Download Churchill`s War Cabinet – MUNTR 2015

S
t
udyGui
de
Chur
c
hi
l
l
’
sWarCabi
net
MUNTR2015
"You ask, what is our aim? I can answer in one word. It is
victory. Victory at all costs. Victory in spite of all terrors.
Victory, however long and hard the road may be, for without
victory there is no survival." -Winston Churchill
LETTER OF THE SECRETARY-GENERAL
Dear Participants,
My name is Nezahat Yeşim YARGICI, and I as the humble Secretary-General of Model United
Nations Turkey 2015, would like to proudly welcome you to the MUNTR family, in the name of
Director-General Tolga Öner and each and every member of our Academic and Organization teams.
This year’s conference is built around the concept of change. Believing that change for the better can
only be realized through appreciation of the past, we have set the theme of the conference as ‘Legacy
and Reform’.
After celebrating the successful story of a decade, MUNTR 2015 will be the 11th session of the
conference. Starting a new decade, we feel the privilege of having space for creativity and change.
We not only want to give you a better MUN experience, but a new and different one. Working day
and night, our team wishes to create something more than a simulation, but a true platform of
diplomacy amongst young people where new ideas and insights are welcomed; where the world is
shaped by day and shaken by night.
The Secretariat has been working relentlessly for the past 7 months in fulfilment of this aim, which
this study guide is a result of. Before addressing the academic content, I would like to thank the
members of the Secretariat, and in especial, the Under-Secretary-General of Churchill’s War
Cabinet, Mr. Mert Eney, a great friend and a great team mate and it is true. This study guide will
provide the delegates with the necessary background information prior to the start of the cabinet
sessions, therefore further research is advised.
Sir Winston Churchill’s War Cabinet is one of the most significant figures in modern history. As
2015 marks the 50th anniversary of the legendary Prime Minister’s death, the delegates of his cabinet
will relive history and will try to shape it for better world in the future.
King Regards,
Nezahat Yeşim Yargıcı
Secretary-General of MUNTR 2015
LETTER OF THE UNDER-SECRETARY-GENERAL
Dear participants,
It is a grand pleasure for us to welcome you all to the Churchill’s War Cabinet in the eleventh annual
session of Model United Nations Turkey 2015.
My name is Mert Eney and I will be serving as the Under Secretary General responsible for
Churchill’s War Cabinet. I am currently studying Law in Bilkent University as a sophomore. I have
been part of the global MUN platform since my first year in high school, participating in various
positions. MUN has become a vital part of my life, and I find it simply impossible to imagine my life
without it.
This year, MUNTR holds an academically distinct position in its groundbreaking spectrum of
committees—Churchill’s War Cabinet undeniably being one of the frontrunners of such variety.
With simulating arguably the single most important event in history—World War II—MUNTR
offers an unforgettable debate experience with not only preparing a scholarly-fulfilling environment,
but also an innovative landscape with fast-paced discussions, procedure-bending guidelines and
crisis-heavy historical scenarios.
I would like to distinctively thank our Secretary General Ms. Nezahat Yeşim Yargıcı and our Deputy
Secretary General Mr. Gökberk Ekinci, for their utmost effort in preparing not only this document,
but also the academic backbone of the conference. I hope that this study guide will provide a
pathway to your experience of MUNTR 2015.
Mert Eney
Under-Secretary-General responsible for the Churchill’s War Cabinet
Introduction to Churchill’s War Cabinet
A new political landscape was defined from the ashes of the First World War—the previous
international scheme was destroyed and a new Europe was reestablished. The European states which
fought actively in the Great War could not materialize with the post-war conditions, and as a result,
economic and social disintegrations ensued—this situation was an actuality independent from the
outcome of the war. Economic depression prevailed in Europe almost continuously for the interwar
period, in which debtor nations tried to pay their debts by borrowing more money, at higher rates,
resulting in the degradation of national economies. Especially, the German nation suffered from
severe economic crisis during the time, due to the high number of requested war reparations of
Britain and France—a sanction signed in the Treaty of Versailles.
It was not only the effects of the economic crisis that left Europe crippled, but it was also the severe
actuality of the casualties. Ten million were killed in the Great War, and more than twenty million
were wounded when in comparison, all of the wars of the hundred years leading up to the Great War
had claimed a total of only four and one-half million lives. The casualties were so high that it is
believed that France had, in average, a death of citizen per minute. The Great War swept a
generation from the demographics, and the ones that survived were equally as harmed, with
physiological and psychological damages which would show itself during the interwar years—a
frantic period in Europe.
The interwar years also saw an overgrowing effort to create a shared platform of international
dialogue, and with the formation of the League of Nations, this need was somewhat achieved
through cooperation and transparency. Although the League of Nations was a big leap for the
political landscape of post-war Europe, it, on many occasions, failed to achieve the initial prospects
of various nations. It has yet to grow strong enough to make independent choices and it certainly did
not create a significant impact on the sociopolitical nature of the Europe. Thus, the goals of
deterrence of war and disarmament were left unaccomplished.
The void of authority, caused by the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations —the ambiguity of
solution choices and a lack of international discourse— was quickly filled by dedicated followers of
various political teachings of the 19th century. This variance in the political spectrum overgrew to be
a tension between the extreme left and the far right—communists vs. fascists—. The lack of
moderates in the governmental environment created a continuity of turmoil and fired the
differentiating views of political extremists. This political extremism took control of Europe during
these years, creating totalitarian states and intolerant individuals—while Soviet Union adopted
communism, Germany, Italy and Spain incorporated fascist doctrines. With the overgrowing tension
between two ends of the political spectrum, the road to a second great war was paved.
Churchill’s War Cabinet was a Conservative-led coalition government during World War II, led by
Winston Churchill—Prime Minister of the United Kingdom—to lead the British campaign during
the time period. The War Cabinet structures around a subset of the executive governmental ministry.
and Truk Lagoon are among the primary chain
A. Timeline of Events Prior to the
Commencement of War
of islands. Furthermore, Japan joins the
League of Nations.
June - Treaty of Versailles is signed between
1919i ii iii
January
-
Paris
Peace
Conference
is
inaugurated for the purpose of negotiating
peace treaties between the belligerents of the
Germany and Allied powers. Among its severe
political and military sanctions was the
limitation of German Armed Forces to
100,000 personnel. Germany is also signed on
Great War.
April - League of Nations is founded in the
to pay large compensations for war damages
to various sources.
principle for ensuring world peace.
May - Turkish War of Independence begins
with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk’s arrival to Sivas.
September – Adolf Hitler joins the German
Workers’ Party.
Greek troops land in Smyrna.
1920ivv
An intellectual uprising takes place in China
January - The Paris Peace Conference is
that leads to the May Fourth Movement,
completed with the first annual session of
which
Marxist
General Assembly of the League of Nations.
sociopolitical theories. The movement takes
United States of America does not join the
place
League.
flames
in
mostly
Beijing,
with
protesting
Chinese
government’s weak response to the Treaty of
The Nazi Party is formed in Germany and
Versailles. Japan, as a member of the
Adolf Hitler gives a series of sentimental
victorious Allies during the Great War, gains a
speeches following its formation.
mandate
islands
August - The succeeding leaders of the
previously part of the German colonial empire.
