Zealand
snapper in reserves and fished areas on coastal reefs it has been estimated that between 70
and 96% of legal-sized snapper are being taken, mostly by recreational fishers (Willis &
Millar 2005).
Costs of no-take marine protected areas as fisheries management tools
Displaced effort
An argument against the use of no-take MPAs as fisheries management tools, at least at first
sight, is that reserves will simply move fishing effort away from the no-take area and
concentrate it in the remaining fished area. If steps are not taken to reduce fishing effort, the
short-term cost is likely to be very real, particularly if the fishery is fully exploited or overexploited. In many cases, the implementation of no-take reserves involves financial
compensation to some displaced fishers – and in some cases these costs can be
substantial. Recent experience in Victoria has shown that early calculations of compensation
were over-estimated, and that in fact actual compensation payouts were easily afforded by
the State Government (Phillips 2005). In Queensland, however, the reverse was the case,
with compensation payouts following the expansion of no-take areas in the Great Barrier
Reef Marine Park exceeding early estimates. However such short-term costs must be
weighed up against the longer-term benefits likely to flow from recruitment subsidy,
insurance against management failure, and tourism income generated by Australia having
some of the best and largest well-protected marine ecosystems in the world. The key point
with respect to displaced effort is weighing up short-term costs against long-term gains.
Locked-up resources
Another argument against no-take MPAs as fisheries management tools is that they simply
make part of the resource unavailable to the fishery, and thus make that portion of the
resource useless to the fishery. Such an argument ignores two things. First, export functions
may, in the long term, compensate for initial loss of 'locked-up' resources. Such export
functions may even enhance fishery yields, particularly if the resource is already heavily
fished. Second, those 'locked-up' resources are possibly one of the best insurance policies
we can have against the possibility of future fisheries management failures. These areas
also provide refuges for genetic diversity at risk in heavily fished populations (see discussion
above).
72
False sense of security
If no-take MPAs are poorly protected (e.g. poor compliance with no-take regulations) or, due
to specific life-history characteristics of some target species, do not develop export functions,
they may well create a false sense of security for fisheries managers and the public. The
remedy to this problem is to ensure adequate compliance, enforcement and monitoring. If
adequate enforcement is not carried out, the inevitable long-term consequence is that most
fishers will ignore the rules. Conversely, with adequate enforcement, it is in the interests of
honest fishers to comply with the rules and to report illegal fishing. Monitoring is also
essential. Appropriate and effective monitoring of reserve performance is necessary to
determine if the stated goals of the MPA are being achieved. If MPAs are established partly
on the basis of assumptions of fisheries benefits (and this may be advisable in some cases
as a precautionary measure) these assumptions should be scrutinized by ongoing
monitoring programs.
Uncertainty, and the importance of long time-frames in planning
Fisheries are important, but so are the values of marine biodiversity. Although there is no
doubt that a reasonable balance between marine resource exploitation and nature
conservation has rarely been achieved across the planet, it is important to start from a
position which seeks ways to protect both marine biodiversity and fisheries. Marine reserves
and fisheries are often seen in a ‘win-lose’ way, where the establishment of reserve networks
is assumed to prejudice the interest of fishers. This simplification may often be incorrect, and
fails to acknowledge that in many cases reserves can provide fishery benefits. While it is
important that such benefits should not be overstated (Sale et al. 2005) to neglect them
ignores important benefits of reserves, especially over long time scales (Grafton et al. 2006).
4.3.5.5 How effective are Australia’s existing MPA networks?
In developing the NRSMPA framework in 1999, all Australian jurisdictions were committed to
the creation of MPA networks which would provide comprehensive, adequate and
representative protection for Australia’s marine ecosystems. The principles on which the
NRSMPA strategy was based, as well as planning and management principles incorporated
in Australia’s Oceans Policy 1998 (see the ‘guidelines’ listed in section 3 above) are sound.
Two questions are important: (a) have the principles been properly applied so far in the
creation of existing MPA networks, and (b) are the networks meeting their objectives in
practice? This section provides an answer to the first question, and outlines an approach for
answering the second.
Australia has eight State/Territory jurisdictions xxxvii, who carry very considerable
responsibilities for natural resource management. They depend heavily on the Australian
(Commonwealth) Government for funds – thus providing the Commonwealth with the
leverage needed to encourage States in meeting international obligations.
In examining progress over the last decade, it is clear that the design principles of the
NRSMPA have been followed in some cases; in others they have been abandoned. In
considering whether protection has been “comprehensive, adequate and representative”
there are two key issues: the use of zoning which provides effective protection, and the
extent of habitat representation within the regional network.
Queensland is Australia’s best example of the development of effective MPA networks. As
discussed above, the substantial Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (developed principally by
the Commonwealth Government) includes 33% no-take zones, which provide effective
protection for representative habitats. The GBRMP occupies a very substantial portion of the
continental shelf adjacent to Queensland. Most habitat types within the Park are protected to
the 20% level (or better) by no-take zones. At the State level, the Queensland Government
has protected most Moreton Bayxxxviii habitats at 9% or better, with a total of 16% of the Bay
in no-take zones. In Western Australia, the large Ningaloo Marine Park protects around 30%
of its area in no-take zones. Victoria also provides an example of effective protection of
representative habitat, although at a considerably smaller scale, and with less
comprehensive coverage of habitat types. Here about 5% of habitat within State jurisdiction
73
is zoned as no-takexxxix. Habitat maps are available for the bulk of Victorian marine waters,
with high-resolution mapping within MPAs.
On the other hand, the progress made by the Tasmanian Government, as well as the
Commonwealth MPAs in the South East Region around Tasmania, provide examples of
ineffective protection. In the absence of comprehensive habitat maps for this region,
geomorphic province can be used as a coarse biodiversity surrogate – the shelf for example
contains important habitats not found elsewhere. Commonwealth MPAs include only 0.75%
of the region’s shelf in no-take zones. Remaining MPAs are IUCN category VI, providing little
effective protection from fishing activities – a key threat in the region. At the State level, the
Tasmanian Government’s Bruny Bioregion MPA network (announced in 2008) is entirely
category VI, and fishing activities continue within the MPA network essentially unrestricted.
This approach provides virtually no protection from one of the most important threats in the
bioregion.
In the case of the Commonwealth’s South East Region, considering only the area covered
by the MPA network creates a misleading impression. MPAs of all zones (in this case almost
entirely two categories: IUCN class Ia and VI) cover a substantial proportion of the region:
~5.5%. This seems like a good outcome, until the detail is examined. Coverage of shelf
habitats is in fact far from ‘adequate’.
Any national assessment must take into account the extent of effective protection, and here
no-take MPAs should be used as an indicator. Secondly, the extent of representative habitat
protection must be assessed. Future habitat mapping programs will assist greatly in this
regard.
The Commonwealth-managed Collaborative Australian Protected Area Database (CAPAD)
fails to provide important basic information on Australia’s MPA network. Different States
have used different reporting formats within the CAPAD framework. Some States list every
MPA, while others list only MPAs grouped into State categories (eg: ‘marine nature reserve’)
which are terms which have no national meaning. Some States list the IUCN categories of
each MPA (which is useful) while others do not. In terrestrial protected area reporting, some
States list the bioregions and subregions within protected areas (which is at least a start in
reporting surrogates for representation) however no State reports this information for MPAs.
The database is not updated regularly: the most recent marine data in mid-2008 was for
2004. CAPAD is in urgent need of major improvement.
All MPAs should be managed (within a dedicated budget) monitored and assessed.
Management plans must identify key values to be protected, and establish indicators by
which these values can be monitored. Any national or regional assessment of a MPA or a
MPA network must be based at least in part on the extent to which identified values are
maintained or enhanced over time. Assessments of the effects, and effectiveness, of MPAs
at zone, reserve or system level should be placed within a transparent adaptive
management framework, allowing progressive improvement of MPA design and
implementation.
Assessments must also take into account both the intent of management (the zoning), the
extent to which such management is effective (including the extent of compliance
enforcement) and the extent to which the combined set of zones within an MPA network
contributes to conservation outcomes for species, assemblages and habitats across the
region. Where models to assess the different levels of contribution of conservation
outcomes delivered by the different management zones are weak, or the data are lacking, it
is appropriate to consider the success of a MPA system cautiously, and restrict the
assessment and reporting of effectiveness to only the zones of high-protection (eg: noaccess or no-take). In the zones of high-protection, given evidence of effective compliance
enforcement, assessment and reporting on effectiveness then becomes an issue of
measuring and reporting on intrinsic conservation parameters appropriate to the species,
assemblages habitats or processes that are intended to be protected.
74
Compliance cannot be taken for granted. Even in Australia, where fisheries are often
perceived to be well-managed, there is ample evidence not only of non-compliance, but of
cultures of non-compliance. For example, Poiner et al. (1998:s2) in a study of prawn trawling
in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area reported: “there has been a high level of illegal
trawling in the Green Zone and evidence that 40 to 50 boats regularly trawl the area.
Misreporting of catch has taken place with catches from inside the Green Zone being
credited to adjacent open areas.” Cultures of non-compliance will arise where absence of
enforcement is predictable.
4.3.6 Acknowledgements: This paper was developed by an AMSA subcommittee,
the AMSA MPA Working Group, in 2008. The Working Group referred a draft to AMSA
members through the AMSA email forum, prior to approval of the final document by the
AMSA Council in November 2008. Although it draws from many sources, Edgar, Russ &
Babcock (2007) in particular was used extensively in the preparation of section 3.5. Our
thanks also to Graeme Kelleher, Bob Pressey, Bill Ballantine, Hugh Possingham, Terry
Hughes and Quentin Grafton for helpful advice and comment.
We consider it is part of our professional duty as marine biologists to
state publicly and frequently the need for a representative, replicated,
networked and sustainable system of highly protected marine
reserves. We doubt if our grandchildren will accept any excuses if we
fail.
Ballantine & Langlois 2008:35
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Section Five:
Scientific support for the establishment of networks of
marine protected areas around core sanctuary zones.
Over 150 highly qualified scientists supported the following public letter:
Letter coordinators:
Professor Hugh Possingham, University of Queensland, Brisbane.
Dr Jon Nevill, PO Box 106 Hampton Victoria 3188; ph 0422 926 515.
Monday 16th August 2010
The Hon Julia Gillard
Prime Minister
Parliament House
Canberra ACT 2600
The Hon Tony Abbott
Leader of the Opposition
Parliament House
Canberra ACT 2600
OPEN LETTER TO THE PRIME MINISTER AND LEADER OF THE OPPOSITION
SCIENCE SUPPORTING MARINE PROTECTED AREAS
Dear Ms Gillard and Mr Abbott
Recently articles have appeared in State and national press suggesting that there is little or
no scientific evidence to support the creation of systems of marine protected areas. This is
false. In this letter we briefly discuss the scientific evidence that shows marine protected
areas have very positive impacts on biodiversity, and in many cases fisheries as well. Some
reserve systems also produce substantial economic benefits through tourism xl, as well as
providing important educational, inspirational and research opportunities.
Here we use the definition of marine protected areas of the Australian Marine Science
Association (AMSA): areas of the ocean or coastal seas, securely reserved and effectively
protected from at least some threatsxli. In the discussion below, we look briefly at threats to
the marine environment, the history of marine protected areas, the development of networks
of MPAs in Australia (against a background of bioregional planning), and their importance to
Australia in an uncertain future.
The marine environment faces five general threats: climate change and ocean acidification
resulting from rising CO2 levelsxlii, overfishing, habitat damage, pollution, and the effects of
alien organismsxliii. On the global scene, modern fishing activities constitute the most
important threat to marine biodiversity at the present time, although this will change in the
near future as rising CO2 levels affect ocean chemistry, temperatures and sea levels xliv.
Fishing activities in Australia have had damaging effects on biodiversityxlv. Well known
examples include the orange roughy where populations (and their fragile coral habitats) have
been massively reduced by commercial fishingxlvi, and the east coast grey nurse shark,
where historic recreational fishing pressures combined with commercial bycatch could result
in the regional extinction of this speciesxlvii. While area protection clearly cannot be effective
against all threats (eg: ocean acidification) it can provide protection from important threats
such as fishing and habitat damage.
Protected areas have been used in some parts of the world for hundreds, perhaps
thousands of years. Protected areas established by tribal law in Oceania were put in place
purely to protect fisheries, for example by the protection of spawning, nursery and feeding
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areasxlviii. In 1972, the nations of the world pledged to protect representative examples of
major terrestrial, marine and freshwater ecosystems through the United Nations Conference
on the Human Environment Stockholm Declaration. The protection of such areas is of
immense scientific value, in many instances offering the only ‘natural’ benchmark by which
we can judge the effects of human interventions. Australia’s commitment to this program of
protecting representative ecosystems was re-affirmed in 1982, through the United Nations
General Assembly World Charter for Nature, and again in 1992, when Australia supported
the international Convention on Biological Diversity. This latter document (the CBD) led,
through an extended program of scientific and stakeholder consultations, to a commitment
(set out in the CBD Jakarta Mandate) to develop global and national networks of marine
protected areas. Hundreds of scientists from around 180 nations contributed to the
development of this program, which continues across the world today. Australian scientists
and politicians have played (and continue to play) a world leading role in this program.
Most Australian States had already begun programs of marine spatial protection when the
Commonwealth Government took the role of coordinating and supporting the development of
networks of marine protected areas in the early 1990s, and by introducing marine bioregional
planning in the late 1990s (bioregions contain repeating patterns of similar ecosystems,
providing a key spatial framework within which protected area networks can be designed and
implemented). These efforts were unanimously applauded by scientists around the world,
and in large part established Australia as a major international player in areas of marine
science and conservation. Senator Robert Hill played an important role in establishing a
national program strongly based on science – which up until the present time has had
bipartisan support for nearly two decades.
