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Section 2 Workbook (units 4, 5 & 6) Name: Key KeyANANSWERAN__AN_________
C1. Analyze the functional inter-relationships
of the structures of the digestive
system.
1.
A) Complete the table
ANSWERS
Digestive System
Structure
mouth
tongue
teeth
salivary glands
pharynx
epiglottis
esophagus
cardiac sphincter
stomach
p yloric sphincter
duodenum
gall bladder
Function
Ingest food
Push food between the teeth; form the bolus; speech; taste; and spread saliva
Mechanical digestion; break food into smaller pieces for enzymes to act upon
Produces salivary amylase to start the digestion of carbohydrates (starch to maltose)
Muscular to push the bolus down the esophagus
Prevents food and drink from going down the esophagus
Directs food from the pharynx to the stomach by peristalsis
Controls what enters the stomach and prevents chyme from entering the esophagus
Mechanical digestion by churning food. Chemical digestion by pepsin to change
proteins into peptides
Slowly releases chyme into the duodenum
Where the majority of digestion occurs – final digestion of all macromolecules into
monomers. Receives enzymes from pancreas and wall of duodenum.
Stores bile until it is needed to emulsify fats
Regulates blood sugar levels with the hormones insulin and glucagon. Neutralizes
chyme (sodium bicarbonate) and makes enzymes for digestion SALT + N
First part = duodenum where majority of chemical digestion occurs to create monomers.
small intestine Last part is for absorption of monomers in the villi & microvilli
Lymph tissue to fight infection
pancreas
appendix
large intestine Absorbs mainly water. Also absorbs salts. Has E. coli to make vitamins, growth factors,
(colon)
rectum
anus
and folic acid.
Stores feces until elimination
Sphincter muscle for the release of feces
-1-
B) Label all structures from the previous table on these diagrams.
Salivary glands
Liver
Stomach
Pancreas
Small Intestine
Large Intestine (colon)
Bile duct Pancreas Stomach Small intestine (duodenum) 2. Describe swallowing.
A reflex where the pharynx pushes the bolus to the esophagus and then, by peristalsis, the bolus is moved
to the stomach
3. Describe peristalsis
It is a wave of muscular contraction that moves food along the digestive tract.
4. What is the source gland for insulin? Pancreas
5. How does insulin maintain blood sugar levels?
It is a hormone that causes the cells of the body to take up glucose from the blood to decrease the blood
glucose levels
-2-
6. Describe at least six functions of the liver. BBBBBB U
1 Makes bile
2 Breaks down and recycles old red blood cells
3 Makes blood proteins ex) albumin & fibrinogen
4 Monitors the blood nutrient levels
5 Makes urea
6 Regulates blood sugar levels with insulin and glucagon
7 Detoxifies blood ex) turns alcohol into fatty acids
7. Explain the role of bile in the digestion of fats.
Emulsifies fats – break fats into fat droplets (smaller pieces)
8. How is the small intestine specially designed for each of the following tasks?
a. Chemical digestion
Mucus to prevent digestion of the small intestine; glands to make intestinal juice with digestive enzymes; and an opening for receiving enzymes from the pancreas b. Physical digestion
Opening to receive bile from the gall bladder to emulsify fats c. Absorption
It has villi & microvilli to increase the surface area for absorption. It also is very long to allow for time needed for absorption of nutrients to occur 9. Describe and label the structures in this villus. Include the functions of the microvilli,
Trace the path way of all digestion products in to the villus.
Microvilli increase the surface area for absorption of nutrients and also release enzymes. Lacteal absorbs glycerol and fatty acids Blood capillaries absorb all other monomers -3-
10. Describe the functions of anaerobic bacteria in the colon.
They make vitamins, growth factors, and break down waste / feces (create the smell)
C2. Describe the components, pH, and digestive actions of salivary,
gastric, pancreatic, and intestinal juices.