Ottoman Empire sign the Treaty of Sèvres
The Marshall Islands, Marianas, the Carolines,
with the Allied powers. The Treaty shows
over
various
Pacific
similarity with the Treaty of Versailles in the
France, and Italy—this act marks the end of
sense that it diminishes demographics of the
the Washington Naval Conference. The
Ottoman Empire and it radically reduces
signing parties agree to limit the size of their
Turkish Armed Forces. [The Treaty of Sèvres
naval forces.
was later annulled with the leadership of
April - Treaty of Rapallo is signed between
Mustafa Kemal in the Turkish War of
the governments of Germany and the Soviet
Independence, and the superseding Treaty of
Union, reestablishing the diplomatic relations
Lausanne is signed in 1923]
between states, as well as completing a
1921vivii
June - Lady Randolph Churchill of Britain
dies at her London home.
August - The U.S.–German Peace Treaty, the
U.S.–Austrian Peace Treaty and the U.S.–
Hungarian Peace Treaty is signed between
consecutive states, ending the state of war
between them.
December - Between the British Government
and the Irish Nationalists, a treaty is signed to
form the Irish Free State.
financial common ground.
June – The Main Administration for Literary
and Publishing Affairs (Glavlit) was officially
established in the Soviet Union with the role
of preventing anything from being published
that undermined state secrecy, encouraged
sedition,
inspired
national
or
religious
fanaticism or moral degeneration.
October - The Russian Civil War concludes
with the Bolshevik victory and with the defeat
of the last White forces in Siberia. The Civil
War was continuing since 1917.
1922
viii
February - The Washington Naval Treaty is
signed between the respective governments of
the United Kingdom, the United States, Japan,
Benito Mussolini is appointed prime minister
of Italy by King Victor Emmanuel III after the
March on Rome.
November - The Grand National Assembly of
1924xi
Turkey abolishes the Ottoman Sultanate. The
January - Founder and the Leader of the
family of the Sultanate is later banished from
Soviet Union Vladimir Lenin dies—Lenin was
the Republic of Turkey.
not only a successful political figure, but also
1923ixx
January - The French army occupies the area
of Ruhr. This act is carried as a symbolic
message to Germany due to its failure to
complete the payments of war reparations.
July - The Treaty of Lausanne was agreed
between the Allies and Turkey. The Turkish
Republic did not recognize the Treaty of
Sèvres even though the Sultanate of the
Ottoman Empire did.
October – The Turkish Republic is officially
formed after the dissolution of the Ottoman
Empire.
November - Adolf Hitler fails to lead the
Nazis in a protest to overthrow the German
government—the event is later called as The
Beer Hall Putsch. The police suppressed the
attempt in the following day.
a pioneer to the Marxist thought. His
understanding of Marxism helped shape the
political foundation of Soviet Union. Joseph
Stalin, [his later successor] begins to carry
civic campaigns for his possible leadership.
February - The United Kingdom recognizes
the Soviet Union.
Following the Beer Hall Putsch, the failed
protest, Adolf Hitler faces trial for treason to
the German state and government.
April - Adolf Hitler is sentenced to 5 years in
jail for his active participation in the Beer Hall
Putsch [only to serve 8 months].
Italian Fascists won the elections in Italy with
a 2/3 majority.
June - A group of Italians known for their
extremist right-wing views kidnapped and
later killed Italian socialist leader Giacomo
Matteotti. It is believed that the homicide was
a response to Matteotti’s comments on
November - Queen Alexandra died at
Fascists which included accusation of fraud.
Sandringham
August - The Allied occupation of the area of
United Kingdom.
Ruhr ends with the approval of Dawes Plan.
December - The Locarno Treaty which
The plan also drew a blueprint for Germany’s
defined and settled the borders of Western
payment of war reparations. With this Plan,
Europe is signed (and later ratified) in
France withdrew its troops from the Ruhr.
London. Additionally, the Treaty served as a
House,
Norfolk,
England,
foundation of political normalization between
1925xiixiii
January - Italian leader Mussolini proclaimed
political responsibility for the murder of
Germany and the Allied Powers of Western
Europe.
Giacomo Matteotti, the socialist politician.
1926xivxvxvi
February - Between Japan and the Soviet
January - In Greece, a longtime political
Union, diplomatic relations are established to
figure, Theodoros Pangalos, declares himself
an extent that both states agreed upon.
the dictator of state.
Adolf Hitler was released from prison. The
Belgian and British troops leave Cologne,
same day, the Nazi Party gained permission to
Germany.
publish its newspaper which contains right-
February - After his release, Adolf Hitler
wing political propaganda, once again.
summoned the senior Nazi Party leadership to
The Nazi Party is re-launched with a rally in
a convention at Bamberg. His proportionally
Munich
long speech covered major contemporary
July
-
Adolf
Hitler's
autobiographical
manifesto Mein Kampf is published.
political concepts, ranging from party policies
to the rejection of Strasser’s alternative party
programme. [Adolf Hitler would rise to gain
greater power through each consecutive year
December - Hirohito becomes the Emperor of
for a decade]
Japan upon his father’s passing.
March - Wang Jingwei flies to Paris and Zhou
Enlai flies to Shangai, political rivals of
Chiang Kaishek —Kaishek ordered the arrest
of highest Communist leaders like Jingwei and
Enlai after discovering a communist plot to
kidnap him. Kaishek rises as the sole leader of
the Nationalist Party and its military forces.
April - Greek dictator Theodoros Pangalos is
elected president.
Union and Germany, allowing either country
to remain neutral if one or the other is attacked
by a third country.
nationalist
leader
Symon Petliura in Paris.
September - Germany joins the League of
Nations.
November - The fallen martyrs of Adolf
Hitler’s 1923 Putsch is honored with the first
annual memorial day, with initiations by the
National Socialist Party.
Chinese garrison and a vast of labor leaders
were purged by the order of Bai Chongxi.
Many were later executed.
Kaishek declared martial law in China—this
act marked the beginning of a bloody purge
against Chinese Communists. The Chinese
communists.
May - Saudi Arabia gains independence from
United Kingdom with the Treaty of Jeddah.
October - After his expulsion from the
May - Russian Jew Sholom Schwartzbard
Ukrainian
April - Communists from the Nationalist
Civil War begins between nationalists and
The Treaty of Berlin is signed between Soviet
assassinates
1927xvii
Politburo, Leon Trotsky denounced Joseph
Stalin’s political agenda, and accused him as
being ‘the real danger to the Leninist Party’.
He did not receive much support.
November - After his public speech against
Stalin, Leon Trotsky is expelled from the
Soviet Communist Party. With this act of
political singularity, Joseph Stalin gained an
undisputed control over the Soviet Union.
December - Iraq gains independence from the
April – Soviet Union passes a new legislation
United Kingdom.
banning all religions from ‘engaging in
anything more than divine services’. Among
1928xviii
May - Jinan Incident begins—a limited armed
bible circles, religious youth and women's
conflict between China and Japan.
June - Huanggutun
Incident happens—
Japanese agents assassinate the Chinese
August - The main political and military
powers of the world meet in Paris to sign the
Pact,
movements,
church
reading
rooms
and
libraries and all forms of religious education
are banned thoroughly.
warlord Zhang Zuolin.
Kellogg-Briand
the frame of this legislation, all study groups,
which
outlaws
aggressive warfare between states.
October - In Soviet Union, the First Five-
July
-
The
Kellogg-Briand
Pact,
with
ratification, goes into effect.
October – Wall Street crashes. With this
economically catastrophic event, The Great
Depression begins.
Year Plan is presented—the economical
1930xxixxii
readjustment that aims to elevate the status of
April - London Naval Treaty is signed
Soviet industries.
between UK, USA, France, Italy and Japan in
1929xixxx
February - Litvinov's Pact is signed in
order to regulate the submarine warfare and
limit naval shipbuilding.