Australia is a world leader in marine conservation planning, although implementation outside
the Great Barrier Reef is patchy. The current planning for marine protected area systems in
federal waters has been carried out by the Commonwealth Department of the Environment,
Water, Heritage and the Arts (DEWHA) with world class tools and principles, and some
outcomes are of a high standardxlix. Indeed the successful rezoning of the Great Barrier Reef
is considered to be a global model of best scientific practice.
Scientific studies have confirmed several ‘common sense’ outcomes. Where areas are
effectively protected (and that does mean that compliance measures must be in force)
harvested species (fish, for example) tend to be older, larger and more abundant l. In a few
cases statistically significant evidence of a beneficial effect of marine reserves cannot be
found largely because of inadequate data, or insufficient time for effects to clearly manifest,
not because there are actually no effects. This is particularly important because, unlike many
land dwelling vertebrates, larger females tend to be more effective breeders (often much
more effective). Again, not unexpectedly, benefits appear over time, sometimes slowly li.
Some of the oldest marine protected areas are still showing the effects of ‘recovery’ from
harvesting and other pressures. Protected areas can also ameliorate coral disease by
promoting ecological resiliencelii. While the benefits for marine biodiversity flowing from notake areas have been well established, arguments continue (and will continue) about the use
of marine protected areas for fishery enhancement purposes. It is noteworthy, in this context,
that some MPAs have strong support by fishermen – an example being the shallow seagrass
areas of the Gulf of Carpentaria set aside specifically to protect prawn nursery areas. In
many instances, protected areas can be specifically targeted to protect the spawning,
nursery and feeding areas of commercial species.
If we recognise that some parts of the ocean need to be protected from humans (just like the
land) then the benefit of marine protected areas for biodiversity conservation is not a matter
of dispute. Over the last few years, there have been hundreds of peer-reviewed scientific
articles confirming the beneficial effects of marine protected areas liii, supplemented by
several recent in-depth reviews (see the reference list below for a listing of some of these).
In addition, there have been several major scientific consensus statements, again confirming
the scientific basis, and the conservation value, of marine protected areas liv.
Australia has committed, through international agreements, to ‘effectively protect’ at least
10% of its oceans and coastal seaslv, and the target date for this commitment is imminent.
87
The Australian Marine Science Association has called for Australian governments to protect
at least 10% of State and Commonwealth marine waters in no-take (sanctuary) zones, with
rare or vulnerable ecosystems protected at higher levels lvi. Such targets need to be applied
at the ecosystem level rather than broadly across marine jurisdictions, noting that many
scientists believe much higher levels of protection are necessary to protect marine
biodiversity in the long termlvii. We endorse AMSA’s viewpoint, and call on you take account
of important responsibilities to protect Australia’s biodiversity in making long-term decisions
on Australia’s program of establishing marine protected areas, or the bioregional planning
framework in which the program sits.
In summary:

networks of marine protected areas play a vital role in protecting marine
ecosystems, certainly just as important as protected areas, such as national parks,
in the terrestrial environment;

systems of protected areas have many benefits, not least of which are the economic
benefits flowing from tourism;

protected areas are not a ‘cure-all’ for problems of marine conservation; they must
be put in place alongside other effective measures aimed at protecting biodiversity
across Australia’s entire marine jurisdiction, and here implementation of the
ecosystem approach and the precautionary principle in fisheries management is
essential;

the establishment of MPAs in Australia fulfils important and long-standing
international obligations, and Australia (at present) has an enviable reputation
amongst the global community for the strength of its science and the effectiveness of
its conservation programs;

the establishment of protected area networks, particularly in Australia, rests on a
strong scientific foundation, and here marine bioregional planning provides an
essential scientific and planning framework;

once established, governments have an obligation to provide funds for effective
enforcement of agreed protective measures; particularly in relatively remote areas,
history has shown that enforcement is essential for compliance lviii; and

Australia’s program of the establishment of networks of marine protected areas has,
until now, enjoyed bipartisan support across both State and Commonwealth
jurisdictions – long-sighted support which will be even more important in an
increasingly uncertain future.
Government actions needed:
1) Recognize the importance of MPAs in mitigating major threats to marine biodiversity.
Set area protection targets ensuring at least 10% of all ecosystem types have notake protection, with vulnerable, rare and iconic ecosystems, and special and unique
habitats, protected at higher levels;
2) Increase funding for marine bioregional planning, while providing additional ongoing
funding for enforcement, monitoring, and public education and awareness programs;
3) Provide a vision for managing the diversity of threats to Australian marine habitats
through MPAs and other management tools – particularly implementation of the
ecosystem and precautionary approaches in fisheries management, combined with
urgent greenhouse gas reductions.
We wish to close with a quote from a document endorsed by the Council of Australian
Governments in 1996 – Australia’s national biodiversity strategy:
There is in the community a view that the conservation of biological diversity
also has an ethical basis. We share the earth with many other life forms
which warrant our respect, whether or not they are of benefit to us. Earth
88
belongs to the future as well as the present; no single species or generation
can claim it as its ownlix.
--ooOoo-REFERENCES:
Cited references:
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revisited', PhD thesis, University of Tasmania.
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Comment on recent progress', Ecological Management & Restoration 10(3): 228-31.
Nevill, J (2007) Marine no-take areas: how large should marine protected area networks be?
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Russ, GR, Cheat, AJ, Dolman, AM, Emslie, M, Evans, RD, Miller, I, Sweatman, H &
Williamson, DH (2008) 'Rapid increase in fish numbers follows creation of world's
largest marine reserve network', Current Biology 18(12): R514-R5.
Raymundo, LJ, Halford, AR, Maypa, AP & Kerr, AM (2009) 'Functionally diverse reef-fish
communities ameliorate coral disease', Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 106(40): 17067-70.
Veron, JEN (2008) A reef in time: the Great Barrier Reef from beginning to end, Belknap
Press, New York.
Veron, JEN, Hoegh-Guldberg, H, Lenton, TM, Lough, JM, Obura, D, Pearce-Kelly, P,
Sheppard, CRC, Spalding, M, Stafford-Smith, MG & Rogers, AD (2009) 'The coral
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Reviews:
AMSA Australian Marine Science Association (2008b) Position paper on marine protected
areas, AMSA, viewed 13 January 2009, <http://www.amsa.asn.au/>. Note that this
review complements the shorter Position statement.
89
Babcock, RC, Shears, NT, Alcala, A, Barrett, N, Edgar, GJ, Lafferty, KD, McClanahan, TR &
Russ, GR (2010) 'Decadal trends in marine reserves reveal differential rates of
change in direct and indirect effects', Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences online 30 March 2010: 1-6.
Dalton, R (2010) 'Reserves 'win-win' for fish and fishermen', Nature 463: 25 February.
Edgar, GJ, Barrett, N & Stuart-Smith, RD (2009) 'Exploited reefs protected from fishing
transform over decades into conservation features otherwise absent from
seascapes', Ecological Applications 19(8): 1967-74.
Evans, RD & Russ, GR (2004) 'Larger biomass of targetted reef fish in no-take marine
reserves on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia', Aquatic Conservation: Marine and
Freshwater Ecosystems 14: 505-19.
Lester, SE, Halpern, BS, Grorud-Colvert, K, Lubchenco, J, Ruttenberg, BI, Gaines, SD,
Airame, S & Warner, RR (2009) 'Biological effects within no-take marine reserves: a
global synthesis', Marine Ecology Progress Series 384: 33-46.
McCook, LJ, Ayling, T, Cappo, M, Choat, JH, Evans, RD, De Freitas, DM, Heupel, M,
Hughes, TP, Jones, GP, Mapstone, B, Marsh, H, Mills, M, Molloy, FJ, Pitcher, CR,
Pressey, RL, Russ, GR, Sutton, S, Sweatman, H, Tobin, R, Wachenfeld, DR &
Williamson, DH (2010) 'Adaptive management of the Great Barrier Reef: A globally
significant demonstration of the benefits of networks of marine reserves',
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (online February 22, 2010): -.
Penn, JW & Fletcher, WJ (2010) The efficacy of sanctuary zones for the management of fish
stocks and biodiversity in Western Australian waters, Western Australian Fisheries
and Marine Research Laboratories, Perth.
Raymundo, LJ, Halford, AR, Maypa, AP & Kerr, AM (2009) 'Functionally diverse reef-fish
communities ameliorate coral disease', Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 106(40): 17067-70.
Russ, GR, Cheat, AJ, Dolman, AM, Emslie, M, Evans, RD, Miller, I, Sweatman, H &
Williamson, DH (2008) 'Rapid increase in fish numbers follows creation of world's
largest marine reserve network', Current Biology 18(12): R514-R5.
Williamson, DH, Russ, GR & Ayling, AM (2004) 'No-take marine reserves increase
abundance and biomass of reef fish on inshore fringing reefs of the Great Barrier
Reef', Environmental Conservation 31(2): 149-59.
Woodley, S, Loneragan, NR & Babcock, RC (2010) Report on the Scientific Basis for and the
Role of Marine Sanctuaries in Marine Planning, Department of Environment and
Conservation, Western Australia, Perth Australia.
SIGNATORIES:
Adam Pope PhD, estuarine ecology and management, Deakin University, Warrnambool, Victoria.
Adriana Verges PhD, marine ecology, Sydney Institute of Marine Science (SIMS) NSW.
Alan Butler PhD, marine ecology, Hobart, Tasmania, 7000.
Alexandra Grutter PhD, coral reef ecology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane Qld.
Alistair Poore PhD, marine ecology, Evolution & Ecology Research Centre, Univ. of New South Wales.
Allyson O’Brien PhD, soft sediment ecology, The University of Melbourne, Victoria.
Andrew Short Professor, OAM, coastal gemorphology, University of Sydney, NSW.
Andy Davis Assoc Prof, marine conservation biology, University of Wollongong, NSW 2522.
Anne Hoggett PhD, coral ecology, Lizard Island Research Station, Queensland.
Anthony Boxshall PhD, marine ecologist, Carlton 3053, Vic.
Anthony Richardson PhD, marine ecology, University of Queensland, Brisbane Qld.
Anya Salih PhD, School of Natural Sciences, University of Western Sydney, Sydney NSW.
Asta Audzijonyte PhD, fisheries modeller, Hobart, Tas.
Barbara Stewart PhD ecology and environment, Landmark Ecological Services, Byron Bay NSW.
Bayden Russell PhD, Southern Seas Ecology Laboratories, University of Adelaide, SA.
Belinda Curley PhD, marine ecology, Sydney Institute of Marine Science, Sydney, NSW.
Bernadette Power PhD, marine ecology, Australian Marine Ecology, Melbourne, Vic.
Bette Willis Professor, coral biology and coral disease, James Cook University, Townsville.
Bill Ballantine PhD, marine biologist / benefits of marine reserves, Leigh New Zealand.
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Bill Carter Assoc Prof, marine ecology, Assoc Director Sustainability Research Centre, USC, Qld.
Bill Carter Assoc Prof, marine ecology, University of the Sunshine Coast
Brendan Kelaher Professor, marine biology - University of Technology, Sydney.
Brian Finlayson Professor, aquatic environments & conservation planning, Melbourne University, VIC
Britta Munkes PhD, marine ecology, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, 6027.
Bronwyn Gillanders PhD, marine ecology, University of Adelaide, Adelaide SA.
Carissa Klein PhD, marine conservation planning, University of Queensland, Brisbane Qld.
Carl Gosper PhD, ecologist, Rivervale 6103, Western Australia.
Carmel McDougall PhD, pearl oyster aquaculture, the University of Queensland, Brisbane Qld.
Carolina Zagal PhD, marine invertebrate ecology, University of Tasmania, Hobart Tas.
Chris Fulton PhD, coral reef fish ecophysiology, Coral Reef Studies, ANU, Canberra.
Chris Glasby PhD, marine taxonomy, Jingili, NT 0810.
Christine Schoenberg PhD, benthic ecology, Australian Institute of Marine Science, Perth WA.
Colin Hunt PhD, economic impacts of fisheries, School of Economics, University of Queensland.
Corey Bradshaw, Professor, ecological modelling, University of Adelaide, SA.
Cynthia Riginos PhD, marine genetics, School of Biological Sciences, UQ Brisbane Qld.
Dana Burfeind PhD, marine ecology, Australian Rivers Institute, Griffith Uni Qld.
Daniel Ierodiaconou PhD, marine ecology, Deaking University, Warrnambool, Victoria
Danielle Sulikowski PhD, Department of Brain, Behaviour and Evolution, Macquarie University, NSW.
David Booth Professor, marine ecology, University of Technology, Sydney, NSW.
David Brewer PhD, marine ecological processes and prediction, Brisbane Qld.
David Holliday PhD, larval fish ecology, Murdoch University, Western Australia.
David McKinnon PhD, biological oceanography, Townsville QLD 4810.
David Pollard PhD, fish ecology and conservation, Research Associate, Australian Museum.
David Powter PhD, fish ecology and biology, Environmental & Life Sciences, Uni Newcastle.
David Sutton PhD, marine microbiology, Inglewood, WA 6052.
Deborah Milham-Scott PhD, impact of water quality on changes in biodiversity, UQ and USC.
Dianne McLean Research Assistant Professor, fisheries ecology, Centre for Marine Futures, UWA.
Dirk Zeller PhD, fisheries science, Fisheries Centre, University of British Columbia, Canada.
Edward Game PhD, The Nature Conservancy, South Brisbane, QLD.,
Elizabeth Madin PhD, effects of fishing on coral reef ecology, University of Technology, Sydney NSW.
Gary Luck Assoc Prof, ecology & environmental management, Inst for Land Water and Society, CSU.
Gary Poore PhD, taxonomist, Melbourne 3206 Victoria.