11. A) Complete the table.
Enzyme
Optimal
pH
7
Salivary glands
8.5
Pancreas
Starch + water → maltose
2.5
Gastric glands in
stomach wall
Protein + water → peptides
8.5
Pancreas
Protein + water → peptides
8.5
Pancreas
Lipid + water → glycerol + fatty acids
Source Gland
Reaction Catalyzed
substrate + H2O → product
Starch + water → maltose
salivary amylase
pancreatic amylase
pepsinogen/pepsin
trypsin
lipase
8.5
Intestinal glands in Peptides + water → amino acids
wall of duodenum
8.5
Intestinal glands in Maltose + water → 2 glucose molecules
wall of duodenum
peptidase
maltase
8.5
Pancreas
Nucleic acids + water → nucleotides
nuclease
nucleosidases
8.5
Intestinal glands in Nucleotides + water → sugar, N-base, phosphate
wall of duodenum
B) Why is the enzyme pepsinogen secreted in an inactive form? What activates it?
So the stomach wall is not digested because it is a big protein bag. Pepsinogen is converted into pepsin by
hydrochloric acid - HCl
-4-
12. Draw a graph to show the enzyme activity of pepsin and trypsin at various pH. Explain why the
curves are different.
Curves are different because the optimal pH for the enzymes is dependent upon where it is
released and acts in the body.
13. What is the importance of the pH level in the various regions of the digestive tract?
It is the optimal pH for enzymes to work at peak efficiency – enzymes have an optimal pH based upon
where they act in the body
14. Describe in detail the role of each of these substances.
Component
water in digestive juices
Role
Hydrolysis – necessary for the hydrolytic enzymes to
work.
Neutralizes the chyme from the stomach & raises the pH
sodium bicarbonate in pancreatic juice
to 8.5 so that the small intestine enzymes will function
2 functions
hydrochloric acid (HCl) in gastric
juice 3 functions
mucus in gastric juice 2 functions
Kills bacteria and pathogens, activates pepsinogen into
pepsin, denatures salivary amylase
Protects the lining of the digestive tract from enzymatic
reactions and keeps the food moving through the
digestive tract
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C3. Describe the inter-relationships of the structures of the heart
15. Complete the table to show the functions of these heart structures.
The Heart Itself
Function
Receives blood and pumps it to the ventricle
left and right atria
Both receive blood from the atria. Right ventricle pumps blood to
the lungs (pulmonary system) while the left ventricle pumps blood
left and right ventricles
to the body (systemic system)
Brings blood to the heart tissues (arteries) and takes blood away
coronary arteries and veins from the heart tissue (veins) back to the superior vena cava
Within the Heart
Atrioventricular (AV)
and
semilunar valves
chordae tendineae
septum
Function
Prevents backflow of blood and separates the heart into chambers
Anchors the AV valves and prevents them from inverting
Separates the right and left side of the heart
Attached to the Heart
Function
Returns blood from the upper and lower regions of the body to the
superior and inferior vena cava right atrium
aorta
pulmonary trunk
Takes blood away from the heart to the body
Splits into the left and right pulmonary arteries which take blood
to the lungs for gas exchange
Arteries – takes deoxygenated blood to lungs
pulmonary arteries and veins Veins – returns oxygenated blood to heart – left atrium
-6-
16. Label these diagrams of the internal and external features of the heart.
C4. Analyze the relationship between heart rate and blood pressure
17. A) Complete the table:
Structure
sinoatrial (SA) node
atrioventricular (AV) node
Purkinje fibers
Location in Heart
Function
Upper right atrium
Pacemaker – sets heart rate
Makes atria contract at same time
Lower right atrium
Sends message down the Purkinje fibres to the
ventricles to make them contract at the same time
Septum
Takes nerve impulse from the AV node to the
ventricles to make the ventricles contract in unison
B) How do these structures maintain a regular cardiac cycle?
SA node – causes the simultaneous contraction of the atria and sets the pace of the heartbeat. It is the
pacemaker
AV node & Purkinje fibres – cause simultaneous contraction of the ventricles
C) Draw and label PQRST in a normal EKG.
P wave – atria about to contract QRS complex – ventricles about to contract T wave – whole heart rests -7-
18. Describe how the autonomic nervous system increases and decreases heart rate and blood pressure.
Autonomic nervous system made up of sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system
Sympathetic nervous system increases blood pressure and increases heart rate
Parasympathetic nervous system decreases blood pressure and decreases heart rate
19. Define blood pressure
It is created by the pressure of blood against the wall of an artery – due to the contraction of the ventricles.