Moscow by the Soviet Union, Poland, Estonia,
September - The Nazi Party received a total
Romania and Latvia. The Pact outlaws
of 6,371,000 votes in a national election,
aggressive warfare along the lines of the
which earned them 107 seats in the Reichstag,
Kellog-Briand Pact.
as well as representing about 18% of the total
March - Japan withdraws troops from China,
votes.
ending the Jinan Incident.
June - The occupation of Rhineland ends with
1932xxv
France withdrawing its troops from the area.
January - The Soviet Famine of 1932-33
1931xxiiixxiv
September - The Japanese troops stage a false
flag bombing against a Japanese-owned
railroad in the Chinese region of Manchuria,
blaming Chinese dissidents for the attack.
The Japanese invade Manchuria using the
Mukden incident as a pretext.
November - Chinese forces attacked a group
of Japanese troops at Nenjiang Bridge.
Although the numerical advantage of the
Japanese, their artillery and light tanks drove
off the Chinese attacks by inflicting heavy
casualties.
December - Winston Churchill was struck by
a car in his visit to New York City. He
suffered injuries but recovered fully.
begins with the collectivization of agriculture
of the First Five-Year Plan.1
Heinrich
Brüning,
German
Chancellor,
summoned a meeting with Adolf Hitler about
the upcoming election. Due to President Paul
von Hindenburg’s old age, Brüning wanted to
convince Hitler to persuade Reichstag to
withdraw the elections for the purpose of
keeping Hindenburg in power. Hitler however
was planning on to challenge Hindenburg in
the elections.
The Stimson Doctrine is adopted in the United
States,
which proclaims
the refusal
of
acceptance of border changes made by force.
The Japanese troops attack Shanghai using
anti-Japanese violence as a pretext and thus
begin the January 28 incident.
February – War in Manchuria ends with
Japan in control of Manchuria.
The Soviet famine of 1932–33 affected the major
grain-producing areas of the Soviet Union, leading to
the deaths of millions in those areas and severe food
insecurity throughout the USSR. These areas
included Ukraine, Northern Caucasus, Volga Region
and Kazakhstan, the South Urals, and West Siberia.
1
The League of Nations tried to review and
September - Hermann Göring is elected the
respond to the Japanese violation of Chinese
president of the new German Reichstag
sovereignty but failed in its attempt. Japanese
session. German Chancellor Franz von Papen
attack has received no substantive respond
tried to dissolve the Reichstag with and order,
from the League of Nations.
however failed in his attempt to do so by the
Adolf
Hitler
was
named
a
liaison
to
political regulations of Göring.
Braunschweig and with this position he was
November - Paul von Hindenburg met with
able to gain citizenship. This appointment now
his challenger in elections, Adolf Hitler to
enabled Adolf Hitler to run for the office of
discuss
the President of Germany, against incumbent
Chancellorship. Hindenburg offered Hitler
Paul von Hindenburg. Because Hitler was
Chancellorship which had no power to
born in Austria, it was only with this
dissolve the Reichstag or the Vice Chancellor
exceptional status of the city of Braunschweig
position
that he was able to be considered a German
regulation by Hindenburg was part of the offer
citizen.
due to his will to force the Nazi Party to
March - Out of the occupied Manchuria,
cooperate with rival parties.
Japan creates the puppet state Manchukuo.
The League of Nations demanded a ceasefire
between Japanese and Chinese forces in
China. However, it failed to transform such
demand to action.
April - Adolf Hitler loses against Paul von
Hindenburg in Presidential elections, in a runoff.
Hitler’s
under
Franz
motivations
von
Papen.
for
This
1933xxvi
January - Japanese troops attacked Hebei
Province, China.
Adolf Hitler was appointed the Chancellor of
Germany. The Nazi Party acquired 3/11
cabinet posts. President Paul von Hindenburg
required Vice Chancellor Franz von Papen to
accompany Hitler for all meetings between the
President and the Chancellor. This, he
Reichstag passes the ‘Enabling Act’ that
believed, would deliberately prevent Hitler
provides legal base for the dictatorial powers
from arranging radical sociopolitical changes.
of Hitler.
However, very prematurely, Hitler tried to
Jewish people not residing in Germany called
assemble a reelection of the Reichstag. He
for a boycott of German goods.
failed in his attempt to acquire this great
Japan leaves the League of Nations. This was
power.
based on the decision made by League of
February - Battle of the Great Wall begins.
Nations which supported China in their claim
Japanese troops attack Rehe, China with the
on ownership of Manchukuo. League of
support of Manchurian troops.
Nations also refused to see Manchukuo as an
The Reichstag building was destroyed by fire.
independent state.
The following day, about 10,000 political
April - In response to Jewish boycott of
opponents of the Nazi Party were arrested.
German goods, Germans started to boycott
President Paul von Hindenburg issued the
Jewish businesses.
Reichstag Fire Decree, suspending vital civil
Germany began to exclude Jewish students.
liberties in Germany.
The infamous secret police of Germany, the
March - Franklin Roosevelt is inaugurated as
Gestapo, is established.
President of the United States.
May – China and Japan sign the Tanggu
Nazi
Party receives
44% of votes
in
Truce, ending the Japanese occupation of
Germany's last free election.
Manchuria and settling upon a ceasefire.
Dachau, the first of many concentration camps
China accepts Japanese demands on creating a
in Germany, is completed.
large
demilitarized
demographics.
zone
inside
Chinese
The first of many Nazi burnings of banned
Jewish writers and artists’ works are banned
books begin with Party members throughout
by a legislation passed by Germany's Reich
Germany staging burnings.
Culture Ministry.
June - After a drastic change in the political
Adolf Hitler based a speech on separating the
environment of Germany, all non-Nazi parties
functions of the Nazi SA2 organization and the
are banned, leaving the Nazi Party as the sole
German Army.
official party in the country.
October - Albert Einstein arrives in the
Hitler’s Government dissolved the Catholic
United States as a refugee from Germany.
Christian trade unions in Germany. A vast
In Germany, the "Law for Literary Leaders"
amount of Trade Union leaders were arrested
dictated the content of what could now be
and taken to camps and prisons.
written. A section of the law excluded Jews
July - The "Heil Hitler" salute becomes the
from the press, while another required all
official symbolic gesture for all public
editors to be Aryans.
employees in Germany. Additionally, the
The Nazi administration, with its continual
public
limitative legislations on the arts shows a
correspondence
is
changed
from
‘Sincerely’ to ‘Heil Hitler’
characteristic of severe philistinism.
Germany initiated the application of the
Germany leaves the League of Nations.
sterilization
Following this act, Winston Churchill gave a
program
for
the
undesired
populations.
speech
August - Haavara Agreement is signed. The
emphasizing on the dangers to peace posed by
agreement
structured
the
facilitation
the
British
Parliament
of
German Jews emigration to Palestine.
September - Leó Szilárd conceives the idea of
the nuclear chain reaction.
warning
SA, abbreviation of Sturmabteilung (German:
“Assault Division”), byname Storm Troopers, or
Brownshirts, German Sturmtruppen, or
Braunhemden, in the German Nazi Party, a
paramilitary organization whose methods of violent
intimidation played a key role in Adolf Hitler’s rise to
power. [retrieved from britannica.com]
2
the Nazi government and the German military
members (immoral behavior, loss of interest in
aviation.
party members etc.).
November - The first non-political prisoners
The German Army declared the dismissal of
were sent to concentration camps in Germany.
all non-Aryans from military service.
[Homeless, alcoholic, and unemployed]
March - Soviet troops captured Korla,
December - Germany passes a legislation
Xinjiang, China.
concerning the habitual criminal, defined as "a
The
person convicted of two criminal offenses,
Sondergerichte Courts.3
could be detained in a concentration camp
The
indefinitely".
established.