Gayle Mayes PhD, marine wildlife tourism, Sustainability Research Centre, Uni Sunshine Coast, Qld.
Geoffrey Wescott Assoc Prof, marine ecology and conservation, Deakin University, Geelong Victoria.
George Wilson PhD, biological oceanography, marine invertebrates, Australian Museum, Sydney.
Glen Holmes PhD, coral reef ecology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane Qld.
Graeme Kelleher, former director Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Canberra ACT
Graham Edgar PhD, marine ecology, University of Tasmania, Hobart Tasmania.
Greg Skilleter PhD, marine ecology, Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane Qld.
Gretta Pecl PhD, marine ecology, University of Tasmania, Hobart Tasmania.
Hedley Grantham PhD, marine conservation planning, University of Queensland, Brisbane Qld.
Heidi Pethybridge PhD, marine ecology and biochemistry, IMAS, University of Tasmania.
Helen Larson PhD, fish taxonomist, Curator Emeritus, Museum & Art Gallery of the Northern Territory.
Helene Marsh Professor, marine conservation biologist, James Cook University, Qld.
Hugh Possingham Professor, spatial ecology, Ecology Centre, University of Queensland, Qld.
Iain Field PhD, marine predator ecology, Graduate School of the Environment, Macquarie University.
Iain Suthers Professor, fisheries oceanography, Sydney Institute of Marine Science (SIMS).
Ian Poiner PhD, tropical marine ecology, Cape Ferguson, Townsville, 4810.
91
Inke Falkner PhD, marine benthic ecologist, University of Sydney Institute of Marine Science.
James Watson PhD, conservation planner, The Ecology Centre, The University of Queensland, Qld.
Jamie Kirkpatrick, Professor, conservation ecology and planning, University of Tasmania, Hobart Tas.
Jane Fromont PhD, marine biology, Inglewood, WA 6052.
Jeff Shimeta PhD, coastal marine ecology, RMIT University, Bundoora Victoria.
Jeff Wright PhD, marine ecology, NCMCRS, University of Tasmania, Hobart Tasmania.
Jeffrey Leis PhD, marine ecology, Balmain, NSW 2041.
Jessica Meeuwig Professor, marine ecology, University of Western Australia, Perth WA.
Jim Underwood PhD, coral reef population genetics, Denmark WA 6333
John Beardall Professor, phytoplankton ecophysiology, Monash University, Victoria.
John Hooper PhD, marine biologist, Newmarket Qld. 4051.
John Huisman PhD, algal biodiversity, Murdoch Unversity, WA.
John Pandolfi, Professor, coral reef paleoecology, ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies.
John Sherwood Assoc Prof, aquatic science, Deakin University, Warrnambool, Victoria
John Thorogood PhD, estuarine and coastal zone ecology, Principal Ecologist, frc environmental.
John Veron PhD, DSc, coral reef research, Townsville Queensland.
Jon Nevill PhD, policy analyst – aquatic ecosystem management and conservation, Hampton Vic. 3188
Jonathan Rhodes PhD, conservation ecologist, University of Queensland, Brisbane Qld.
Julia Phillips PhD, marine phycology, Oceanica Consulting P/L. Karrinyup WA.
Justin Marshall PhD, The Queensland Brain Institute, Brisbane Qld.
Karen Edyvane Professor, marine conservation planning, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, NT
Karen Miller PhD, marine ecologist, University of Tasmania, Hobart Tas.
Kathryn Burns PhD, marine organic geochemistry, Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville.
Kathryn McMahon PhD, marine ecology, Edith Cowan University, WA.
Kathy Townsend PhD, human impacts on the marine environment, University of Queensland, Qld.
Katie Newton PhD, marine ecology, Newcastle East NSW 2300.
Kris Waddington PhD, benthic ecology, Centre for Marine Futures, Oceans Institute, UWA.
Kylie Pitt PhD, marine ecology, School of Environment, Griffith University Qld.
Leanne Armand PhD, marine phytoplankton and palaeoclimate, Climate Futures, Macquarie University.
Liana Joseph PhD, conservation planning, Applied Environmental Decision Analysis CERF, UQ Qld.
Luciana Möller PhD, marine mammal ecologist, Flinders University of South Australia, Adelaide.
Luciano Beheregaray PhD, molecular ecology and conservation genetics, Flinders University
Lyle Vail PhD, coral ecology, Lizard Island Research Station, Queensland.
Lynnath Beckley Assoc Prof, marine ecology and biological oceanography, Murdoch University, WA
Margaret Platell PhD, fish ecology, Centre for Sustainable Use of Coasts & Catchments, Ourimbah.
Maria Beger PhD, marine ecologist and conservation planning specialist, University of Queensland.
Marion Cambridge PhD, marine ecology, Oceans Institute, The University of WA .
Matt Edmunds PhD, marine ecology, Australian Marine Ecology, Melbourne, Vic.
Matthew Barrett Pember PhD, fisheries ecology, Palmyra, Western Australia, 6157.
Matthew Taylor PhD, fisheries ecologist, University of New South Wales, Sydney NSW.
Max Finlayson Professor, wetland biodiversity, Inst.for Land, Water & Society, Charles Sturt University.
Melanie Bishop PhD, estuarine ecology, Macquarie University NSW.
Michael Litzow PhD, marine ecology, Sandy Bay 7005 Tasmania.
Michael Noad PhD, whale acoustics and ecology, Cetacean Ecology & Acoustics Laboratory, UQ Qld.
Mike Bennett Professor, Australian shark and ray biology, The University of Queensland, Qld.
Mike van Keulen PhD, Director Coral Bay Research Station, Murdoch University, WA.
Natalie Moltschaniwskyj Assoc Prof, marine invertebrate biology & ecology, Uni Tasmania
Nathan Knott PhD, marine anthropogenic disturbance, Vincentia, 2540, NSW.
Neville Exon Professor, marine geology and geophysics, Australian National University, ACT.
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Nick Wilson PhD, mangrove ecology, Mount George, NSW, 2424.
Nicole Hill PhD, quantitative ecology, CERF Marine Biodiversity Hub, University of Tasmania.
Olaf Meynecke PhD, coastal ecology, Australian Rivers Institute, Griffith University Qld.
Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, Professor and Director, Global Change Institute, UQ Qld.
Pat Hutchings PhD, polychaete biology, coral ecosystems & management, Australian Museum, Syd.
Patricia von Baumgarten PhD, oceanography, Nairne, SA 5252.
Paul Gribben PhD, marine ecology, University of Technology, Sydney NSW.
Paul van Ruth PhD, biological oceanography, Port Noarlunga South S.A. 5167.
Penny Berents PhD, marine invertebrate biology, Cromer, NSW 2099
Peter Biro PhD, fish population ecoloy, Evolution & Ecology Research Centre, UNSW.
Peter Harris PhD, marine geology, Googong, Queanbeyan, NSW 2620.
Peter Harrison Professor, coral reef ecologist, Director of SCU Marine Ecology Research Centre, NSW
Peter Unmack PhD, aquatic biodiversity, National Evolutionary Synthesis Centre, Durham NC USA.
Philip Munday, Professor, marine ecology, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD.
Phillip England PhD, conservation geneticist, Hobart, Tas.
Pia Winberg PhD, Director, Shoalhaven Marine and Freshwater Centre, Nowra, NSW 2541.
Pippa Moore PhD, human impacts on the marine environment, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup WA.
Rachel Przeslawski PhD, marine benthic ecology, Bungendore NSW 2621.
Richard Kingsford Professor, Director of the Australian Wetlands and Rivers Centre, UNSW, Sydney.
Rick Stuart-Smith PhD, marine biodiversity research, Research Fellow, TAFI, University of Tasmania.
Robin Beaman PhD, marine geology, James Cook University, Cairns Qld.
Rod Connolly Professor, marine ecology, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Qld.
Ross Coleman Associate Professor, ecological impacts of coastal cities, University of Sydney, NSW
Ross Hill PhD, marine photo-biology, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, University of Technology, Sydney.
Russ Babcock PhD, marine ecology, Cleveland Qld. 4163.
Sam Lake Professor, aquatic ecosystems and management, Monash University, Melbourne Vic.
Sandie Degnan PhD, marine ecology and genetics, Biological Sciences, University of Queensland.
Sarah Butler PhD, marine ecology, Clear Horizon Consulting Pty Ltd, Melbourne, Vic.
Scarla Weeks PhD, biophysical oceanography and remote sensing, University of Queensland, Qld.
Scoresby Shepherd PhD AO, benthic ecology, Henley South, S.A. 5022.
Shannon Corrigan PhD, genetic connectivity among marine populations, Macquarie University, NSW.
Sheila Peake PhD, whales, Sustainability Research Centre, Uni Sunshine Coast, Qld.
Stephen Smith Assoc Prof, biodiversity assessment benthic ecology, National Marine Science Centre.
Steven Purcell PhD, reef invertebrate fisheries, National Marine Science Centre, Southern Cross Uni.
Sue Murray-Jones PhD, marine biology, Henley Beach South, 5022, Adelaide SA.
Svea Mara Wolkenhauer PhD, fishery habitats impacts, Healthy Waterways, Brisbane Qld.
Tara Martin Adjunct Professor, conservation planning, University of Queensland, Queensland.
Tein McDonald PhD, ecological management and restoration consultant, Woodburn NSW.
Terry Hughes Professor, coral reef studies, ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, JCU
Qld.
Tim Lynch PhD, marine ecologist – recreational fishing, Hobart Tasmania 7000.
Tim Stevens PhD, marine protected area design, School of Environment, Griffith University Qld
Tony Koslow PhD, Director, Scripps CalCOFI Program, Scripps Institution of Oceanography California.
Troy Gaston PhD, marine ecology, Australian Maritime College, UTAS Tasmania.
Trudy Costa PhD, rocky reef ecology, University of Wollongong, NSW.
Vicky Tzioumis PhD, marine ecology, Manly NSW 2095.
Will Figueira PhD, fish population ecology, University of Sydney, Sydney NSW.
William Gladstone Professor, marine conservation & fish behavioural ecology, UTS, NSW.
Winston Ponder PhD, marine mollusca, Senior Research Fellow, Australian Museum, Sydney NSW.
93
Section Six:
The balance between sanctuary zones, other protected
zones, and overall marine habitats.
6.1 Overview of this section:
Currently around 1.2% of the global marine realm is classified by the IUCN as protected
area, with no-take areas accounting for only around 0.2%lx. Such areas are created mainly to
protect marine biodiversity or to assist the sustainability of fisheries lxi. The World Parks
Congress 2003 (WPC) recommended the establishment of national networks of marine notake areas (NTAs) covering 20-30% of habitats by 2012, a recommendation in marked
contrast to the general (and somewhat vague) target set by the Conference of the Parties to
the Convention on Biological Diversity in 2004 (see below). Agardy et al. (2003) however
argued against the over-zealous application of the WPC target, suggesting that haste leads
to poor planning, and that a focus on targets does little to convince sceptical stakeholders
including fishers and politicianslxii.
However, while the targets proposed by the WPC remain controversial (Ray 2004), the
biodiversity crisis affecting the planet leaves little doubt that an urgent expansion of marine
no-take areas is necessary if the global loss of biodiversity is to be addressed in an effective
way. This reality is the backdrop against which arguments over marine protected area
network targets take place.
The purpose of this paper is to provide further background for a continuing discussion of
area targets (“dangerous targets”) for MPA networks, by listing and briefly commenting on all
major papers published since 2000 dealing with no-take area network size. Some key
references on size in relation to planning individual no-take areas, and the spacing of areas
within a network, are also included in the discussion.
The literature reviewed below reveals a general consensus amongst marine scientists
(summarized in Table 1) that a massive increase in no-take areas will be necessary if agreed
international conservation goals lxiii are to be met.
6.2 Terminology
Protected areas, as defined by the World Conservation Union (IUCN 1994) are areas of land
or water “especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and
of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective
means”. Close examination of the logiclxiv underpinning the IUCN definition reveals three key
elements. The area should be under defined management (i.e. an agreed management plan
should exist). Secondly, actual management arrangements should effectively reduce at least
one major threat to the area's values (i.e. value and condition should be monitored and
reported over time). Thirdly the area should have secure tenure (preferably through statute).
In summary, protected areas are areas where (a) management regimes are in place
designed to protect the natural ecosystems and features (ie ‘values’) within an area against
threats, and (b) those management regimes are effective and secure.
The full IUCN definition lists six different categories of protected area, with category one
having the highest, and category six the lowest level of protection. Category 1 are strict notake areas. Category 2 (wilderness areas) are also highly protected, but do allow indigenous
harvesting. Within this paper the term ‘no-take area’ means an area where no harvesting
occurs. Such an area will meet the IUCN protected area category 1a and 1b definition (IUCN
1994). Within this paper the term ‘marine protected area’ is used to encompass all IUCN
categories (1-6), while the term ‘reserve’ is used to encompass IUCN categories 1-4 (where
conservation is a primary goal).
6.3 International commitments to MPAs and NTAs:
According to the Convention on Biological Diversity 1992, the conservation of biodiversity
requires two fundamental strategies: the establishment of protected areas, together with the
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sympatheticlxv management of exploited ecosystems outside those areas (CBD articles 7
and 8).
Marine protected areas were un-known in an era when it was generally considered that the
oceans needed no protectionlxvi. However, as the damage to the marine environment has
become more widely understood, marine protected area programs have featured in
international agreements as well as national conservation programs. One of the most widely
quoted international statements calling for the acceleration of marine protected area
programs around the world is that from the World Summit on Sustainable Development
(WSSD Johannesburg 2002). The marine section of the WSSD Key Outcomes Statement
provides basic benchmarks for the development of marine protected areas as well as other
key issues:
Encourage the application by 2010 of the ecosystem approach for the sustainable development of
the oceans. On an urgent basis and where possible by 2015, maintain or restore depleted fish
stocks to levels that can produce the maximum sustainable yield.