You feel the blood start and stop as it moves through your arteries.
20. Define hypertension and describe 2 causes of this disease.
Chronic high blood pressure.
Caused by: genetics, cholesterol, diet, stress, age, diabetes, no exercise, rapid weight change, smoking
21. Define hypotension and describe 2 causes of this disease.
Chronic low blood pressure
Caused by: genetics, dehydration, heart condition, thyroid condition, nervous system disorder
(Parkinson’s), some medications, low blood sugar, diabetes, anemia, septic shock
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C5. Describe the inter-relationships of the vessels of the circulatory system.
22. Complete this table showing the function of these blood vessels.
Blood vessel
Vessel carries blood
from
Vessel carries blood to
Aorta
Arms
Oxygen rich
Arms
Superior (anterior) vena cava
Oxygen poor
Aorta
Head
Oxygen rich
Head
Superior (anterior) vena cava
Oxygen poor
Aorta
Digestive tract
Oxygen rich
Head, neck, chest, arms,
heart
Body – lower regions
Right atrium
Oxygen poor
Right atrium
Oxygen poor
Right ventricle / pulmonary
trunk
Lungs
Lungs
Oxygen poor۞
Left atrium
Oxygen rich۞
Liver
Inferior (posterior) vena cava
Oxygen poor
Digestive tract (small
intestine)
Aorta
Liver
Oxygen poor
Kidneys
Oxygen rich
Kidneys
Inferior (posterior) vena cava
Oxygen poor
Aorta
Legs
Oxygen rich
Legs
Inferior (posterior) vena cava
Oxygen poor
Aorta
Heart - myocardium
Oxygen rich
Coronary veins
Heart - myocardium
Superior (anterior) vena cava
Oxygen poor
Aorta
Left ventricle
Body
Oxygen rich
Subclavian artery
Subclavian vein
Carotid arteries
Jugular veins
Mesenteric arteries
Superior Vena cava
(anterior vena cava)
Inferior Vena cava
Oxygen rich?
Poor?
(posterior vena cava)
Pulmonary arteries
Pulmonary veins
Hepatic vein
Hepatic portal vein
Renal arteries
Renal veins
Iliac arteries
Iliac veins
Coronary arteries
-9-
23. Use the chart to differentiate among the five ty pes of blood vessels:
Name of
Blood Vessel
Structure
Label and give the function of each layer
Valves
present?
(Y/N)
NO
Label the three layers
Inner layer (endothelium)
artery
Away from the
heart to
arterioles
Middle layer (smooth
muscle)
Outer layer (fibrous
connective tissue)
NO
How is the structure designed for its function?
arteriole
Direction of
Blood Flow
smooth muscle, sphincter muscles to regulate blood
pressure & blood flow into capillary beds
NO
Away from
heart, to
capilliaries
From arterioles
to venules
capillary
NO
venule
Label
valve.
Describe
its
function
YES.
vein
Valve = prevents backflow of blood
-10-
From
capillaries to
vein to heart
Towards heart
from a venule
24. On this diagram label all the vessels from question #22 on page 9. Label the heart chambers.
Colour the structures carrying oxygenated blood red, and those carrying deoxygenated blood
blue.
25. Distinguish between pulmonary and systemic circulation with respect to vessels involved,
and oxygen content.