January – Germany passes a legislation
entitled "Law for the Prevention of Genetically
The 10 year German-Polish Non-Aggression
Pact is signed between the eponymous states.
February - The Austrian Civil War is
concluded with the victory of Austro-fascists.
Another German legislation is passed and it
established the Nazi Party Courts with full
status
misdemeanors
Philippine
reestablished
Commonwealth
was
that
gave
and
by
detained governmental power and abolished
political parties. Although at the time being,
King Boris III was reduced to a puppet-king,
Diseased Offspring".
investigation
administration
May - In Bulgaria, a military coup d'état
1934xxviixxviii
judicial
Nazi
Nazi
powers
punishment
of
of
Party (NSDAP)
he successfully regained political power
within a year with his counter coup.
Bonnie Parker and Clyde Barrow, notoriously
known as Bonnie and Clyde, were killed in a
shoot out in Bienville Parish, Louisiana,
United States while robbing a bank.
June - In Germany, the events known as the
Night of the Long Knives took place. The SS
and the Gestapo killed potential rivals of
Special courts without the usual safeguards in legal
procedure, to deal with political cases.
3
Hitler. These individuals spanned across a
Londoners would be lost in the first week of
wide range of political backgrounds; from the
war].
Nazi Party to the SA leader Ernst Röhm and to
December - Japan renounces the Washington
the anti-Nazi conservatives.
Naval Treaty and the London Naval Treaty.
Adolf Hitler and Mussolini met in Venice,
Italy.
March - The first of many violations of
July - The SS is now instituted as an
independent organization of the Nazi Party,
reporting directly to Adolf Hitler.
August - President Paul von Hindenburg dies.
As a result, Adolf Hitler is self-entitled as the
Führer of Germany, becoming Head of State
as well as Chancellor.
Wehrmacht
4
members begin swearing a
personal oath of loyalty to Hitler. The former
method of such oath was to the German
constitution.
September - The Soviet Union joins the
League of Nations.
November - Winston Churchill gave a note to
the House of Commons as a form of warning
regarding the foreseeable aerial attacks to
Britain by hostile forces [as many as 40,000
The Wehrmacht was the unified armed forces of
Germany from 1870–1918 and 1935 to 1946.
4
1935xxix
Versailles Treaty begins with Adolf Hitler
announcing
the
mandatory
military
conscription.
April - The nationwide network of clinics for
racial hygiene was established in Germany.
The institution aims to collect information
regarding citizens’ racial belonging and the
purity of such affiliation. This information will
be used as a means of racial discrimination in
the country, as well as an implementation of
social Darwinist concepts.
May - The Intel that Germany was rearming
leaked, and in a state of frenzy, France
concluded a separate alliance with the Soviet
Union.
German military required "Aryan heritage" for
service.
June - Germany and the United Kingdom
March - Germany remilitarizes the previously
signs the Anglo-German Naval Agreement—
occupied Rhineland, violating the Treaty of
the agreement aims to limit German naval
Versailles. Upon this acts success, the
rearmament by allowing Germany to build a
Reichstag is dissolved by Adolf Hitler and
fleet that's 35% the tonnage of the British fleet
reelections took place—a great amount of
September - Nuremberg Laws are passed in
approval for the action is summoned.
the Reichstag. These laws properly introduced
The United Kingdom, United States, and
anti-Semitism in German legislation.
France sign the Second London Naval Treaty.
October - Italy invades Ethiopia, starting the
Italy and Japan declined to sign this treaty on
Second Italo–Abyssinian War.
political basis.
1936xxxxxxi
February - The German Secret police,
Gestapo, was commissioned in only answering
May - The Second Italo–Abyssinian War ends
as the Italian troops march into the Ethiopian
capital.
to Adolf Hitler via Heinrich Himmler. This act
1937xxxii
invades normal civil law.
January - Franklin Roosevelt was inaugurated
The British Cabinet approves a report that
for second term as US President.
commissions the expansion of the Royal Navy
Adolf Hitler proclaimed that Germany would
and the remilitarization of the Army. The
continue to guarantee Dutch and Belgian
report also introduced ‘shadow factories’
neutrality.
which are paid for with public money, but are
July - The Second Sino-Japanese War begins
managed by industrial companies.
with The Marco Polo Bridge, where Chinese
February 26 Incident began in Japan, which
and Japanese troops clash.
was a failed coup attempt.
September - China, in a session in the League
of
Nations,
requested
intergovernmental
intervention
regarding
the
Japanese
Winston Churchill, in his speech conducted in
invasion—in a form that the League approves.
the House of Commons, suggested with
October - Celal Bayar is appointed as the new
utmost importance that if United Kingdom,
Prime Minister of Turkey.
United States, and Soviet Union collectively
December - The puppet state of Mengjiang is
asserted pressure on Germany, Hitler might
established in the Inner Mongolia region of the
abandon its claims for the Sudetenland region
Republic of China.
of Czechoslovakia. However, his suggestions
Italy withdraws from the League of Nations.
were not met with much support by the British
Japan attacks the American gunboat Panay,
politicians.
thus inducing the USS Panay incident.
September - Germany, France, the United
1938xxxiii
January - Following the USS Panay incident,
the Allison incident occurs, further stressing
the relations between Japan and the United
States.
March - Austria is annexed by Nazi Germany
with the Anschluss movement.
April – Japanese troops capture the Chinese
city of Xuzhou.
July - The Soviet–Japanese border conflicts
begin.5
Kingdom,
Agreement.
and
Italy
The
sign
Munich
The
Munich
Agreement
concluded to allow Germany to annex the
Czechoslovak Sudetenland area in exchange
for peace. This was a failed attempt to appease
Hitler.
November – In Paris, German Jew Herschel
Grynszpan—who was exiled— assassinates
German consular aide Ernst vom Rath.
The
Kristallnacht
Pogrom
6
begins
Germany.
August – Soviet Union wins the Battle of
Khasan against Japan.
Also referred as the Night of Broken Glass; many
Jewish shops and synagogues are smashed, looted,
burned, and destroyed throughout the country.
6
5
Alternatively known as the Battle of Lake Khasan.
is
in
1939xxxivxxxvxxxvixxxvii
Adolf Hitler continues with his expansionist
January - For the first time in history, an
policy, and demands the return of the Free
uranium atom is split in United States.
City of Danzig to Germany.
The 5-year naval expansion programme
The Polish are granted a guarantee of
intended to provide for a huge German fleet,
independence by the UK and France.
otherwise
is
April - The Spanish Civil War ends with the
commissioned by Adolf Hitler, for the purpose
Nationalists’ victory—as a result, Spain
of proclaiming Germany as the a naval
becomes a dictatorship.
supreme state. Adolf Hitler was intending to
Adolf Hitler commissions the German military
defeat the Royal Navy.
to start relevant preparations for the Fall Weiss
March - The pro-German Slovak Republic is
the codename for the attack on Poland.
created.
Italy, under commands of Benito Mussolini,
known
Germany
occupies
as
the
Plan
Z,
Czechoslovakia
in
invades Albania. Albania responds with little
violation of the ongoing peace process and the
to none military resistance, resulting in their
Munich Agreement conducted for this aim.
personal union of the Italian and Albanian
The Czechs do not structure any organized
crown.
resistance due to their loss of their main
Even though the Soviet Union suggests a
defensive line with the annexation of the
tripartite alliance with the UK and France,
Sudetenland.
both countries reject it.