Put into effect the FAO international plans of action by the agreed dates:
 for the management of fishing capacity by 2005; and
 to prevent, deter and eliminate illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing
by 2004.
Develop and facilitate the use of diverse approaches and tools, including the ecosystem
approach, the elimination of destructive fishing practices, the establishment of marine protected
areas consistent with international law and based on scientific information, including
representative networks by 2012.
Establish by 2004 a regular process under the United Nations for global reporting and
assessment of the state of the marine environment. Eliminate subsidies that contribute to
illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and to over-capacity.
The same statement also contains a commitment: “Achieve by 2010 a significant reduction in
the current rate of loss of biological diversity.”
Worldwide, the most important threat to marine biodiversity, generally speaking, is fishing
(MEA 2005) – including the effects of overfishing, bycatch, habitat damage, ecosystem
effects, and ghost fishinglxvii. While fishing constitutes the major global threat, climate
change, pollution, and the effects of alien organisms also present major (and in some cases
intractable) problems . The exclusion or reduction of fishing activities – and the control of
other threatening processes – through networks of marine protected areas is recognised
worldwide (through the Johannesburg statement) as essential to national marine protection
programs.
While no-take area targets have not been set so far by international agreements, the World
Parks Congress (2003) recommended the establishment of national networks of marine notake areas (NTAs) covering 20-30% of habitats by 2012. Greenpeace International have
called for a similar area target of 40% (2006:26).
A few scientists, however, are not only opposed to the use of no-take area targets, but
question the widespread use of marine protected areas, particularly as fishery management
tools. The fishery benefits of no-take areas remain subject to debate. Shipp (2003) for
example argued that most commercial fish stocks are too mobile to obtain protection from
NTAs, although his views have few supporters amongst marine scientists. In spite of ongoing failures in fishery management, Steele & Beet (2003) suggested that controlling fishing
impacts may generally be more effective at protecting marine biodiversity than MPA
protection. Jones (2006) stressed the need for participatory democracy within MPA
governance arrangements, and Sale et al. (2005) identified critical information needs for
effective MPA functioning. There is, however, amongst the differing views of marine
scientists a general consensus (consolidated through the CBD’s Jakarta Mandate) that MPA
networks are essential to any national marine conservation program. With respect to the
fishery benefits of MPAs, most “agree that MPAs will complement other management tools”
(Browman & Stergiou (2004).
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According to Jake Rice: “We have largely emerged from the “polarized period” when
discussion of MPAs was too often a non-dialogue between believers (who often verged on
the fanatic in their enthusiasm) and non-believers (who had a comparable share of
fanaticism in their denial). MPA News, October 2005, p.2.
The science underpinning MPA design suffers from some of the same problems as the
science underpinning fisheries models. In spite of such concerns, the worldwide acceptance
of marine protected areas as vital conservation tools is now well consolidated, at least at the
levels of academic science and international law (if not national politics) lxviii.
6.4 Protection of representative marine ecosystems:
Attention needs to be given to the use of the word “representative” in the WSSD text above.
Requirements to provide adequate and comprehensive protection for representative
examples of all major types of ecosystems date back many years. Clear requirements for
action are contained in:

the 1992 international Convention on Biological Diversity (United Nations)

the 1982 World Charter for Nature (a resolution of the UN General Assembly), and

the 1972 Stockholm Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment.
The 1982 World Charter for Nature states: “Principle 3: All areas of the earth, both land and
sea, shall be subject to these principles of conservation; special protection shall be given to
unique areas, to representative samples of all the different types of ecosystems, and to the
habitat of rare or endangered species.”
Principle 2 of the Stockholm Declaration 1972 states: “The natural resources of the earth,
including the air, water, land, flora and fauna and especially representative samples of
natural ecosystems, must be safeguarded for the benefit of present and future generations
through careful planning or management, as appropriate.”
An examination of the wording of both the Charter and the Declaration reveals that they
place wide obligations, not only on governments, but on all agencies of governments as well
as individuals.
National governments have, however, been slow to action these important commitments.
Australia’s representative area program on the Great Barrier Reef, for example, although in
planning for many years, was not initiated until 2002 – thirty years behind the Stockholm
Declaration.
6.5 Targets and logic:
Within a terrestrial framework, Pressey et al. (2003, 2004) stressed the need for the
development (and size) of protected area networks to follow a logical approach based on
defined goals and ecological criteria, arguing that the effectiveness of conservation efforts
are reduced by “focussing conservation efforts on landscapes with least extractive value”
(Pressey 2004:1044). The real objective of such programs is not the establishment of
reserve networks of a specific size, but the protection of biodiversity. Pressey points out that
targets framed in general terms can be met by the inclusion of the least productive (least
fished) areas, which may also be of little value for the protection of biodiversity. He also
argues that specific rare, highly vulnerable ecosystems may require high levels of protection.
Following Pressey’s logic could well result in reserve network designs with NTAs
considerably in excess of 30% in some cases – depending on the core objectives –
particularly if a precautionary approach (incorporating redundancy) was to be adopted in
regard to naturally rare, vulnerable ecosystems within the region of interest.
Using similar arguments, the Ecological Society for Australia (ESA 2001) stressed the need
for area targets to rest on broad policy goals (relating to the conservation of biodiversity)
through evolving scientific understanding – suggesting that reserve networks may need to
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shrink or expand or change shape and location as knowledge of ecosystem values and
processes changes over time.
Fernandes et al. (2005) point out that, while a broad area target may be a useful first step,
the identification and design of possible NTA sites needs to be based on more detailed goals
and principles incorporating a variety of ‘input’ targets. For example, in the GBR
Representative Area Program, the Scientific Steering Committee set 20% as a minimum
required habitat target. While this remained a primary goal, the establishment of NTAs was
substantially based on 11 ‘biophysical operational principles’ (BOPs) supported by decision
rules. Principle Eight was: “Represent all habitats: represent a minimum of each community
type and physical environment type in the overall network”. One decision rule supporting this
BOP was “capture about 50% of all high-priority dugong habitat”. Other rules for different
habitats set targets (for common habitats under relatively low threat) as low as 5%. The
decision rule targets set minimum figures, not desirable figures. The overall outcome of the
program saw NTAs within the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park increase from 4.5% to 33% of
the park’s area. This result is entirely consistent with the input targets and BOPs, and is a
result which saw most BOPs and most design targets met or closely approached.
Pressey et al. (2004) use a variable target which is worthy of further discussion, if not
widespread use. Here the target is given by a simple formula which takes into account the
rarity and vulnerability of the ecosystem in question:
Target % = 10% + (10% x NR) + (20% x V)
Here NR is the natural rarity of the ecosystem, and V is the vulnerability, both indices scaled
from 0 to 1. The outcome is that naturally common ecosystems under no threat will be
subject to a target of 10% of their naturally occurring area protected. Highly vulnerable and
naturally rare ecosystems will accrue a target of 40%.
6.6 MPAs and no-take areas: recent history
We live in a world where community perceptions, folklore and ethics are lagging behind the
reality of increasing human domination of the planet’s ecosystems – and the science of
conservation biology. Only a century ago the oceans were perceived by most as so vast as
to defy human degradation. The idea of setting aside protected marine areas would have
made little sense. Today marine scientists at least are only too aware of the degradation
which has occurred and which in many cases is escalating in intensity.
In Australia and New Zealand, marine protected areas were still almost unknown four
decades ago. Although they often receive considerable community support where they have
been established for many years (the Leigh Marine Reserve in New Zealand, for example)
community perceptions (and thus the perceptions of politicians) is that protected areas are
the exception rather than the rule. No-take areas are perceived as occupying minor fractions
of the seascape. It is here that there is divergence between the ideas of the community and
the ideas of many of the scientists whose work is reviewed in this paper.
The modern era of marine protected area management dates from Resolution 15 of the First
World Conference on National Parks (Adams 1962). Since then marine protected areas have
been created around the world, and their effects over time have been studied and reported
(eg: Lubchenco et al. 2003, Murray et al. 1999). An extensive literature exists on the effects
of MPAs. Marine protected areas serve five main functions, not all of which necessarily apply
simultaneously:
(a) to protect biodiversity;
(b) to enhance fishery production outside NTA boundaries;
(c) to protect cultural, recreational, spiritual, educational and scientific values;
(d) to provide benchmarks against which the modification of the planet under human
hands can be measured and assessed, and, last but not least,
(e) to protect from disturbance the homes of other living inhabitants of the planet.
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Sufficient evidence has accumulated on the benefits of marine protected areas to allow the
publication in 2001 of a definitive scientists’ consensus statement, affirming the use of
protected areas as an essential tool for the conservation and management of marine
biodiversity (AAAS 2001).
According to Walters (2000): “A revolution is underway in thinking about how to design safe
and sustainable policies for fisheries harvesting”. Fish stocks repeatedly declining in the
face of modern management, major ecosystem damage, and an awareness of the
degradation of global biodiversity resources call for a new approach. According to Walters:
“Sustainable fisheries management may eventually require a reversal of perspective, from
thinking about protected areas as exceptional to thinking about fishing areas as exceptional.
This perspective is already the norm in a few fisheries, such as commercial salmon and
herring net fisheries along the British Columbia coast”. Walters points out that, historically,
many apparently sustainable fisheries were stabilised by the existence of ‘effective’
protected areas, and the erosion of these areas through adoption of new technology
subsequently resulted in the collapse of the fishery. Walter’s views are reinforced by Russ &
Zeller (2003).
One of the reasons why many MPA practitioners advocate large no-take areas so strongly is
that the history of fishery management over the last century is marked by a variety of failures
which have regularly led to fishery collapse and/or major ecosystem change (Jackson et al.
2001). Although well known and the subject of agreements and guidelines lxix, these failures
are in many cases still not effectively addressed, and include compliance enforcement,
failure to regulate new fisheries or new technology, inappropriate single-species modelling,
massive bycatch, illegal fishing, fishing down the food web, lack of precaution in the face of
uncertainty, and perhaps most importantly massive damage to benthic habitats by bottom
trawling. Many conservation biologists have simply lost faith in the ability of fishery managers
to apply the sympathetic management called for by the Convention on Biological Diversity.
The models which scientists use to support NTA targets often assume, with a good deal of
justification, that organisms living outside NTAs have no effective protection.
This cultural divide between fishery managers and conservation biologists has the potential
to be enormously destructive – and could lead to a situation where the need to protect
biodiversity at varying levels across the entire marine realm is all-but abandoned (instead of
intensified) leaving biodiversity conservation the sole responsibility of marine reserve
managers. Such a situation would be disastrous, with severe ramifications for the essential
oceanic processes on which marine biodiversity ultimately depends.
Marine habitat should be protected everywhere, and we should not expect to harvest fish
populations at maximum sustainable yield. With the planet’s human population expected to
continue its increase for most of this century – with consequently increasing demands for
food, precaution demands less intensive harvesting over the marine realm generally if the
health of ocean ecosystems is to be maintained. Friedlander and DeMartini (2002) have
shown, for example, that lightly fished areas in Hawaii supported far more fish than some
small no-take areas surrounded by high exploitation.
6.7 Protecting biodiversity
Generally speaking, protected areas are the most important single tool available for the
protection of biodiversity (ESA 2001). Their development on land preceded their
development in the seas, with freshwater protected areas lagging further behind (Nevill &
Phillips 2004). As already mentioned, the Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 (CBD)
rests on the idea that the conservation of biodiversity, including aquatic biodiversity, requires
the protection of representative examples of all major ecosystem types, coupled with the
sympathetic management of ecosystems outside those protected areas. These twin
concepts underpin, in theory at least, all biodiversity protection programs. The need to
protect the processes on which biodiversity depends (broadly relating to flows of energy,
nutrientslxx,lxxi and informationlxxii) form a vital part of protection strategies both within and
beyond reserves.
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Many misunderstandings rest on over-simplifications of the meaning of the key elements of
conservation strategies. As far as biodiversity protection goes, protected areas must be seen
as one element amongst the many protective mechanisms used to conserve biodiversity in
the wider landscape (seascape). It is not a question of protecting a few areas together with
unfettered exploitation of the rest of the planet – this has never been seriously proposed. It is
a question of applying a mix of appropriate tools to a given situation to achieve a range of
defined conservation, social and economic goals. Ray (2004) refers to a century-old debate
between protagonists of the ‘preservationist’ and ‘wise use’ approaches in forest
management. Expressed in these over-simple terms, such a debate can never be resolved.
As Ray points out: “we must be reminded of the 30-year old ‘biosphere reserve’ concept,
which calls for large-scale multiple-use planning and zoning, motivated by a no-take area at
its core”.
NTAs created largely for ethical reasons – to provide habitat for some of the non-human
inhabitants of this planet – are rare, and at this point in time may be restricted to whale
sanctuaries created over the last decade in various locations. Australia’s support for the
Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary was based partly on the recommendations of a public
inquiry (Frost 1978) which used ethical arguments to justify its recommendations lxxiii. In my
view, the ethical basis for establishing protected areas needs much more public discussion,
both within Australia and internationally.
The size of NTA networks, and the size of individual NTAs are important issues –
unfortunately. In an ideal world, size targets would not exist. The size and shape of NTAs,
and the overall size of NTA networks, should ideally be driven by the core objectives
underlying the establishment of MPA systems, such as the protection of biodiversity, and the
protection of processes underpinning that biodiversity (Cowling et al. 1999, Margules and
Pressey 2000; Pressey et al. 2003, 2004 – these are all terrestrial references xx). In some
cases, the objectives of establishing NTAs focus on the enhancement of adjacent fisheries,
rather than the protection of natural values such as biodiversity. However we do not live in
an ideal world, but a world where the protection of ocean biodiversity has, historically, been
hugely misunderstood and under-resourced. As the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
reports: “Human activities have taken the planet to the edge of a massive wave of species
extinctions” (MEA 2005:3). We live in a world where the gap between the biodiversity targets
set in international agreements, and the actions necessary to achieve those targets, is
enormous. In this context, size targets should be an important part of strategic programs for
marine biodiversity conservation.
