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Catholic College of Mandeville Course: Introduction to Psychology ED 103 Individual Research Paper a. Identify 10 contributors/founders to the origin of Psychology and give a brief b. explanation to each theory OR c. Summarize Cognitive theory (My task to research) After sharing findings with class, upload a 3 page summary to Moodle for final grading and access to classmates By Sandra Whyte Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of Bachelors in Education Facilitator Miss Carline Campbell Due February 23, 2016 Over the years psychologists have suggested many theories to explain human behavior. The cognitive approach began to revolutionize psychology in the late 1950’s and early 1960’s, to become the dominant approach (i.e. perspective) in psychology by the late 1970s. The Merriam Webster Online Dictionary defines cognitive as; ‘of relating to, being, or involving conscious intellectual activity (as thinking , reasoning, or remembering) based on or capable of being reduced to empirical factual knowledge’. Theories of human development have been posited by some phenomenal psychologist like Sigmund Freud- Psychosexual, Erikson’s Psychological, learning theories like are Piaget, Jung and Maslow just to name the major ones. They are of the view that human nature can be personified in such theories as cognitive psychologist study internal processes including perception; Cognition literally means knowing. In other words, cognitive psychology refers to the study of human mental processes and their role in thinking, feeling, and behaving. Bandura (1986) states that as knowledge gained through inquiry affect human potentialities and that theories of development provide a framework for thinking about human growth, development and learning. Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting on our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us generates our own rules and mental models, which we use to make sense of our experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new experiences. Also, it emphasizes hands-on problem solving. Constructivism calls for the elimination of grades and standardized testing. Instead, assessment becomes part of the learning process so that students play a larger role in judging their own progress. Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and discounts mental activities. Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior. There are two different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioral pattern: Classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus. The most popular example is Pavlov’s observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even see food. Secondly, behavioral or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a reward or reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more probable in the future. For example, leading behaviorist B.F. Skinner used reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball in a mini-alley. Teachers, who reward or punish student behaviours, often use behaviourism. Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is considered as the father of psychologist and renowned for constructing a highly influential model of child development and learning. Piaget’s theory is based on the idea that the developing child builds cognitive structures–in other words, mental “maps,” schemes, or networked concepts for understanding and responding to physical experiences within his or her environment. He identified four developmental stages and the processes by which children progress through them. The four stages are: Sensorimotor stage (birth - 2 years old the child builds a set of concepts about reality and how it works through interaction. Preoperational stage (age 2-7)–The child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly and needs concrete physical situations. Concrete operations (age 7-11) based on prior knowledge, the child starts creating logical structures that explain his or her physical experiences. Formal operations (age 11-15) –By this point, the child’s cognitive structures are like those of an adult and include conceptual reasoning. Piaget believes that during all development stages, the child experiences his or her environment using whatever mental maps he or she has constructed so far. If the experience is a repeated one, it fits easily–or is assimilated–into the child’s cognitive structure so that he or she maintains mental equilibrium. If the experience is different or new, the child loses equilibrium, and alters his or her cognitive structure to accommodate the new conditions. Plato indicates to that Neuroscience is the study of the human nervous system, the brain, and the biological basis of consciousness, perception, memory, and learning. The nervous system and the brain are the physical foundation of the human learning process. The Neuroscience believes that our brain actually contains three brains. The structure of the brain’s neuron connections is loose, flexible, webbed, overlapping, and redundant. Brain-based learning this learning theory is based on the structure and function of the brain. As long as the brain is not prohibited from fulfilling its normal processes, learning will occur. Learning involves both conscious and unconscious processes. We have two types of memory: spatial and rote. Learning Styles, this approach to learning emphasizes the fact that individuals perceive and process information in very different ways. The concept of learning styles is rooted in the classification of psychological types. The learning styles theory is based on research demonstrating that, as the result of heredity, upbringing, and current environmental demands, different individuals have a tendency to both perceive and process information differently. The different ways of doing so are generally classified as: Concrete and abstract perceivers; Concrete perceivers absorb information through direct experience, by doing, acting, sensing, and feeling. Abstract perceivers, however, take in information through analysis, observation, and thinking. Gardner defines intelligence as a group of abilities that: Is somewhat independent from other human capacities. He identifies the following seven: Verbal-Linguistic–The ability to use words and language, Logical-Mathematical the capacity for inductive and deductive thinking and reasoning, Visual-Spatial–The ability to visualize objects and spatial dimensions, and create internal images and pictures, Body-Kinesthetic–The wisdom of the body and the ability to control physical motion, Musical-Rhythmic–The ability to recognize tonal patterns and sounds, as well as a sensitivity to rhythms and beats, Interpersonal–The capacity for person-to-person communications and relationships, Intrapersonal–The spiritual, inner states of being, selfreflection, and awareness. Observational Learning also called social learning theory, occurs when an observer’s behavior changes after viewing the behavior of a model. An observer’s behavior can be affected by the positive or negative consequences–called vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment– of a model’s behavior. Bandura (1977) called the process of social learning modelling and gave four conditions required for a person to successfully model the behaviour of someone else. Observational learning allows for learning without any change in behaviour and has therefore been used as an argument against strict behaviourism which argued that behaviour change must occur for new behaviours to be acquired. Vygotsky and Social Cognition, the social cognition-learning model asserts that culture is the prime determinant of individual development. Humans are the only species to have created culture, and every human child develops in the context of a culture. Therefore, a child’s learning development is affected in ways large and small by the culture–including the culture of family environment–in which he or she is caught. Culture makes two sorts of contributions to a child’s intellectual development. First, through culture children acquire much of the content of their thinking, that is, their knowledge. Second, the surrounding culture provides a child with the processes or means of their thinking, what Vygotskians call the tools of intellectual adaptation. In short, according to the social cognition-learning model, culture teaches children both what to think and how to think. Cognitive development results from a dialectical process whereby a child learns through problem-solving experiences shared with someone else, usually a parent or teacher but sometimes a sibling or peer. In concluding Language is a primary form of interaction through which adults transmit to the child the rich body of knowledge that exists in the culture. "Language is the way we interact and communicate, so, naturally, the means of communication and the conceptual background that’s behind it, which is more important, are used to try to shape attitudes and opinions and induce conformity and subordination. Not surprisingly, it was created in the more democratic societies Chomsky (2003)”. As learning progresses, the child’s own language comes to serve as her primary tool of intellectual adaptation. Eventually, children can use internal language to direct their own behavior. A difference exists between what child can do on his/her own and what the child can do with help. Vygotskians call this difference the zone of proximal development. References Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, Mass.: Belkapp Press. Bandura, A. (1977) Social Learning Theory. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Hardback: ISBN 0138167443 - Paperback: ISBN 0138167516 Chomsky, N. (2003) Collateral Language. TRANS, Internet journal for cultural sciences. McLeod, S. A. (2015). Jean Piaget. Retrieved from www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html McLeod, S. A. (2015). Cognitive Psychology. Retrieved from www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive.html Piaget, J. (1936). Origins of intelligence in the child. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Siegler, R. S., DeLoache, J. S., & Eisenberg, N. (2003). How children develop. New York: Worth Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. . Wadsworth, B. J. (2004). Piaget's theory of cognitive and affective development: Foundations of constructivism. Longman Publishing.