Germany creates the Protectorate of Bohemia
Adolf Hitler declares the renunciation of the
and Moravia. The protectorate includes those
Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the
portions of Czechoslovakia not incorporated
German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact.
into Germany, Poland, Hungary, (or the new
May - The border war between the Soviet
Slovak Republic).
Union and Japan begins after Japan’s invasion.
Japan and Manchukuo fight against the Soviet
August - The Einstein-Szilárd letter is sent to
Union
events
Franklin D. Roosevelt, warning the US
alternatively known as the Battle of Khalkhin
President on the possibility of a German
Gol. Soviet Union leaves victoriously and
atomic bomb program, which induced the
peace is sustained between states.
Manhattan Project.
Scandinavian countries—Sweden, Norway,
Between the Nazi Germany and the Soviet
and Finland—reject Germany's proposal of a
Union,
non-aggression pact.
signed—the pact made secret provisions
The Pact of Steel is signed between Fascist
regarding the division of Eastern Europe. This
Italy and Nazi Germany. Although the initial
protocol was conducted by Hitler to make sure
naming
further
the threat of Soviet intervention during the
cooperation between the two states, the main
German invasion of Poland is completely
purpose of the Pact is military alliance.
eradicated.
June
and
of
-
Mongolia
the
Pact
the
declares
Pact
is
concession in the North China Treaty Port of
Adolf Hitler, invades Poland, Italy will not
Tientsin, known as the Tientsin Incident.
follow the Pact of Steel. After this message,
July
Neville
Hitler delays the launch of the invasion for
Chamberlain declares support for Poland and
five days in order to make sure British and
states British government’s outlook on the
French neutrality on the subject.
Prime
the
Molotov-Ribbentrop
Mussolini states that if the German Dictator,
British
blockade
the
British
-
Japanese
in
Minister
Free City of Danzig, not seeing it as an
internal German-Polish affair. Chamberlain
further asserts that Britain would intervene on
behalf of Poland in case of territorial hostility.
September – Germany sends an ultimatum to Poland regarding the Polish Corridor and the
Free City of Danzig. Without response to the dictatorships ultimatum, Germany invades Poland,
starting the war.
B. Sociopolitical Causes of World War II
a) Rise of Adolf Hitler and the Territorial and Political Advancement of Nazi Dictatorship
The rise of Nazi Germany was a center figure of the interwar
period that led to the outbreak of the war—a period that was
marked with fragile peace and diminutive security. The Nazi
Party’s outlook on the period and its later advancement is forever
entwined with its leader, Adolf Hitler. After failing in admittance
to the Vienna Arts Academy, he began to develop interest in
politics.xxxviii After he served his years in the army, he seized the
power in the German Workers Party, in 1920, to rename it as the
National Socialist German Workers Party (Nazi Party in short).
(Figure 1: Nazi propaganda poster regarding the fourth referendums Hitler called out during
1930's. This poster simply urges a 'yes' vote.)xxxix
The Beer Hall Putsch happened right after Hitler’s seizure of power, a small protest that failed.
Hitler, in great amounts, blamed the socialists and Jews, who he said had surrendered the nation,
regarding Germany’s loss in the Great War.xl With the publishing of Mein Kampf (My Struggle), he
provided a blueprint for his understanding of what German policy should be, with references to
racial
discrimination;
outlining
Aryan
superiority
and
Jewish
inferiority.
xli
The years between 1925 and 1929 were a fairly stable interval for Europe, and such Nazi
advancement was not developed. Nevertheless, starting with the Great Depression and decent into
the war, the Nazi Party gained an overwhelming support from the German citizens.xlii In this time of
instability, Hitler promised economical growth and political advancement, and quickly rose to
Chancellorship on January 30, 1933. After gaining such power in the Reichstag, Hitler started to
modify the political and military landscape of Germany through his private army, the S.A. -members
of elite troops- roamed the streets terrorizing political opponents. xliii With the adaptation of the
Enabling Act of 1933, Hitler gained power to make decrees with the status of law—giving him a
status above all legislations, making him an authoritarian figure. xliv After his appointment as the
Chancellor of Germany, the Nazi Party, with the leadership of Adolf Hitler, began to eliminate
political oppositions of the party as well as the ideology it advocates. Hitler, later, became the
self-appointed ‘Führer’ of Germany, with centralizing all governmental and administrative powers
under his dictatorship.xlv Considering the post-Great War status of Germany and the beginning stages
of the Great Depression, Hitler created seemingly radical changes in both social areas of the state and
in its inner and foreign policies. Adolf Hitler, following the teachings of National Socialism, changed
the political landscape of post-WWI Germany with his applications of diversified militarism and
hostile approaches to the Treaty of Versailles and racial/sexual minorities.xlvi Through this escalation
in national military spending, Hitler was able to transform the unemployment and the general
economic devastation (considering the post-war status) by military recruitment and increasing the
manpower in related areas. The re-establishment of a strong economic stability elevated the regime's
popularity among the common citizen.xlvii
Hitler’s policy comprised of a planned economy aiming to reconstruct employment—the
unemployed gained jobs through working on government projects, jobs were opened through
shortening working hours and labor was forbidden to organize. The Nazi Regime was overly
totalitarian in all fields of control.xlviii Hitler personally oversaw all functions of the economy. The
entirety of the education system and every method of expression were monitored through various
means of regulation. The Nazi regime reflected infuriating amounts of philistinism —not only
creating a system of regulation (Ministry of Propaganda) for all movies, newspapers, radio and art
forms, but also rewriting curricula and textbooks to reflect Nazi ideology.xlix The Ministry aimed to
mobilize German anti-Semitism in support of Nazi persecution of German Jews. Germany adopted
these structurally national socialist policies in order to help persecute Jews and other ethnic/sexual
minorities while conquering all of Europe for the Aryan race—the main plan resulting in the
outbreak of the war.l
Hitler also conducted drastic violations to the Treaty of Versailles. The initial commands of the
Treaty required Germany to indefinitely diminish the size of its army to 100,000 men, and destroy
their tanks, air force, and U-boat fleet. Starting in 1935, with Hitler announcing the mandatory
military conscription, the dictatorship responded poorly to the requirements of the Treaty. li Hitler not
only structuralized a dogmatic inner policy with heavy militarization and regulation of civic
duties/artists, he also formulated a hostile foreign policy. He, chronologically, won back the Saar
(1935), re-militarized the Rhineland (1936), formed an alliance ("axis") with Mussolini's Italy
(1936), sent massive military aid to Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936–39), seized Austria
(1938), took over Czechoslovakia after the British and French appeasement of the Munich
Agreement of 1938, formed a peace pact with Stalin's Russia in August 1939, and finally invaded
Poland in September 1939.lii
Hitler’s racial policies quickly transformed into a hostile racial classification. This fragmentation in
the social landscape of Germany was preeminent even before the introduction of proper anti-
Semitism in legislations. The Reichstag, under strict orders of Hitler, was able to structure
institutions to distinguish between the Aryan race (considered the ‘purest race’ and therefore
‘championed’ above all) and others. Jewish people and other racial (Romani’s) and sexual
(homosexuals) minorities that were considered undesirable, were persecuted and murdered.