6.8 Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity
At the sixth meetinglxxiv of the CBD CoP, in decision VI/26 (UNEP 2002) the Parties adopted
the Strategic Plan for the Convention on Biological Diversity. In its mission statement, Parties
committed themselves to more effective and coherent implementation of the objectives of the
Convention, “to achieve by 2010 a significant reduction of the current rate of biodiversity
loss at global, regional and national levels as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to the
benefit of all life on earth”.
This target was subsequently endorsed by the Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable
Development (WSSDlxxv) (United Nations 2002a:33). The Summit’s ‘key outcomes’
statement committed participating nations to: “achieve by 2010 a significant reduction in the
current rate of loss of biological diversity” – notably omitting the final section of the CBD
statement which, importantly, contains an explicit validation of the ‘intrinsic value’ concept.
The WSSD outcomes statement also contained a commitment with regard to ‘oceans and
fisheries’ which included the development of MPA networks:
Develop and facilitate the use of diverse approaches and tools, including the
ecosystem approach, the elimination of destructive fishing practices, and the
establishment of marine protected areas consistent with international law and
based on scientific information, including representative networks by 2012 (United
Nations 2002b:3, my emphasis).
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Although most nations are committed to the establishment of representative protected area
networks, no global statistics on representation of marine ecosystems with protected area
networks are available, largely as the collection of this information, in the marine realm, has
only recently been addressed by nations themselves.
At the seventh meeting of the CBD CoP, in Decision VII/30 Annex II (UNEP 2004) the
Parties adopted a target: “at least 10% of each of the world’s ecological regions effectively
conserved”. Through Decision VII/5.18, the parties also agreed to establish (by 2012) and
maintain a network of marine and coastal protected areas that are representative, effectively
managed, ecologically based, consistent with international law, and based on scientific
information – thus providing a slight expansion of the 2002 WSSD commitment.
Notably the 10% target does not mention protected areas, or provide a target timeframe. It
could, however, be argued that, read in conjunction with the above WSSD commitments, a
specific target for the development of MPA networks covering at least 10% of ecoregions by
2012 is implied. In decision VII/5 Annex I (UNEP 2004) the Parties requested that: “the
Subsidiary Body on Scientific Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA) at its tenth or
eleventh meeting further refine the proposal for the integration of outcome-oriented targets
into the programme of work on marine and coastal biodiversity…”.
This recommendation provided the SBSTTA (an organ of the UNEP CBD program) with the
opportunity to expand the implicit meaning and time-frames of the target, especially given
the 2003 recommendations of the World Parks Congress; however in its tenth meeting
(2005) it did not do so. In it’s ‘application of the VII/30 targets to the CBD programme of work
on marine and coastal biodiversity’ it chose to simply repeat the original general target within
the marine context: “At least 10% of each of the world’s marine and coastal ecological
regions effectively conserved” (UNEP 2005:44).
Leaving the original CoP target expressed in these general terms, without specific
measurable goals (relating, for example, to the establishment of no-take area networks - or
more generally protected area networks - within defined timeframes) means that the target
cannot be effectively monitored and reported – the different meanings which can be
attributed to the phrase “effectively conserved” are simply too broad, and the timeframe too
vague.
6.9 Targets in current use
According to AHTEG (2003:16), the Bahamas, the Galapagos Islands and Guam have set
no-take area (‘reserve’ in the AHTEG’s language) targets “of 20% for the primary network”.
At this stage I have no further information on targets from these nations.
California is in the process of establishing an MPA network covering about 18% of State
waters (to 3 nm). See Appendix Two below.
Australia:
As discussed in the analysis below, the Australian (Commonwealth) Government has
adopted a conservation goal of the protection of 30% of remaining natural terrestrial
ecosystems; however this cannot be construed as a accountable target as most
responsibility for protecting terrestrial ecosystems lies with Australia’s State governments.
These governments have not endorsed the Commonwealth target. The Australian
Government has not developed a similar goal or target for the marine realm.
The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA) commenced a consultation
process in 2002 to underpin the establishment of no-take protection of a comprehensive
selection of representative examples of the marine ecosystems making up the Great Barrier
Reef. This program was named the Representative Areas Program (RAP). The program’s
Scientific Steering Committee recommended the protection of: “at least 20% of the area [of
each bioregion]” SSC 2002:4. The committee stated: “…the SSC expects that around 2530% of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park will be protected … in no-take areas…” SCC
2002:5.
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Prior to the commencement of the RAP, only one political party had endorsed a target: “The
Australian Democrats… [support] the expansion of highly protected areas to cover at least
50% of the Marine Park ….” (Democrats election platform, October 2001). The Democrats
are a minority party.
The SSC recommendations were subsequently accepted by the GBRMPA, and later
endorsed by both the Australian and Queensland State governments. The final plan
reserved 33% of the 348,700 km 2 park within no-take zones. Displaced fishers are being
provided with financial assistance as part of a major program of fishery structural adjustment
in the region.
South Africa:
The South African government has set a target of at least 10% of each ecosystem type to be
reserved within protected areas:
The Government is committed to the establishment of a
comprehensive, representative system of protected areas and
will build on current initiatives. In collaboration with interested
and affected parties, the Government will [e]stablish a national
co-operative programme to strengthen efforts to identify
terrestrial, aquatic, and marine and coastal areas that support
landscapes, ecosystems, habitats, populations, and species
which contribute or could contribute to South Africa's system of
representative protected areas. It will aim to achieve at least a
10 percent representation of each habitat and ecosystem type
within each biome (DEATSA 1998:46).
According to WWF-South Africa, around 540 km of South Africa’s 3000 km coastline is
currently reserved within protected areas (18% by length)(WWFSA 2004). The proportion in
no-take areas was not reported.
The document A Bioregional approach to South Africa's protected areas was released in
May 2001 by the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism. This document establishes
the objective of maximizing benefits of South Africa's natural heritage for all South Africans,
both now and in the future, through establishing a comprehensive and representative system
of protected areas covering South African biological diversity. It sets a goal of increasing the
terrestrial protected area estate from the current 6% of South Africa's land surface to 8% and
the marine protected area from 5% to 20% by 2010 (DEATSA 2003:13).
The Minister for Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Marthinus van Schalkwyk, as reported
by a DEATSA press release (DEATSA 2004) stated:
These [four] new marine protected areas will bring South Africa
much closer to achieving the targets set at the World Summit on
Sustainable Development and the World Parks Congress for the
protection of coastal waters (20% of national water). In future
our efforts will also be directed at conserving substantial
components of the continental shelf, extending into our
economic exclusion zone.
The South African government, in its report to the United Nations on the Millennium
Development Goals, listed a target of 10% of the nation under protected area status by 2015
as “potentially attainable” (RSA 2005:44).
New Zealand:
The New Zealand Biodiversity Strategy states (Government of New Zealand 2000:67):
Objective 3.6 Protecting marine habitats and ecosystems:
Protect a full range of natural marine habitats and ecosystems to effectively
conserve marine biodiversity, using a range of appropriate mechanisms,
including legal protection.
Actions:
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a) Develop and implement a strategy for establishing a network of areas that
protect marine biodiversity, including marine reserves, world heritage sites, and
other coastal and marine management tools such as mataitai and taiapure
areas, marine area closures, seasonal closures and area closures to certain
fishing methods.
b) Achieve a target of protecting 10 percent of New Zealand’s marine
environment by 2010 in view of establishing a network of representative
protected marine areas.
The New Zealand Government published a Draft Marine Protected Area Policy Statement in
2004 which suggested that the 10 percent target should be seen as a minimum standard.
Although this emphasis was removed in the final policy statement (Government of New
Zealand 2005) the commitment to the 10 percent target remains. It is noteworthy that, unlike
other similar targets, the 10 percent applies not to the protection of representative
ecosystems, but to the marine realm overall (although development of a representative
network is also a specific target). Such an area target is difficult to justify on scientific
grounds (Pressey 2004) and is open to the creation of biologically ineffective ‘paper parks’.
Brazil:
This section contributed by Patricia von Baumgarten, DEH South Australia.
The Brazilian Government released a draft National Plan for Protected Areas for public
consultation in January 2006 (MMA 2006, available in Portuguese only on
www.mma.gov.br/forum). The plan defines objectives, targets and strategies for the
establishment of a comprehensive system of ecologically representative and effectively
managed protected areas, which will integrate terrestrial and marine landscapes, by the year
2015. The Plan includes specific objectives for marine areas. Although it specifies that the
final percentage of total protection to be given for each ecosystem will depend on further
research on the representativeness of specific ecosystems, the Plan proposes a minimum
target of 10% fully protected for each major ecosystem type.
The Plan includes sixteen objectives for coastal and marine areas that provide direct
guidance for: system planning, site selection, establishment of participative decision making,
establishment of the system, its monitoring and evaluation, institutional capacity building,
and equality of opportunity for sharing benefits.
Fiji:
According to a briefing paper from WWF (WWF-Fiji 2005) Fiji’s Minister for Foreign Affairs,
Kaliopate Tavola, issued a statement in January 2005 which read in part:
By 2020 at least 30% of Fiji’s inshore and offshore marine areas
will have come under a comprehensive, ecologically
representative network of marine protected areas, which will be
effectively managed and financed.
According to a news column in MPA News vol.7 no.5 November 2005:
“Local chiefs of Fiji’s Great Sea Reef have established five marine protected areas with
permanent no-take (tabu) zones as a step towards meeting the nation’s commitment to build
a MPA network protecting 30% of Fijian waters by 2020.”
Micronesia:
According to MPA News April 2006, government leaders in the Micronesia regionlxxvi have
pledged to protect 30% of their nearshore marine ecosystems by 2020. Termed "The
Micronesia Challenge", the commitment is being led by Palau, the Federated States of
Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and the US territories of Guam and Northern Marianas
Islands. It was formally announced at the Eighth Conference of the Parties to the
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), held in Curitiba, Brazil, in March 2006. The
pledge also includes a commitment to protect 20% of their terrestrial ecosystems by 2020.
Palau President H.E. Tommy Remengesau said his nation intends in the intervening years to
be the first in the world to achieve, and surpass, having at least 10% of each of its ecological
regions effectively conserved.
102
Also at the CBD meeting, the Caribbean island nation of Grenada pledged to put 25% of its
nearshore marine resources under effective conservation by 2020.
Table 6.1: Summary: national MPA/NTA targets:
Nation
Type
Target
Bahamas
NTA
20%
Timeline
Reference
Brazil
NTA
10%
10% 2015
MMA 2006
30% 2020
WWF-Fiji 2005
AHTEG (2003:16); this is a secondary reference and
ideally should not be quoted. Can we get more
information?
Fiji
MPA
30%
Galapagos Is
NTA
20%
AHTEG (2003:16); this is a secondary reference and
ideally should not be quoted. Can we get more
information?
Guam
NTA
20%
AHTEG (2003:16); this is a secondary reference and
ideally should not be quoted. Can we get more
information?
Micronesia
MPA
30%
30% 2020
MPA News April 2006
10%
10% 2010
Government of New Zealand 2000:67
>10%
8%
DEATSA 1998:46
New Zealand
South Africa
MPA
MPA
2010
6.10 Network size and reserve size
The borders of NTAs should, ideally, derive from the purpose and mechanism of the NTA –
eg: what is to be protected, how that protection is to be achieved, and what security such
protection should have. Protected areas are essentially about the control of threats. If there
were no threats, or no threats relevant to area management (or no such threats likely) then
there would be no need for MPAs, or protective NTAs (setting aside for the moment other
goals like the establishment of scientific benchmark sites). However, harvesting activities in
the marine environment, generally speaking, do pose threats to ecosystems – largely from
the direct removal of organisms and from damage to habitat by gear. Historically, these
threats have often resulted in gross changes to ecosystemslxxvii, and sometimes to the
extinction of specieslxxviii. The greater the harvesting pressures on the local or regional
environment, the greater the threat, and thus the more need there is for MPAs, and
particularly protective NTAs. The larger the desired scope of protection, and the greater the
need for that protection to be secure in the long-term, generally speaking, the larger the NTA
network will need to be to achieve those goals.
On an individual basis, the size and shape of an NTA is directly related to edge effects which
may threaten values within the NTA. In over-simplistic terms, the larger the NTA, and the
more the shape of the NTA resembles a circle, the lower the edge effects will be – as a
result of simple geometrics (Walters 2000). However, the design of NTAs as fisheries
management tools may involve the enhancement, rather than the minimisation, of edge
effects. Edge effects are, of course, only one of many issues relevant to size and shape.
Ease of policing is another obvious consideration: fishers (and ‘police’) need to be able to
identify boundaries – hopefully with ease and accuracy. Small NTAs may protect sedentary
species, but are unlikely to protect important processes on which their survival ultimately
depends. Halpern et al. 2006 relate the spacing of reserves within a network to larval
dispersal distances (see Table and endnotes).
We do not live in an ideal world, where MPA network objectives and targets can precisely
define NTA boundaries, and thus the size of both individual NTAs and NTA networks. Even
if the science was that good, the history of MPA creation has shown that stakeholders would
still argue over larger goals and timing. Habitats and micro-habitats may be poorly
understood, categorised and mapped. Trophic and dispersion effects within the ecosystem
may be poorly understood, and may be difficult to model. In the surrounding seas, fishing
pressures may be difficult to control, and their direct and indirect effects may be poorly
103
understood – with significant differences between short and long term effects. Uncertainties
relating to long term climatic or oceanographic changes may be significant. Natural
variability in ecosystem parameters may be high, temporarily masking anthropogenic effects.