•
•
Systemic arteries carry oxygenated blood to the body from the heart
Systemic veins carry deoxygenated blood to the heart from the body
•
•
Pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs
Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart to go out to the rest of the body
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26. You are a red blood cell starting at the aorta and then traveling through the body. For each pathway,
use arrows and blood vessel names to show your path from the aorta, through the body and back to
the left ventricle. Each pathway must enter and exit the heart twice, why? So the blood can get rid of
CO2 and pick up O2 at the lungs before heading to the tissues of the body
Pathway #1. Kidneys: Aorta → renal arteries → renal arterioles → renal capillaries → renal venules →
renal veins → inferior vena cava → right atrium → right AV valve (tricuspid) → right ventricle →
pulmonary semilunar valve → pulmonary trunk→ pulmonary arteries → pulmonary arterioles →
pulmonary capillaries → pulmonary venules → pulmonary veins → left atrium → left AV valve
(bicuspid) → left ventricle → aortic semilunar valve → aorta
Pathway #2. Leg: Aorta → iliac arteries → iliac arterioles → iliac capillaries → iliac venules → iliac
veins → inferior vena cava → right atrium → right AV valve (tricuspid) → right ventricle → pulmonary
semilunar valve → pulmonary trunk→ pulmonary arteries → pulmonary arterioles → pulmonary
capillaries → pulmonary venules → pulmonary veins → left atrium → left AV valve (bicuspid) → left
ventricle → aortic semilunar valve → aorta
Pathway #3. Digestive system: Aorta → mesenteric arteries → mesenteric arterioles → mesenteric
capillaries → hepatic portal vein → hepatic veins → inferior vena cava → right atrium → right AV valve
(tricuspid) → right ventricle → pulmonary semilunar valve → pulmonary trunk→ pulmonary arteries →
pulmonary arterioles → pulmonary capillaries → pulmonary venules → pulmonary veins → left atrium
→ left AV valve (bicuspid) → left ventricle → aortic semilunar valve → aorta
Pathway #4. Heart tissue itself: Aorta → cardiac arteries → cardiac arterioles → cardiac capillaries →
cardiac venules → cardiac veins → superior vena cava → right atrium → right AV valve (tricuspid) →
right ventricle → pulmonary semilunar valve → pulmonary trunk→ pulmonary arteries → pulmonary
arterioles → pulmonary capillaries → pulmonary venules → pulmonary veins → left atrium → left AV
valve (bicuspid) → left ventricle → aortic semilunar valve → aorta
Pathway #5. Head: Aorta → carotid arteries → carotid arterioles → capillaries → jugular venules →
jugular veins → superior vena cava → right atrium → right AV valve (tricuspid) → right ventricle →
pulmonary semilunar valve → pulmonary trunk→ pulmonary arteries → pulmonary arterioles →
pulmonary capillaries → pulmonary venules → pulmonary veins → left atrium → left AV valve
(bicuspid) → left ventricle → aortic semilunar valve → aorta
Pathway #6. Arm: Aorta → subclavian arteries → subclavian arterioles → subclavian capillaries →
subclavian venules → subclavian veins → superior vena cava → right atrium → right AV valve
(tricuspid) → right ventricle → pulmonary semilunar valve → pulmonary trunk→ pulmonary arteries →
pulmonary arterioles → pulmonary capillaries → pulmonary venules → pulmonary veins → left atrium
→ left AV valve (bicuspid) → left ventricle → aortic semilunar valve → aorta
-12-
27. Why does blood pressure, blood velocity and total cross-sectional area of these 5 ty pes of blood
vessels vary.
• Blood Pressure = decreases as it moves from arteries to veins. Blood pressure varies in the artery
and arteriole due to contraction of the heart
• Blood velocity = blood slows down as it moves from the artery to capillaries and then it speeds up
in the venules on its way to the veins due to contraction of skeletal muscles
• Total cross-sectional area = The highest area is the capillaries because they are the most
numerous; next numerous is the arterioles and venules; and the smallest area is the arteries and
veins because they are fewest in number.
a. Which ty pe of blood vessel has the most cross-sectional area?
Why?
Capillaries because there are so many of them
b. Which ty pe of blood vessel has the slowest blood velocity?
Why?
Capillaries because the blood must move slowly to allow for capillary - tissue fluid exchange.
c. In which type of blood vessel does diffusion of gases, nutrients and wastes take place?
. Relate this to cross-sectional area and velocity.
Capillaries because they are most numerous and therefore have the greatest cross sectional area. Blood is
moving slowest in capillaries for this nutrient and waste exchange.
d. Which ty pe of blood vessel has the most variation in blood pressure?
Artery because of the contraction of the heart.
-13-
Why?
28. Capillary-tissue fluid exchange occurs as a result of the balance between the opposing forces of
blood pressure and osmotic pressure. What events occur at each labelled point?
X = water, oxygen and nutrients move into the surrounding tissue ECF from the blood plasma so cells can take up these substances to make what they need. Y Y= diffusion of substances with their concentration gradient. Z Z= water, carbon dioxide and wastes, released by cells, move into the blood capillary from the surrounding tissue ECF a. Describe why water leaves the bloodstream at the arterial end of a capillary bed (X). Include
direction of movement and what substances move.