Members of different political followings such as those that are liberal, socialist, and communist
were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. Further aspects of civic life are limited into regulations defined by
Hitler’s dictatorship. Perhaps the greatest permanent hostility towards the initiation of the war was
with the aggressive territorial demands in Europe, threatening with war if they were not concluded. It
seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and
invaded Poland in September 1939, launching war in Europe.liii
b) Spanish Civil War
The Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936 as a result of
political indifference of specific ideologies towards each
other in the Spanish social landscape. The war began
after
Spanish
Republican
Armed
Forces’
pronunciamiento7, and quickly developed into a frenzy
of opposition groups fighting with each other for political
power.liv
(Figure 2: Republican International Brigadiers at the Spanish Civil War)lv
While the Civil War did not spread to the neighboring states, it disintegrated Europe’s political
scenery, with Germany and Italy supporting Nationalists led by General Francisco Franco in Spain
whereas the Soviet Union reinforced the existing government, the Spanish Republic.lvi However the
Europe’s involvement to the Civil War may be, the League of Nations never interfered with the
events, and with this neutrality, failed to ensure peace and security in Europe, both politically and
7
Declaration of opposition
socially. The Civil War was concluded with the victory of Nationalists in 1939. Although Spanish
Civil War did not cause a definite and major affect on the initiation of the war in Europe, it surely
transfigured the political landscape of Europe and help match countries with ideologies that led to
the War itself.lvii
c) Rhineland Occupation and the German Remilitarization of the Area
(Figure 3: Map showing the
Rhineland occupation and
related demographics of the
area through a historical
perspective)lviii
After the French occupation of
Rhineland following the Great
War, the events regarding the
demographic
unrest
were
seemingly stabilized. In 1930,
the French occupation ended
when the troops were withdrawn from the area. However, due to Hitler’s overwhelmingly aggressive
foreign policy, Rhineland was remilitarized against the strict orders of the Treaty of Versailles. lix
Germany moved its newly recruited troops to a restricted area in western Germany, where they were
not allowed under the Treaty of Versailles. Although this violation happened in an unambiguous
state, France did not act because of contemporary political instability at the time; and Britain thought
the subject matter of Versailles Treaty was unjust.lx This was the first of many violations conducted
by the Nazi Germany to the Treaty of Versailles, and it paved the way to the war.
d) Second Italo-Ethiopian War
Between the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy and the armed forces of the Ethiopian Empire, the
Second Italo-Ethiopian War was fought—it lasted from 1935 to 1936. The war ended with the
military occupation of Ethiopia. lxi The war was mostly caused by the Italian Dictator Benito
Mussolini’s desire to expand the Italian Empire in Africa—not only to increase the demographics of
colonization but also to expand in terms of workforce and industrialization. The war was crucial in
the evaluation of the effectiveness of League of Nations in international turmoil. League of Nations’
sanctions on oil sales were ineffective. lxii Italy annexed Ethiopia in May and created the single
colony Italian East Africa—merging Ethiopia, Eritrea and Somaliland. After a condemning speech
by Emperor Haile Selassie, Mussolini declared the country's withdrawal from the League of
Nations.lxiii
e) Invasion of Manchuria and the Second SinoJapanese War
(Figure 4: Japanese troops marching into Mukden,
18 September 1931)lxiv
The Second Sino-Japanese War [named after the First
Sino-Japanese War of 1894–95], was a military conflict
between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan
starting in 1937. lxv Before the war, however, it was
Japanese act of taking advantage from China’s political and military weakness in the Warlord Era.
Japan formulated the Mukden Incident in 1931, creating the puppet state of Manchukuo in
Manchuria—it was not only the creation of a new state, but using Puyi, the last emperor of China, as
its emperor. This event led to the 1937 incident of Marco Polo Bridge, triggering the Second SinoJapanese War.lxvi
The invasion started with a series of bombings of Shangai, Nanjing and Guangzhou—territorially
and developmentally important cities of China. The Japanese troops were fairly successful in their
methodological approach to Chinese borders, were a lot of which were destroyed to become puppet
states of Japan—as much as three. The Japanese Army captured Nanjing—the Chinese capital—and
committed series of war crimes that resulted in the Nanjing massacre.lxvii
The war was mostly based on the Japanese imperialist policy—The Empire was vastly interested in
the expansion of military and political resources, as well as the raw material reserves and related
economical resources in the area. Regarding the competition for resources and markets in the postindustrial revolution era, the Japanese imperialist agenda was a common attribute of the period—
especially food and labor goods were favored by the nation, since Japan, demographically, was in a
disadvantage.lxviii Especially before the Second Sino-Japanese War, China and Japan mostly fought
in small, localized engagements—that in most cases were named as incidents rather than full-scale
armed conflicts and/or wars.lxix
Both events (the Manchuria invasion and the Second Sino-Japanese War) are politically entwined in
their definition of the foreign outlook to Japan. Starting from 1931, the events between the two states
manifested with an overwhelmingly intergovernmental antipathy to Japan, lasting for the decade. lxx
The events preoccupied the political agenda of League of Nations, in the sense that the organization
issued several reports on the everlasting armed conflict. League of Nations accused Japan regarding
the aggressive invasion, causing Japan to withdraw from the League. However, the war was crucial
in projecting the understanding to nations that the League was inefficient and powerless in stopping a
state from committing an aggressive policy against other countries—that if a strong nation such as
Japan can commit obvious hostility without serious consequences, any nation can. This provided a
blueprint for further aggressive actions concluded by other states, such that Adolf Hitler and Benito
Mussolini followed Japan’s example in three years, attacking their neighbors—In the case of Italy,
against Abyssinia, and Hitler, against Czechoslovakia and Poland.lxxi
d) Anschluss
Pan-Germanism -the idea that collecting all individuals of German ethnicity under one Greater
Germany, into one nation-state- was a popular political ideology among Germans during the interwar
period. This ideology, although it was Europe-specific, it mostly included Germans living under
Austria. Anschluss was the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany in March 1938. The ideology
behind Anschluss goes as far back as to 1866, to the Austro-Prussian War, when the war concluded
with the dissolution of the 19th-century German Confederation stood for the ideal version of the
subject—a loose link between Austria and various independent German monarchies (e.g. Prussia and
Bavaria) was sustained through the Anschluss movement.lxxii The movement was to gain continuity,
nevertheless, due to the Treaty of Saint Germain (10 September 1919) and the Treaty of Versailles
(28 June 1919), the movement was cut short with the prevention of both the union and the continued
use of the name "German-Austria".lxxiii
Although The Stresa Front was conducted between the governments of Britain, France and Italy to
ensure the independence of Austria; the Front did not meet its initial aims. After the creation of the
Rome-Berlin Axis, Italy, with Mussolini’s leadership, lost its interest in maintaining the states
independence.lxxiv The Austrian government politically resisted the Anschluss, but without fighting
between the states took place due to Austrians enthusiasm regarding the merging of states. After
some time, the Austrian government gave up because they were not provided for any sort of outside
support. lxxv As a result, Austria was fully absorbed by German powers. Outside forces showed
continuity in their neutrality towards the entire event—Italy even grew closer to the Nazi regime.lxxvi
e) Border War between Soviet Union and Japanese Troops
In 1939, the Japanese troops attacked the Mongolian People’s Republic from west Manchuria,
following the earlier Battle of Lake Khasan in 1938. The conflict is alternatively named after the
river Khalkhyn Gol, which passes through the battlefield.lxxvii The Japanese Sixth Army was defeated
by Soviet units under General Georgy Zhukov. After this battle, however, a peace was made between
the subjects of war, with Japan contemplating south to expand its empire—and creating further
conflict with the United States over the Philippines and the Dutch East Indies—and the Soviet Union
focusing on the western border of the state. Soviet Union, regardless of peace, left about 1.5 million
troops to guard the frontier with Japan.lxxviii
f) Munich Agreement and the German occupation and Slovak independence
(Figure 5: From left to right: Chamberlain,
Daladier,
Hitler,
Mussolini,
pictured
before
signing
and
the
Ciano
Munich
Agreement, which gave the Sudetenland to
Germany.)