Catastrophes may degrade or even destroy local ecosystems. The need for redundancy
within a NTA network must be considered.
We must bear in mind that, so far, national networks of marine NTAs do not live up to either
the commitments contained in the Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 (especially in
regard to the creation of fully representative networks) nor do they line up with the science
behind accepted MPA goals – as illustrated by a perusal of the papers reviewed below. In
this context, size targets are important, and, in my view, the establishment of large protected
area networks should remain a core objective of nation-state marine strategies – as should
the sympathetic management of biodiversity across the entire sea-scape. While Agardy et
al. may be right to highlight the dangers and difficulties of using size targets, the simple and
urgent message from current MPA literature is, as Jake Rice lxxix (2003) has said: “we need
MPAs to be large and we need them soon” lxxx.
104
Table 6.2: NTA network size targets
Percentages refer generally to coverage within major ecosystem or habitat type, however see footnote
below.
AUTHOR
NTA
TARGET
COMMENTS
lxxxi
Agardy et al. 2003
not
specified
The authors warn against the universal application of a
single (20%) target for NTAslxxxii.
Airame et al. 2003
30-50%
A recommendation from scientists to a communitybased panel of stakeholderslxxxiii.
Allison et al. 2003
not
specified
The author’s arguments and methods require a
planning authority to specify an initial area target,
which is then expanded by an insurance factor to meet
possible catastrophes.
Ardron 2003
10-50%
Review of earlier studieslxxxiv
Beger et al. 2003
at least
20%
Examined reserve selection options to protect corals
and reef fisheslxxxv.
Bellwood et al. 2004
not
specified
Authors describe a USA coral reef protection goal of
20% NTAs by 2012 as “too little too late”.
Bohnsack et al. 2000
20-30%
Recommend at least 20-30% NTA.
Botsford et al. 2003
>35%
Not a recommendation: a theoretical (modelled)
maximum based on species survival assumptionslxxxvi.
Commonwealth of
Australia 2001
30%
Recommends a target of 30% of the pre-1750 (‘predisturbance’) extent of terrestrial ecological
communities. Can similar logic be applied to marine
systems? See Rodrigues & Gaston 2001 discussion of
terrestrial issueslxxxvii, and Pressey et al. 2003, 2004.
Fogarty et al. 2000
35-75%
Not a recommendation. Fogarty et al. review a number
of studies which suggest a range of 35% to 75% of an
area should be protected to optimise fishery yield
outside the reserves. As quoted by AHTEG 2003.
Gell and Roberts
2003b
20-40%
Not a recommendation: authors present evidence
suggesting these sizes work best for some (mostly
local) fisheries enhancements.
Gladstone (in press)
>30%
Modelling of coastal reef fish communities finds that a
30% MPA target will cover 75% of surveyed
specieslxxxviii.
Halpern 2003
not
specified
Author reviews studies on the related issue of reserve
size and MPA performance, and finds size is
importantlxxxix (larger is more effective).
Halpern et al. 2006
not
specified
Authors review modelling approaches accounting for
uncertainty in effective dispersal, within a framework of
variable persistence. A ‘rule of thumb’ for reserve
spacing of around 25 km is suggestedxc.
Hughes et al. 2003
>30%
Not a recommendation: authors present evidence from
ecological modelling studies – greater than 30% reef
NTAs neededxci to protect coral ecosystems.
Leslie et al. 2003
20% +
Not a recommendation: figure selected for illustrative
purposes (model demonstration).
105
AUTHOR
NTA
TARGET
COMMENTS
xcii
Lockwood et al. 2002
not
specified
Authors model population persistence inside coastal
reserves assuming zero populations outside reserves.
To ensure persistence “[the] upper limit for the
minimum fraction of coastline held in reserve is about
40%.”
Mangel 2000
~5-50%
Modelling analysis of reserves as a fishery
enhancement tool depends on selecting a time
horizon, fishing pressure and a probability of
ecological extinction of the population xciii.
McClanahan & Mangi
2000
not
specified
“Our field survey, combined with previous modelling
studies, based on adult emigration rates from marine
reserves, suggests that tropical fisheries dominated by
rabbitfish, emperors and surgeonfish should be
enhanced by closed areas of around 10 to 15% of the
total area” – also adding that a larger area may be
calculated if larval export is important.
National Research
Council 2001
20-50%
Figures from a literature reviewxciv relating to
enhancement of fisheries effects.
Palumbi 2004
not
specified
Author reviews information on the scale of marine
neighbourhoods, and discusses the relevance of MPA
size and spacingxcv.
Pandolfi et al. 2003
not
specified
The authors talk about a need for “massive protection”
and “protection at large spatial scales” (coral reefs).
Pew Fellows 2005
10-50%
“Place no less than 10% and as much as 50% of each
ecosystem in no-take zones, according to identified
needs and management options in a particular
ecosystem”
Pressey et al. 2003,
2004
variable
See papers: target proportion selected for modelling
(2004) depends on natural rarity and vulnerability (1040%). See text above.
Ray 2004
Implicitly
supports
(high)
targets
Ray’s paper is a critique of Agardy et al. suggesting
that (a) MPAs in general need much more attention,
and (b) to argue about the rights or wrongs of
particular views on targets is counter-productive.
RCEP 2004
>30%
Authors call for the urgent creation of massive NTAs to
allow marine habitat / ecosystem recoveryxcvi.
Roberts et al. 2003ab
>20%
Not a recommendation; authors provide a
comprehensive review of NTA design methods and
parameters.
Rodwell & Roberts
2004
20 – 40%
Fishery models indicate that: “reserve coverage of
between 20% and 40% prevent stock collapse in most
cases.”
Shanks et al. 2003
NTA size
& spacing
Authors deal only with size and spacing using analysis
and modelling of dispersal dataxcvii.
Sala et al. 2002
40%
Gulf or California rocky reef habitatxcviii
Sale et al. 2005
20 – 35%
Not recommendations – paper includes brief reviewxcix.
106
AUTHOR
NTA
TARGETc
COMMENTS
UNEP 2004
>10%
Not a NTA, or even a MPA target. CBD CoP VII/30
annex II (see discussion above): “at least 10% of each
of the world’s ecological regions effectively
conserved”.
Walters 2000
NTA size
No recommendations on habitat targets. The paper
deals with the relative benefits of a few large vs. many
small NTAs. For mobile species, many tiny fragmented
NTAs are likely to have negligible benefitsci.
Watson et al. 2000
20%
Paper models fisheries impacts of MPAs using
Ecopath. “Within the range of exchange rates
simulated, the maximum increases in catch and
overall biomass levels were reached when 20% of the
system was protected.”
Worm et al. 2006
23%?
Check this
World Parks Congress
2003
20-30%
WPC recommendation 5.22 to be considered by the
UN General Assemblycii.
6.11 Acknowledgements:
Thanks to Dr Trevor Ward and Professor Richard Kenchington for helpful comments and
assistance with references, and Ms Patricia von Baumgarten (Department of Environment
and Heritage, South Australia) for the section on Brazilian MPA targets.
6.12 References:
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Section 6 Appendix 1
Extract from the Appendix of: Ecological Society of Australia (2003) Protected areas: a
position statement by the Ecological Society of Australia. ESA; Alice Springs Australia.
111
Quote:
3. Formulating protection targets for biodiversity – specific considerations
The ESA considers that:
* Explicit, quantitative targets are essential for planning and managing protected areas and
off-reserve protection mechanisms.
* Quantitative targets should be the subject of ongoing debate and refinement. The primary
concern of this debate should be the scientific interpretation of broad goals stated in policy,
not the political and economic constraints on targets. New data and new understanding will
require continuing refinement of targets.
* Targets should concern not only elements of biodiversity pattern but the spatial and
temporal aspects of natural processes, including population sizes, movements,
metapopulation dynamics, disturbance regimes, ecological refugia, adjustments to climate
change, and diversification.
* Refinement of conservation targets will largely depend on research into spatial surrogates
for biodiversity pattern and process and the effects of alteration of habitats outside protected
areas.
* Appropriate scales for formulating targets will vary, but targets expressed as percentages
of regions or subregions are essentially meaningless unless they are tied to, and preceded
by, targets for habitats at the finest available scale of mapping. Targets for regions,
subregions or jurisdictions should emerge from targets at finer scales.
* Targets for protected areas should be complemented by ceilings for loss of habitat with the
balance comprising multiple-use under appropriate forms of off-reserve management.
* Protection targets should not be constrained by areas of extant habitats but should, where
necessary, indicate the need for restoration to extend and link fragments of habitat and
improve their condition.
* Constraints on the rates of expansion of protected areas within regions require individual
targets to be prioritised so that early protection is given to those biodiversity features that are
most irreplaceable and most vulnerable to threatening processes.
112
Section 6 appendix 2
Californian marine protected areas
Extract from MPA News, September 2006
In August 2006, the Fish and Game Commission of the US state of California unanimously
approved a proposal to designate a network of marine protected areas along the state's
central coast, encompassing 18% of Central California's coastal waters. Totaling 204
square miles (528 km2), the proposed network of MPAs will now undergo environmental and
regulatory review before taking effect, which could occur in early 2007, say officials. The
proposed network consists of 29 MPAs each extending seaward from the coast for three
nautical miles, the outer boundary of state waters. Approximately 94 square miles (243 km2)
of the network would be no-take marine reserves, while the remainder would allow limited
recreational or commercial fishing.
The proposed network is the first product of California's seven-year process so far to build a
state-wide system of marine reserves in its waters. The California state legislature passed
the Marine Life Protection Act (MLPA) in 1999 with a goal of redesigning and strengthening
the state's fragmented system of MPAs (MPA News 1:3). But the MLPA-based process to
plan and designate a marine reserve network got bogged down in stakeholder opposition
(MPA News 3:9) and budget shortfalls (MPA News 5:7). California Governor Arnold
Schwarzenegger revived the process in 2004 with funding contributed by private
foundations, appointing a special task force of experts to spearhead the planning. In a
statement following the Commission's approval of the proposed network, Schwarzenegger
said, "[This] milestone makes California a national leader in ocean management and is proof
of what can be done when all those involved - the fishing industry, environmentalists, and
others - work together."
Fishing groups, however, have expressed disappointment with the proposed network.
United Anglers of Southern California (UASC), which represents nearly 50,000 recreational
fishermen, said in a press statement that although the proposed network was "not the worst
possible outcome" (there had been larger reserve packages on the table for consideration),
the reserves would have an unnecessarily large impact on sport boat operators who depend
on access to areas now slated for closure. UASC Fisheries Specialist Bob Osborn specified
that the proposed network focused disproportionately on rocky reef habitats, thereby limiting
anglers' opportunities to catch rockfish, a popular target. Zeke Grader, executive director of
the Pacific Coast Federation of Fishermen's Associations, said that despite no-take
regulations, the proposed reserves would still be vulnerable to the threat of coastal pollution
and runoff from the region's major cities and farming areas, and called for stricter controls on
these impacts.
The Commission's proposed network provided less protection than several environmental
groups would have liked, but these organizations applauded the step forward. "This is a
solid start toward restoring our ocean and implementing ecosystem-based management,"
said Kaitlin Gaffney of The Ocean Conservancy. "Although we believe that a higher level of
protection is warranted, the Commission action does protect important central coast habitats
like kelp forests, nearshore reefs, and submarine canyons, consistent with science
guidelines on preferred size [of reserves] and protection levels."
In January 2007, the California Department of Fish and Game is expected to begin meetings
with stakeholders about possible marine reserves in the Southern California region.
For links to more information:
The proposed network for Central California, including maps and regulations:
http://www.dfg.ca.gov/mrd/mlpa/commissiondocs.html
Response from United Anglers of Southern California:
http://www.unitedanglers.com/news.php?extend.5
Response from The Ocean Conservancy:
http://www.oceanconservancy.org/site/News2?abbr=issues_&page=NewsArticle&id=8731.
113
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Endnotes:
i.
Ghost fishing refers to the continued effects of lost and abandoned fishing gear.
VMS refers to Vessel Monitoring Systems – compulsory fitting of satellite tracking and
reporting devices.
iii. The precautionary principle appears in one of its many variations in the World Charter For
Nature 1982, a resolution of the UN General Assembly, and was more formally endorsed in
the Rio Declaration 1992 (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development).
iv While the Australian position at the IWC’s Scientific Committee must rest on scientific
arguments (see IWC 2001) arguments supporting whale sanctuaries on the government’s
website (www.deh.gov.au) also avoid addressing ethical issues directly. In successfully
arguing for the creation of the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary, and in unsuccessfully
arguing for the creation of the South Pacific Whale Sanctuary, Australia has been
constrained by the mandate of the IWC to argue in terms of rebuilding whale stocks (Gales,
pers. comm. 2005). The mandate of the International Whaling Commission, as the name
suggests, revolves around the central concept of sustainable harvesting. The IWC is not the
International Whale Protection Commission, as the Japanese IWC delegation have correctly
pointed out. So – although the Australian position on whale conservation appears to be
underpinned by a wider ethic of protection of species for their own sake, the actual
arguments used to establish protective measures are in fact based on traditional harvesting
paradigms. See Government of Australia 2002, 2004.
v Comment by Scoresby Shepherd 12/1/06: Passmore at a philosophic level set out to show that
ii.
the modern West leaves more options open than most societies. He said: “Its traditions, intellectual,
political, and moral, are complex, diversified and fruitfully discordant. That gives it the capacity to grow,
to change. It is inventive, not only technologically, but politically, administratively, intellectually.”