Blood pressure (BP) is greater than osmotic pressure (OP). BP pushes plasma fluid from blood to ECF.
Water, glucose, oxygen, amino acids move into the ECF.
b. Why does most of the water return to the capillary at the venule end (Z)? What substances move
into this end?
BP is less than OP. Blood is hypertonic and pulls water back from ECF. Water, carbon dioxide, and
wastes move into the capillary.
c. Describe what happens in the middle of the capillary bed (Y).
Diffusion of nutrients and wastes with their concentration gradient -14-
d. What happens to the water that does not return to the capillary?
Taken up by the lymph capillaries to the subclavian vein
29. Identify and describe differences in structure and circulation between fetal and adult systems. Be
sure to label and describe the functions of the: umbilical vein and arteries, oval opening, venous duct,
arterial duct. Colour vessels according to oxygen concentration.
Deoxygenated blood = blue
Oxygenated blood = red
Mixed blood = purple
Fetal Circulation:
1. Oval opening / foramen ovale: hole between atria to allow blood to bypass the lungs
2. Arterial duct / ductus arteriosis: connect the pulmonary artery and the aorta so that blood can
bypass the lungs
3. Venous duct / ductus venosus: so blood returning from the placenta can bypass the liver
4. Umbilical artery: take wastes and deoxygenated blood to placenta for capillary tissue fluid
exchange
5. Umbilical vein: take nutrients and oxygenated blood from the placenta to the developing fetus
-15-
C6. Describe the components of blood
30. Complete the table.
Name of Blood
Cell
Shape Red blood cell White blood cell Platelet Function Transport oxygen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions To fight infection -­‐ pathogens To clot blood Origin Bone Marrow Bone Marrow Bone Marrow 31. List the major components and functions of plasma.
Water: maintain blood volume, transport molecule
Proteins: clotting proteins, albumin, immunoglobulin
Salts, gases, nutrients, wastes, hormones, vitamins
32. Explain the relationship between antigens and antibodies.
Antigen: an identification glycoprotein on the outside of a cell that indicates whether the cell belongs to
you or if it belongs to someone else or a pathogen
Antibody: a protein designed to combat any foreign protein / pathogen
-16-
C7. Describe the inter-relationships of the structures of the lymphatic system
33. Describe the functions of the lymphatic system.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Take up excess tissue fluids from the ECF
Transport fatty acids and glycerol – lacteals
Fight infection
Trap and remove cellular debris
34. Complete the table. Make a diagram that shows the relationship between these structures.
Lymphatic Structure
lymph capillaries
lymph veins
lymph nodes
Function
Collects and drains excess fluids from ECF
Transports lymph fluid to subclavian vein
Cleans lymph fluid of debris
-17-
C8. Analyze the functional inter-relationships of the structures of the respiratory system
35. Give functions for each of the following:
Structure
Function
Filter, moisten and warms the inhaled air
nasal cavity
Drains tear ducts, cranial sinuses, and ears
Passageway for air (and food)
pharynx
epiglottis
larynx
trachea
bronchi
bronchioles
alveoli
Prevents food and drink from entering trachea
Produces sound
Conducts air to bronchi during inhalation
Conducts air to bronchioles during inhalation
Conducts air to alveoli during inhalation
Gas exchange
Diaphragm – creates sealed cavity and pulls open the lungs to decrease the pressure for
inhalation
Ribs – protect the lungs and heart
Filled with fluid to cushion and protect the lungs and reduce friction.
pleural membranes Create a sealed cavity so that a negative air pressure can be created for inhalation.
Air tight space surrounded by the ribcage. Sealed cavity so that a negative pressure can
thoracic cavity
be created for inhalation
diaphragm and ribs
36. Label the structures listed above on the diagrams below:
-18-
37. Explain the roles of cilia and mucus in the respiratory tract.
The mucus traps pollen, dust and other debris that gets into the lungs and the cilia sweep the mucus out of
the lungs to the pharynx where it is swallowed to get rid of it and keep the lungs clean
C9. Analyze the processes of breathing
38. Describe the interactions of the following structures in the breathing process: respiratory center in
the medulla oblongata, lungs, pleural membranes, diaphragm, intercostal (rib) muscles, stretch
receptors.