The Munich Agreement was a settlement
between Germany, France, United Kingdom and
Italy (Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia was not included) regarding the annexation of specific
portions of Czechoslovakia—also including country's borders mainly inhabited by German speakers,
for which a new territorial designation "Sudetenland" was created.lxxix The Munich agreement was a
failed attempt of appeasement towards Germany. The main aim of the Munich conference was to
debate over the prospect of the Sudetenland, regarding the ethnic demands made by Adolf Hitler.lxxx
Considering that Sudetenland was of utmost strategic importance to Czechoslovakia—and also to
Eastern Europe—because most of Czechoslovakian border defenses were situated there—along with
many banks and heavy industries. In exchange of this agreement, Hitler promised on behalf of
Germany that he would not make further territorial claims in Europe.lxxxi Because Czechoslovakia
was not allowed to participate in the conference, French and British negotiators informed the
Czechoslovak representatives about the agreement.
lxxxii
If such a case occurred where
Czechoslovakia would not accept the agreement, France and Britain stated their approach
considering Czechoslovakia to be responsible for war. As a result, Germany took the Sudetenland
unopposed. German troops invaded Prague in March 1939, invading the Munich Agreement. As a
result, Slovakslxxxiii declared their independence and the country of Czechoslovakia disappeared.lxxxiv
C. Descending into War: Britain during Interwar Years
a) Overview
(Figure 6: British propaganda poster for the Second
World War)lxxxv
The post-Great War politics were difficult to adjust for the
British government—not only the Empire lost its global
supremacy, but it also fell into a state of crises in its
sociopolitical structure between the wars. The British
Empire was territorially larger than ever in these years,
however, due to its weak political structure, the Empire
could not properly manage these colonies/annexes.lxxxvi After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire,
its territories was largely divided between UK and France, but these states quickly lost their annexes
due to failed representations, poor administration and an overall economical instability to maintain
the security of such areas—British Empire could not afford building bases or ships to defend its
Empire, mirroring the period before 1914.lxxxvii The gap left by the British Empire was filled by the
United States, with them becoming the new supreme world power-state, causing Europe to lose its
decades-long self-proclamation as the political power. Regarding US’ redefinition of power balances
in the Great War, and Wilson’s configuration of peace between the states; the British Empire quietly
fell into a position of sophomoric decadence.lxxxviii
The interwar years were the British Empire’s final years in protecting its self-actualized value of a
supreme world power—as it have been for, arguably, the last 200 years. ‘‘The country was £900
million in debt to the US for war loans, which were to be repaid immediately. Britain's enviable
worldwide investments were wiped out, its coal and cotton export markets had collapsed. This was a
period of retraction abroad (by the late 1920s the white 'dominions' determined their own foreign
policies) and social reform at home. A limited number of women were allowed to vote in 1918, but
by 1927 all women over the age of 21 could vote and Britain had universal suffrage for the first time
in history. The electorate trebled, bringing in the first government under the Labour party to
represent the views of the working class.’’lxxxix
Even though British Empire left the Great War victoriously, the government was failing to adjust to
the actualities of the period—not only they were politically instable, but also the economical realities
were predestined to be despondent.xc Immediately after the Great War, workers of key industries
started to plan and carry out strikes—among their demands were higher wages, better working
conditions, and shorter hours considering that the war was ended. Specifically, workers in the mining
and railway industries were obstinate to the government’s handling of economical readjustments, and
troops were present in many protests during this period.xci However spirited these movements were,
the socialist agenda popular in the interwar period was not fully recognized in the British political
scene—as a result, the aim to nationalize the industry was hibernated for the time being.xcii As a key
policy for economical destabilization, government-owned factories were privatized; resulting in the
British government having a fraction of businesses they used to own before WWI. To further
advance the economy, the government also tried to remain neutral in foreign affairs, hoping that
laissez-faire economics would elevate the post-war economy.xciii
Economical readjustment was far from reaching; much less political stability was maintained. David
Lloyd George of the National Liberal Party, serving as the Prime Minister at the peak of the First
World War, was resigned in 1922, ending his 6 years term.xciv As a result of his resignation, the
coalition parties under his command disintegration, causing a political fragmentation in the British
Parliament—this undeniably ushered a period of political ambiguity. These years were defined by
the constant tension between British Conservative Party and the leftist Labour Party—later
controlled the government for a short time in 1924. However, the Conservative Party ruled for most
of the period (1925-1929).xcv In 1926, The Samuel Commission, as requested by the government,
published a report regarding coal industry supporting wage reductions to settle strikes all over the
nation in May. The infamous Triple Alliance, compromised of miners, rail workers and other
transport-related workers began to strike upon the report, firing workers all over the nation to
sympathize with their cause. xcvi However spirited these strikes were, they couldn't kill the high
profile of conservatism at the time, and the government held out until 1929. The miners returned to
work in December, forced by necessity, and the Trade Disputes Act of 1927 made sympathetic
striking illegal.xcvii Over the course of these 5 years, however, the Conservative Party lost direction in
their political agenda, and this ambiguity reflected upon government’s decisions—resulting in the
victory of the Labour Party in 1929 elections. The Labour government aimed to exercise a great
control over domestic economy, but due to hesitations regarding public opinion, was mostly left
motionless.xcviii
With the crash of Wall Street, the period of depression began throughout the world, leaving the
British Empire as damaged as any other powerful state around Europe. This specific economic crisis
tore the British Parliament apart with disagreements regarding recovery measures. While Labour
Party advocated extremely leftist policies and unwise spending, xcix the Liberal and Conservative
Parties were indecisive in what to suggest. Regardless of their indecisiveness, the Conservatives left
the 1931 elections with victory, gaining the majority of seats in the Parliament.c The Depression
gained a colossal effect on the British economics, cutting off the unemployment benefits in 1931—it
would not return until 1934. Britain failed to construct a stable economy during these years, and the
nation entered the war with ongoing political and economical damages. The politics were not much
structuralized in 1930’s as planned.ci In 1937, Stanley Baldwin, the experienced prime minister and
leader of the Conservative Party for the past fifteen years, resigned his post, leaving Neville
Chamberlain as his successor. Chamberlain was not beneficial for the British Empire, with following
failed policies for appeasement—he conducted the Munich Pact with Adolf Hitler.
b) Attempts for Economical Readjustment
Britain confronted significant dilemmas over the conversion from wartime to a peacetime
economy—the interwar period saw a lot of policy changes regarding unchanging economical
problems. The Great War not only created new economical difficulties for Britain, but it also
deepened the old disruptions on the state’s economy. Before the war, the majority of the economical
income came from British oversea colonies and inner industry, in which the nation failed to maintain
the high production that was satisfactory before the war. Britain felt recessional pressures during this
period, losing main industries of income—including textile and transport/shipping—to competition
overseas. Post-WWI British economics also experienced a financial boom in the early 1920’s,
‘‘mainly attributed to the expansion of the shipping industry due to the surge of demand for the
export of coal, steel and manufactured goods. This in turn increased the demand for more ships. As a
result this boom was short
lived as industry began to
slump due to oversupply as
well as being faced with
competition
from
other
nations.’’cii
(Figure
7:
Tyldesley
miners outside the Miners’
Hall during the strike)ciii
The flush of success derived from Britain’s victory in the Great War carried an imaginative
prosperity in England in 1919—mostly due to poorly conducted politics of the era—but throughout
the 1920’s, overproduction led to depression and chronic unemployment. Some specific
sociopolitical problems caused economical disintegration in the British Empire. Demobilization,
known as the integration of veterans into civilian life, was especially hard to actualize due to high
unemployment rates and veteran specific problems (both physiologically and mentally). Another key
problem was the Disruption of Trade, which defines as: During the war, normal trade had been
disrupted; and England found it difficult to again trade manufactured goods to pre-war customers.