However, later in a perceptive historical analysis of the prospect of moral improvement of man, gives
little reason to hope that man is likely to be any less greedy in the future than he is now, or will ever be
more ready to revive well known ethics, or embrace new ones.
vi
Singer later extended these arguments to more controversial ground when he claimed:
“The only ethical approach to Australia’s wild animals is one that gives their interests equal
consideration alongside human interests.” Singer (1996).
vii The first sentence of the Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 explicitly recognises the
“intrinsic value of biological diversity”. The importance of intrinsic values was reinforced a
decade later by the Strategic Plan of the CBD Conference of the Parties (CoP). Decision
VII/5 of the CoP in 2004 explicitly incorporates intrinsic values into its statement on the goals
of marine no-take areas: “The key purpose of these areas would be to provide for intrinsic
values…” as well as anthropocentric values. (Annex I Appendix 3 paragraph 10). In my view,
marine scientists need to make use of these international commitments to the protection of
intrinsic values in discussions at all levels, from grass-roots stakeholders to the highest
political level.
viii According to Bosselmann: “I would argue that the state-centred model of governance is on
its way out to be replaced by a multi-layered system with civil society at its core. The Earth
Charter is the founding document for this.” Pers. comm. 11 May 2006.
ix IUU: illegal, unregulated and unreported.
x Used here, the term ‘order of magnitude’ means approximately a factor of ten.
xi FAO: the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, based in Rome.
xii It should be noted, however, that compensation costs for fishers in the Great Barrier Reef,
displaced by the expansion of representative areas in 2004, were underestimated. Clearly
estimating compensation costs needs to be undertaken with care.
xiii The concept of “effective protection” is important. To demonstrate effective protection key
values must be identified, managed and tracked over time. This implies that a protected area
should have a management plan which identifies key values, and the plan should explain
how management will seek to protect these values. Monitoring programs should track the
values over time (through measurable indicators) and the results of monitoring programs
should be regularly and publicly reported. Only then will “effective protection” be
demonstrated.
The IUCN used a more detailed definition of a marine protected area: “any area of the
intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna,
historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to
133
protect part or all of the enclosed environment” (Kelleher 1999). This was replaced by a
general protected area definition: “A clearly defined geographical space, recognized,
dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term
conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values.” (Dudley
2008).
Note that the word ‘reserve’ is often used in marine literature to mean a fully protected or
no-take area.
xiv
xv
Such monitoring should take place across a sufficient spatial scale.
xvi
Readers unfamiliar with the rather vaguely defined terms referring to spatial units should
note that a rough hierarchy exists starting with "large marine ecosystems" (LMEs) which lie
within ocean basins (generally along continental margins), to bioregions, subregions,
ecosystems, habitats and, at the scale of meters to kilometres, communities. The term
'ecosystem' is also used in different situations independent of scale, according to its strict
definition which is an area characterised by coherent trophic and energy pathways, and
species interactions.
xvii
Noting that an area target of 20% of habitat types was included in the biophysical
operating principles used in the Representative Areas Program (2002) of the Great Barrier
Reef Marine Park Authority – along with other princples such as replication and inclusion of
whole reefs. The 2004 re-zoning saw 32% of the coral reefs in the GBRMP protected in notake reserves (which accounts for 15% of coral reefs in the NE Marine Planning Region, and
about 10% of coral reefs offshore from the Queensland coast). In the terrestrial scene, a
protected area target of 15% of pre-European vegetation communities was set as a central
conservation goal of Australia’s Regional Forest Agreements, to be expanded for rare and/or
vulnerable vegetation communities (Mendel & Kirkpatrick 2002).
xviii
An important point of definition arises immediately. Overfishing is defined in this
discussion as a level of fishing which puts at risk values endorsed either by the fishery
management agency, by the nation in whose waters fishing takes place, or within widely
accepted international agreements. A point of critical importance in this regard is that a level
of fishing intensity which successfully meets traditional stock sustainability criteria (for
example fishing a stock at maximum sustainable yield) is likely to be considerably higher
than a level of fishing intensity which meets maximum economic yield criteria (Grafton et al.
2007) which in turn is likely to be considerably higher than a level designed to protect marine
biodiversity (Jennings 2007, Walters et al. 2005, Murawski 2000, May et al. 1979). The wide
endorsement of the Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 implies that the latter level is the
critical level by which overfishing should be measured.
xix
See the AMSA submission on the South East Region MPAs: http://www.amsa.asn.au/
xx
The area of the SE Marine Planning Region is 1,192,500 km 2, (Harris 2007) or 1,632,402
km2 including Macquarie Island, of which 226,458 km 2 are covered by Commonwealth MPAs.
Of these, 96,435 km2 are no-take, with the rest mostly classed as IUCN category VI –
multiple use (where nature conservation is not the primary objective). However, almost all of
the no-take areas cover slope and deep sea habitats. Commonwealth no-take reserves
cover only 0.75% of regional shelf areas, or 692 / 92175 km 2 (pers.comm. Barbara Musso
16/10/08; see also Edgar et al. 2008:972).
xxi
The CBD CoP decisions can be accessed at http://www.cbd.int/marine/decisions.shtml. If
this link doesn’t work, go to the homepage (www.cbd.int) and follow the links: programmes &
issues>marine and coastal>programme>decisions.
xxii
IMCRA: interim marine and coastal regionalisation of Australia (IMCRA Technical Group
1998).
xxiii
Government of Australia (1996).
134
xxiv
The Commonwealth CAPAD (Collaborative Australian Protected Area Database),
accessed in September 2008, contained MPA data current to 2004.
Australia’s marine jurisdiction, including Antarctic zones, is around 16 million km 2. Without
Antarctic areas it is around 11.4 million km2
xxv
xxvi
The MPAglobal website is currently (Sept 2008) under development and data may not be
accurate.
xxvii
In this paper “reserves” includes IUCN categories I-IV.
xxviii
Here “no-take” MPAs includes IUCN categories Ia and Ib.
xxix
This neglects a few insignificant mining operations, for example for diamonds in Joseph
Bonaparte Gulf (WA), gold in the Gulf of Carpentaria (Qld) and sapphire around Flinders
Island (Tas).
States have jurisdiction over 3.6% of Australia’s marine jurisdiction comprising 410,677 sq
km in coastal waters that are within 3 nautical miles (5.5 km) of the coast. The remaining
10.97 sq km in Commonwealth waters is administered by the Australian Government.
xxx
xxxi
Of particular note in defining systematic conservation planning are the papers by
Margules & Pressey (2000) and Pressey et al. (2003).
xxxii
Up-to-date information on global MPAs was hard to locate in 2008. The IUCN published
a estimate in 2008: “as of the end of 2006 only 0.65% of the area of the seas and oceans
and 1.6% of the area within exclusive economic zones worldwide is covered by marine
protected areas.” (World Conservation Congress 2008 statement on marine protected
areas).
The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA) (www.unep-wcmc.org) accessed 19/9/08
did not contain global consolitated data. An estimate of 1.4% of the marine realm within
MPAs was obtained from the WDPA when accessed on 18/1/06 - it contained MPA area
data to 2003. IUCN categories Ia and Ib were used as identifiers for no-take areas, and
adjusted by the 2004 expansion of no-take areas in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. This
produced a figure of 0.18% of the marine realm within no-take areas. The ‘total’ percentage
is based on summing the global areas under categories I-VI, and includes the 184,000 km 2
Kiribati Phoenix Islands MPA (announced March 2006) and the 360,000 km 2 North-western
Hawaiian Islands National Monument (announced 15 June 2006) but does not include the
area managed by the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
(35.7 million km2). If it can be assumed that IUU fishing, and fishing by non-Party States has
negligible impact on this area, the zone qualifies as a category IV marine protected area.
Even taking these two important factors into account, the Convention Area probably qualifies
as a category VI protected area. The global area percentage under general MPA
management would then increase (dramatically) to 12 %. It should be noted that internal
CCAMLR papers at this stage support the ‘IV’ classification; however CCAMLR has not
requested entry to the WDPA. Note that at this stage no information is available on the area
under categories Ia and Ib in the Phoenix Islands or NW Hawaiian MPAs, so these new
MPAs were not included in the calculation of 0.18% NTAs.
xxxiii
Agardy has major concerns over the possibility of a rapid and poorly planned expansion
of marine protected areas. “The desire for quick fixes has led to a proliferation of MPAs –
many in areas where they are not needed, executed in a way that does not address the
threats at hand, and planned with little consideration of long-term financial and social
feasibility.” (Tundi Agardy, MPA News October 2005 p.3).
xxxiv
In particular goals relating to the slowing of biodiversity loss, such as those incorporated
in the Johannesburg Declaration 2002 ‘key outcomes’ statement.
135
xxxv
In the marine context, substitute “habitat” for “land”.
xxxvi
Noting that no-take marine reserves appear less prone to crown-of-thorns attack
(Sweatman 2008).
Australia has three ‘territories’. The Australian Capital Territory, under an agreement
with the Commonwealth Government, manages the territory at Jervis Bay on the NSW coast.
Although all eight State/Territory jurisdictions manage marine environments, this
responsibility is insignificant in the case of the ACT. The marine protected area at the south
side of Jervis Bay is managed by the Commonwealth Government.
xxxvii
Queensland’s large Moreton Bay lies adjacent to the major city of Brisbane, and
receives the outflow of the Brisbane River.
xxxviii
Victoria’s no-take MPA network occupies 53,776 ha, or 5.3% of marine waters under
State jurisdiction.
xl In 2006-07 tourism to the Great Barrier Reef contributed $A5.117 billion to the Australian
economy:
xxxix
http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/about_us/great_barrier_reef_outlook_report/outlook_report/eviden
ce/01_standard_evidence_page25
xli
AMSA (2008a) Position statement on marine protected areas. From www.amsa.asn.au
accessed 2 August 2010.
xlii Veron (2008); Veron et al. (2009).
xliii Nevill, J (2008) Threats to marine biodiversity. From
http://www.onlyoneplanet.com/marineBiodiversityThreats.doc accessed 2 August 2010.
xliv Nevill, J (2008) Threats to marine biodiversity. From
http://www.onlyoneplanet.com/marineBiodiversityThreats.doc accessed 2 August 2010
xlv See Pogonoski et al. (2002) and Ponder et al. (2002).
xlvi Nevill (2009)
xlvii Otway et al. (2004).
xlviii Johannes (1978, 1981, 1984).
xlix There were some problems with the outcomes from the South East Bioregion process –
see Nevill & Ward (2009).
l Russ et al (2008).
li Edgar & Stuart-Smith (2009)
lii Raymundo et al. (2009).
liii Lists of references may be obtained from Dr Jon Nevill [email protected].
liv Some of the many scientists’ consensus statements on the subject of marine protected
areas may be obtained from http://www.onlyoneplanet.com/marine.htm or by contacting Dr
Jon Nevill.
lv See AMSA (2008b) Position paper on marine protected areas. http://www.amsa.asn.au.
lvi See AMSA (2008b) Position paper on marine protected areas. http://www.amsa.asn.au.
lvii
Systematic conservation planning attempts to maximise the conservation benefits of
reserve networks within a number of key constraints, including providing for other uses of the
sea. One of the most important of these constraints are regional area targets, and choosing
these targets involves tradeoffs and judgements (see comments in AMSA 2008b). Many
papers, reports and a number of workshops have examined the question of protected area
targets in the marine environment (Nevill 2007). In the context of this letter, we follow the
recommendation in AMSA (2008b) (see discussion above) by recommending a minimum of
10% of every major ecosystem protected in sanctuary zones, and rare, vulnerable or iconic
ecosystems, and special or unique habitats, protected at higher levels. These sanctuary
zones should lie within larger networks of multi-use zones, some having a buffer function:
this is a core concept within the Convention on Biological Diversity Jakarta Mandate.
According to AMSA (2008b): “National or State marine reserve area targets are only useful
in the absence of systematic regional conservation plans. Where detailed planning has not
been undertaken, a goal should aim to protect all major marine ecosystems, with a minimum
target of 10% of all habitat types under full no-take protection by 2012. Rare and vulnerable
ecosystems or communities should be provided with greater protection – up to 100% where
136
an isolated ecosystem or habitat type is endangered. Such no-take reserves should lie within
larger multi-use protected areas, designed to provide limited harvesting opportunities which
will not prejudice biodiversity assets, especially those within the core no-take zones. A figure
of 10% under no-take protection would slow but not prevent loss of biodiversity: the current
no-take level in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park of 33% is more likely to achieve
substantial and sustained biodiversity benefits”.
Returning to the issue of area targets, it is noteworthy that several of the papers discussed in
Nevill (2007) assume that, outside the reserve network, biodiversity is not well protected if at
all, and these papers often recommend area targets in the range 20-40%. Our
recommending an area target of “at least 10%” in this letter, is based partly on an optimistic
assumption that all of Australia’s marine jurisdiction, outside the reserve network, is
reasonably well protected, particularly by fisheries controls applying the precautionary and
ecosystem approaches. While Australia has led the world in developing science to support
the application of these approaches, actual implementation in some cases has lagged badly
behind the science (Nevill 2009) particularly with respect to recreational and mixed fisheries.
There is considerable room for improvement, and the science developed by Australian
scientists is providing the tools for such progress.
lviii
See Ayling & Choat (2008).