•
•
•
•
The medulla oblongata is sensitive to CO2 and H+ to trigger inhalation by sending a message to the
intercostal muscles which contract (to move the ribcage up and out so the lungs can expand) and to
the diaphragm with contracts and flattens (to pull open the lungs.
The lungs expand which decreases the air pressure in the lungs so air rushes into the lungs to fill the
space.
Stretch receptors in the alveoli detect when the alveoli are full and send a message to the medulla
oblongata to stop the signal so that the intercostal muscles relax (ribs move down and in to original
position) and the diaphragm relaxes so that the lungs recoil and air is moved out of the lungs.
The pleural membranes create a sealed thoracic cavity for negative pressure can be created for
inhalation
39. Compare the processes of inhalation and exhalation.
Inhalation: The ribcage is moved up and out of the way so that the lungs can expand when the diaphragm
pulls them open to create a negative air pressure in the lungs so air moves into the lungs.
Exhalation: The ribcage moves down and in when the lungs recoil due to relaxation of the diaphragm.
This increases the air pressure inside the lungs so that air leaves the lungs
40. Explain the roles of carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions in stimulating the respiratory center in the
medulla oblongata.
CO2 and H+ influence the pH of the blood.
Chemoreceptors detect and increase in CO2 and H+ levels (not O2) or in other words a drop in blood pH
(more acidic). When this drop in pH is sufficient, a message is sent to the intercostal muscles and
diaphragm from the medulla oblongata to stimulate contraction of these muscles – causing inhalation
41. Explain the roles of hydrogen ions in stimulating carotid and aortic bodies.
CO2 and H+ influence the pH of the blood.
Chemoreceptors detect and increase in CO2 and H+ levels (not O2) or in other words a drop in blood pH
(more acidic). The carotid and aortic bodies detect this drop and when this drop in pH is sufficient, a
message is sent to the medulla oblongata to stimulate contraction of the intercostal muscles and diaphragm
– causing inhalation
-19-
C10. Analyze internal and external respiration.
42. Describe the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen during internal respiration. Mention where it
occurs, and the conditions that favour the exchange at that location (e.g. pH, temperature).
Internal respiration = gas exchange between the body tissues and the blood
Conditions = pH 7.3; 38º C; high pressure
•
Water and O2 are forced out of the capillary into the ECF at the arteriole end of the capillary bed
due to BP being greater than OP
•
At the venule end, water and CO2 is drawn into the capillary because of BP being less than OP and
the blood is hypertonic to the ECF causing (osmosis)
•
CO2 is carried as dissolved
gas in the blood plasma, carbaminohemoglobin (HbCO2), and
bicarbonate ions (HCO3-).
43. Describe the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen during external respiration.
Mention where it occurs, and the conditions that favour the exchange at that location (e.g. pH,
temperature).
External respiration = gas exchange between the alveoli and the blood
Conditions = pH 7.4 ; 37º C; low pressure
•
CO2 is released by the hemoglobin and the bicarbonate ion is converted into CO2 and water by
carbonic anhydrase so that the CO2 can diffuse into the alveoli to be exhaled from the body
•
O2 diffuses from the alveoli into the blood and is picked up by hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin
(HbO2) to be carried to the tissues.
-20-
44. Explain the roles of each of the following in the transport of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the blood:
Substance
Role in Transport of Blood Gases
Transport O2
oxyhemoglobin
carbaminohemoglobin
Transport CO2
Transport H+
reduced hemoglobin
Transport CO2
bicarbonate ions
carbonic anhydrase
Catalyzes the reaction so that CO2 can be transported as bicarbonate
ion (buffering the blood in the process)
45. Write the chemical equations for internal respiration.
HbO2 → Hb + O2
H+ + Hb → HHb
CO2 + Hb → HbCO2
carbonic anhydrase
carbonic anhydrase
CO2 + H2O
→
H2CO3
→
HCO3- + H+
46. Write the chemical equations for external respiration.
Hb + O2 → HbO2
HHb → H+ + Hb
HbCO2 → Hb + CO2
carbonic anhydrase
carbonic anhydrase
HCO3- + H+
→
H2CO3
→
CO2 + H2O
-21END