Commonwealth of Australia (1996) page 2.
lx The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA) (www.unep-wcmc.org accessed 18/1/06)
contains MPA area data to 2003. IUCN categories Ia and Ib were used as identifiers for notake areas, and adjusted by the 2004 expansion of no-take areas in the Great Barrier Reef
Marine Park. The ‘total’ percentage is based on summing the global areas under categories
I-VI, and includes the 184,000 km 2 Kiribati Phoenix Islands MPA (announced March 2006)
and the 360,000 km 2 Northwestern Hawaiian Islands National Monument (announced 15
June 2006) but does not include the area managed by the Commission for the Conservation
of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (35.7 million km 2). If it can be assumed that IUU fishing,
and fishing by non-Party States has negligible impact on this area, the zone qualifies as a
category IV marine protected area. Even taking these two important factors into account, the
Convention Area probably qualifies as a category VI protected area. The global area
percentage under general MPA management would then increase (dramatically) to 12 %. It
should be noted that internal CCAMLR papers at this stage support the ‘IV’classification;
however CCAMLR has not requested entry to the WDPA. Note that at this stage no
information is available on the area under categories Ia and Ib in the Phoenix Islands or NW
Hawaiian MPAs, so these new PAs has not been included in the calculation of 0.18% NTAs.
lxi According to Evans & Russ 2004: “Adjacent fisheries may benefit from no-take marine
reserves due to spillover (net export) of adult individuals (Russ and Alcala, 1996;
McClanahan and Mangi, 2000; Roberts et al., 2001; Galal et al., 2002) and net export of
propagules via larval dispersal (Stoner and Ray, 1996; Roberts, 1997; Gell and Roberts,
2002). See Evans & Russ for citations.
lxii Agardy has major concerns over the possibility of a rapid and poorly planned expansion of
marine protected areas. “The desire for quick fixes has led to a proliferation of MPAs – many
in areas where they are not needed, executed in a way that does not address the threats at
hand, and planned with little consideration of long-term financial and social feasibility.” (Tundi
Agardy, MPA News October 2005 p.3).
lxiii In particular goals relating to the slowing of biodiversity loss, such as those incorporated in
the Johannesburg Declaration ‘key outcomes’ statement – see discussion.
lxiv The word ‘area’ implies defined and constant boundaries over time. The word ‘protected’
implies conscious protection. Conscious protection from what? Threats to an area’s values.
This implies that a management plan exist which identifies both threats and values.
‘Protected’ also implies effective protection – which implies the existence of monitoring and
reporting programs.
lxv Semantically, the word “sympathetic” is not used in the CBD, although the logic is explicit.
A concise statement capturing the two core concepts may be found in Principle Eight of the
National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia’s Biological Diversity (Commonwealth of
Australia 1996) which states: “Central to the conservation of Australia’s biological diversity is
the establishment of a comprehensive, representative and adequate system of ecologically
lix
137
viable protected areas, integrated with the sympathetic management of all other areas,
including agricultural and other production systems.”
lxvi This era came to an end at the close of the 19th century. The World Protected Area
Database’s first MPA entry is dated 1888.
lxvii Ghost fishing refers to the continued effects of lost and abandoned fishing gear.
lxviii The acceptance by the scientific community of the importance of MPAs as conservation
tools is illustrated by several major scientific consensus statements, such as those published
by the Marine Conservation Biology Institute in 1998, and the American Association for the
Advancement of Science in 2001 (both avaliable at
http://www.ids.org.au/~cnevill/marine.htm).
lxix Such as the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries 1995.
lxx An example of an important ecological process under threat globally relates to ocean
chemistry. Aquatic organisms which create calcareous structures, such as coral, depend on
complex chemical reactions to extract calcium carbonate from surrounding water (calcium
here listed as a nutrient). Increasing levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide are increasing
aquatic acidity, placing in jeopardy this essential process. Clearly protected areas will do little
in some cases to protect essential ecological processes.
lxxi Here water is defined as a nutrient for the purposes of terrestrial ecosystems.
lxxii Processes of information flow include larvae dispersal and pollination, for example.
lxxiii The ethical arguments of the Frost Report where echoed in the findings of a more recent
inquiry (NTFW 1997). However the arguments Australia used in the International Whaling
Commission were based purely on scientific grounds: that the sanctuary would assist in
rebuilding depleted stocks (Commonwealth of Australia 2002, 2004)
lxxiv The sixth CoP CBD meeting was held in April 2002.
lxxv WSSD: August-September 2002.
lxxvi An IUCN press release on the Micronesia Challenge is available online at
http://www.iucn.org/en/news/archive/2006/03/28_pr_islands.htm.
lxxvii Jackson et al. 2001.
lxxviii Stellar’s Sea Cow (Anderson 1995) and the Caribbean Monk Seal are amongst the best
known.
lxxix Jake Rice is the director of the Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat for the
Department of Fisheries and Oceans. He manages the peer review and application of
marine and fisheries science to policy formation and management decision-making. Contact
address: 200 Kent Street, Stn 12036, Ottawa, Ontario K1A OE6, Canada.
lxxx Rice adds: “…we also need to be prepared to act without full information and full
consensus when the decision system is receptive, and to make some mistakes due to
incomplete knowledge. What matters then is that we admit the mistakes later when more
information becomes available, and do our best to correct them.”
lxxxi The percentages listed below are not recommended on a strictly equivalent basis. Some
(eg DEH 2001) apply to specify ecological communities, while others apply to a total area
under jurisdiction (like the New Zealand target). The former (more common) approach
follows a specific rationale concerned with the protection of biodiversity through the
protection of representative examples of habitat (see Appendix 1).
lxxxii The authors also make the important point that MPA system design should go hand in
hand with measures aimed at sympathetic management of the remaining matrix.
lxxxiii “After consideration of both conservation goals and rhe risk from human threats and
natural catastrophes, scientists recommended reserving an area of 30-50% of all
representative habitats in each biogeographic region”. Page S170.
lxxxiv Ardron 2003:18 “A variety of marine reserve sizes ranging from 10% to 50% have been
suggested as being efficacious as a conservation and/or fisheries management tool (MRWG
2001, NRC 2000, Roberts & Hawkins 2000, Ballantine 1997, Carr & Reed 1993), with an
emphasis on larger reserves coming from the more recent literature. Furthermore, it has
been found that larger reserves often have beneficial effects disproportionate to their size
(Halpern 2003)”.
lxxxv Beger et al. found that over 80% area protection would be required to protect 100% of
both coral and fish species at their Kimbe Bay study site. Their recommendation of 20%
coverage was based on protecting just under 80% of all surveyed species.
lxxxvi The authors present modelling analysis suggesting that, based on larvae dispersal and
survival assumptions, together with assumptions about reserve size and distribution, 35% of
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coastal habitat would need to be reserved if no survival occurred in the remaining areas (the
remaining 65%).
lxxxvii Rodrigues and Gaston 2001 examine the application of complementarity-based network
design methods for identifying a minimum reserve network area to contain all species of
identified terrestrial taxa. They found that the minimum area depends (in part) on type of
taxa, regional endemism, and the size of the selection unit used in the design. At this level of
generality their findings are likely to apply to marine ecosystems. Assuming every terrestrial
plant needs to be represented at least once within a reserve network, a selection unit size of
12,000 km2 leads to a reservation requirement of 74% of the global land area, while a
selection unit size of 270 km 2 leads to a reservation requirement of 10% of the global land
area. As the authors state, it is most unlikely that such small reserves would protect the
processes which underpin biodiversity persistence, let along evolution. There is however a
major difference between terrestrial conservation and marine conservation. Mankind has
succeeded in not only modifying most pristine terrestrial habitats, but in destroying them and
replacing them with highly modified and simplified ecosystems, where only highly adaptable
organisms continue to survive. The analysis of Rodrigues and Gaston assumes that the
greater part of terrestrial biota need protected areas to survive – a reasonable assumption.
While global marine ecosystems have been pushed into ecological crisis, it may be that, if
harvesting impacts can be sufficiently reduced, most marine ecosystems can continue to
function as ‘homes’ for resident biodiversity. If this is the case, the need for strictly-protected
no-take areas may be somewhat reduced. It is important to note, however, that the
processes which underpin marine biodiversity often operate at regional and global scales,
and the means for their comprehensive protection is at present well outside the scope of
current science. Under these circumstances, a precautionary approach to marine protected
area network design is appropriate. If we are to adequately protect marine biodiversity, we
must now err on the side of creating reserves which are too large rather than too small.
lxxxviii Gladstone concludes: “…the upper range of currently promoted targets for MPA
establishment (i.e. 30%) should be regarded as a minimum for biodiversity conservation.”
lxxxix Halpern 2003 concludes: “The most important lesson provided by this review is that
marine reserves, regardless of their size, and with few exceptions, lead to increases in
density, biomass, individual size, and diversity in all functional groups. The diversity of
communities and the mean size of the organisms within a reserve are between 20% and
30% higher relative to unprotected areas. The density of organisms is roughly double in
reserves, while the biomass of organisms is nearly triple. These results are robust despite
the many potential sources of error in the individual studies included in this review. Equally
important is that while small reserves show positive effects, we cannot and should not rely
solely on small reserves to provide conservation and fishery services. Proportional increases
occur at all reserve sizes, but absolute increases in numbers and diversity are often the main
concern. To supply fisheries adequately and to sustain viable populations of diverse groups
of organisms, it is likely that at least some large reserves will be needed.”
xc Halpern et al. 2006 argue: “unless we are fairly certain about our estimate of dispersal
distance, reserves should be spaced around 25 km from each other.” They note: “Botsford et
al. 2001 developed a similar rule of thumb using a different approach to modelling dispersal
distance.” Halpern’s findings are supported by Cowen et al. 2006, who report: “typical larval
dispersal distances of ecologically relevant magnitudes are on the scale of only 10 to 100
kilometers for a variety of reef fish species.”
xci Pandolfi et al. 2003:933 “Ecological modelling studies indicate that, depending on the level
of exploitation outside NTAs, at least 30% of the world’s coral reefs should be NTAs to
ensure long-term protection and maximum sustainable yield of exploited stocks”.
xcii The percentages listed below are not recommended on a strictly equivalent basis. Some
(eg DEH 2001) apply to specify ecological communities, while others apply to a total area
under jurisdiction (like the New Zealand target). The former (more common) approach
follows a specific rationale concerned with the protection of biodiversity through the
protection of representative examples of habitat (see Appendix 1).
xciii The upper 50% figure derives from selecting a high fishing pressure outside the NTA
network, a planning time horizon of 100 years, and an acceptable probability of population
extinction of 1%. Assuming lower fishing pressures, a shorter time horizon, and an
increased acceptable risk of extinction will all produce a smaller NTA network size target.
139
“For fisheries, the benefit of a reserve does not increase directly with size. The maximum
benefit of no-take reserves for fisheries, in terms of sustainability and yield, occurs when the
reserve is large enough to export sufficient larvae and adults, and small enough to minimize
the initial economic impact to fisheries (see review in Guenette et al. 1998). Data from
harvested populations indicate that species differ greatly in the degree to which they can be
reduced below normal carrying capacity before they are not self-sustainable in the long term
(e.g., Mace and Sissenwine 1993, Hilborn, personal communication). If reserves are
designed for fisheries enhancement and sustainability, the vast majority of studies done to
date indicate that protecting 20% to 50% of fishing grounds will minimize the risk of fisheries
collapse and maximize long term sustainable catches (NRC 2001, Table 1)”.
xcv Palumbi concludes: “[Available studies] suggest adult neighbourhood sizes for many
demersal fish and invertebrates as small as kilometers and up to 10 to 100 km. Larval
dispersal may be shorter than previously suspected: neighbourhood sizes of 10 to 100 km
for invertebrates and 50 to 200 km for fish are common in current compilations. How can
small reserves protect such species? One conceptual framework is to set reserve size based
on adult neighbourhood sizes of highly fished species and determine spacing of a reserve
network based on larval neighbourhoods. The multispecies nature of fisheries demands that
network designs accommodate different life histories and take into account the way local
human communities use marine resources.”
xcvi Recommendation 8.96.
xcvii “We suggest that reserves be designed large enough to contain the short-distance
dispersing propagules and be spaced far enough apart that long-distance dispersing
propagules released from one reserve can settle in adjacent reserves. A reserve 4-6 km in
diameter should be large enough to contain the larvae of short-distance dispersers, and
reserves spaced 10-20 km apart should be close enough to capture propagules released
from adjacent reserves.”
xcviii “We describe a means of establishing marine reserve networks by using optimization
algorithms and multiple levels of information on biodiversity, ecological processes (spawning,
recruitment, and larval connectivity), and socio-economic factors in the Gulf of California. A
network covering 40% of rocky reef habitat can fulfil many conservation goals while reducing
social conflict.”
xcix According to Sale et al. (Box 1) “Protecting 20% of the area [available habitat type] has
become a commonly cited target. This arbitrary target relies on the assumption that
protecting 20% of the area protects 20% of the original spawning stock, and on the argument
that protecting 20% of the stock would prevent recruitment overfishing. More recent models
suggest that >35% of the total area needs to be in no-take reserves to prevent recruitment
overfishing of sedentary species, such as sea urchins or many reef fishes, and area
requirements differ among species with differing biology.”
c The percentages listed below are not recommended on a strictly equivalent basis. Some
(eg DEH 2001) apply to specify ecological communities, while others apply to a total area
under jurisdiction (like the New Zealand target). The former (more common) approach
follows a specific rationale concerned with the protection of biodiversity through the
protection of representative examples of habitat (see Appendix 1).
ci According to Walters: “The message is simple: for relatively mobile species, single large
MPAs can be much more effective than many small ones”.
xciv
“Therefore, PARTICIPANTS in the Marine Cross-Cutting Theme at the Vth World Parks Congress, in
Durban, South Africa (8-17 September 2003): CALL on the international community as a whole to:
Establish by 2012 a global system of effectively managed, representative networks of marine and
coastal protected areas, consistent with international law and based on scientific information, that: (a).
greatly increases the marine and coastal area managed in marine protected areas by 2012; these
networks should be extensive and include strictly protected areas that amount to at least 20-30% of
each habitat, and contribute to a global target for healthy and productive oceans;” The full text of the
cii
recommendation is available from www.iucn.org.
140