The Americans and the Japanese had taken over many of their international commerce residing in
Europe, China, India, and Latin America.civ Another problem regarding the Disruption of Trade was
the increased use of oil and electricity both in UK and outside of its territories greatly affected the
coal industry—which was regarded in widespread as the traditional backbone of the Empire. cv
Disruption of Trade led to problems arising from Indebtedness, which regards the foreign debts of
British government. The administration trusted upon the war reparations for the solution of
indebtedness, nevertheless, the subject fell short of being effective. cvi ‘‘Large debts owed the United
States and the growing social welfare segment of government also greatly affected the performance
of the British economy.’’ cvii Regardless of these specific developments towards the economical
instability, the most damaging of such developments was arguably the Depression Period.cviii Not
only did the post-WWI policies elevate this problem, but also the Wall Street Crash of 1929 induced
and fired the whole process. Nevertheless, post war economical readjustment was hard to accomplish
for the British government, failing on a number of occasions, and causing serious political damages.
(Figure 8: The Subsidised Mineowner—Poor Beggar!
from the Trade Union Unity Magazine (1925)cix
Unemployment was a major post-war reality of the economic
scene of Britain, with over 2 million out of a population of 42
million were left without occupations. cx During the 1920’s,
unemployment was largely caused by the fail of an expansion
economy targeting post war markets. This policy was planned
out to have an adequate response to the loss of markets
because of the increase in tariff barriers, other economically
industrial nations, and development of competition to the textile industry and replacement of
coal.cxiThe British government tried to tackle this economic stress caused by unemployment through
some legislative and non-legislative matters, including unemployment insurance, old age pensions,
and subsidizing housing. cxii The earlier "National Insurance Act" of 1911 provided benefits to
unemployed workers; however, this act was quickly proven to be inadequate to be applied. Before
the Labour Party won the majority of seats in the Parliament in 1924 and in 1929, Britain had
adopted a welfare state to guarantee the wellbeing of the standardized living for British Workers.cxiii
‘‘To arrest the decline in overseas trade, Britain made trade agreements with the Soviet Union
(1924, 1927) and made special treaties with the British Dominions and colonies, who were
organized into a voluntary international organization known by the late 1920's as the British
Commonwealth. Britain had been an champion of free trade, but the strains of depression were
leading it toward protective tariffs. The Great Depression made many countries build tariff barriers
and further lessened British export sales. Thus Britain was forced to end the gold standard and free
trade and establish protective customs taxes.’’cxiv
The unemployment and the shift in key industrial workforce were often protested with strikes and
labor disturbances. These acts were specifically popular in 1920’s, with the Great Coal Strike of
1926 being the most prominent act. ‘‘As coal exports fell, mine owners attempted to normalize
profits by implementing wage reductions on their employees. Due to the already weakened economy,
outcry from the miners abounded. In what became known as Red Friday, the government promised
to subsidize any wage reductions that emerged.’’cxv Over 1.5 million men refused to work in the first
week of the Great Coal Strike, but with TUC union’s attempts to negotiate, the strike was quickly
called off. These strikes, in general, never led to political revolution.cxvi
Although the failing policies of the 1920’s, some economic recovery was able to succeed in the
1930’s. Especially with the General Tariff of 1932, the British economy was able to experience
modest government revenue increase. This growth continued with the movement that starched away
from the Gold Standard, which allowed economic revitalization.cxvii New industries (e.g. chemicals
and auto manufacturing) allowed for economic expansion, unlike the previous industries of the
earlier interwar years (e.g. shipping and coal industries). Due to the rise of the Nazi Germany,
Britain started to invest in their military vigorously, in 1937. This spending also helped to increase
economic growth.cxviii
c) Political Instability and the Attempts for Durability
‘‘Responses to the social welfare of the state came from the labour unions who struggled to maintain
the wage gains received in wartime. Strikes from British unions broke out over welfare policies and
government had to implement military personnel to maintain the production of industry. The Labour
Party rose as the second of the two great parties of Britain displacing the Liberal Party after the
election of 1922 and opposed the conservatives as official opposition. It soon rose in popularity as it
was able to consistently and actively deal with labour legislation and take bolder measure to deal
with the troubled economic state of Britain. Led by Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald the labour
party decreased Government aid and moderated unemployment relief and inaugurated housing and
public works projects. The Labour Party came to power again in 1929 as their representation in the
parliament doubled. In the same year the great depression hit and wall street crashed,
unemployment tripled, and deficit started to mount up. IN response MacDonald formed a all-party
coalition known as the National Government.’’cxix
(Figure 9: Britih Parliament during the
interwar yearscxx)
One of the most daring political problems
of the interwar period was the problem with
Ireland. Prior to their independence, Ireland
was considered part of Great Britain and
was ruled by English landlords. Due to
ethnic and religious differences between Britain and Ireland, the movement of independence
escalated arguably around the nineteenth century. cxxi At 1918, the Irish rebelled against broken
promises of home rule and the strains of war.cxxii For over a year, tension and rebellion continued
between the underground Irish Republican Army and Imperial British forces. Although the British
promised abandonment of the compromise of home rule and autonomy within the British Empire, the
Irish under the leadership of Sinn Fein insisted upon total independence and separation.cxxiii By the
1930’s, the Irish were successful to gain independence, and was separated completely from the
British, becoming the Irish Republic.cxxiv
The Interwar Period also witnessed the transformation of British Empire to the British
Commonwealth. The British Empire continued to govern its older colonies and protectorates, adding
them the League of Nations mandates in such regions as the Middle East (Trans-Jordan, Iraq and
Palestine) and Africa (Tanganyika and Namibia). Overall Britain directly or indirectly controlled
25% of the world's people. cxxv However, dominions of the Great Britain, including Canada,
Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, became autonomous regarding their domestic government
in 1914. After such politically progressive movements, the British Commonwealth was founded with
unique diversifications. cxxvi A Wartime Imperial meeting declared that the self-governing be
considered autonomous nations within an association know as the British Commonwealth. At
another imperial conference in 1926 and in a law known as the Statute of Westminster in 1931,
England and its dominions became members of a trade and defensive association known as the
British Commonwealth of Nations. Each dominion had the right to choose chose its own government
and promulgate its own laws. Dominions could accept or reject laws passed by the British
government.cxxvii The British Commonwealth quickly grew to be a sum of economic, political, and
historical bonds between the Commonwealth states and Britain, due to virtual independence of the
states. cxxviii Regardless of this fact, dominions continued within the commonwealth through
recognition by the dominions of the sovereignty of the British Crown. “British domestic concern
with economic problems, particularly the affects of the depression upon unemployment and foreign
trade, gravely affected and weakened British response to the aggressive policies of Germany, Japan
and Italy in the 1930's.”cxxix
Although an economic crisis was continuous in the interwar years for the UK, political changes did
occur, almost inevitably. There were two very important political changes. cxxx The first being defined
as: ‘‘Universal manhood suffrage was finally completed with the final few percent of disenfranchised
Englishmen were given their political rights in Britain in 1918, received the franchise in l928.cxxxi
The second was: ‘‘the decline of the Liberal Party and the rise of the Labor Party as the major
opponent to the Conservative party in British Politics.’’cxxxii
There were many government changes in the interwar period, some of which were even carried out
through formations of coalition governments. cxxxiii The decline of the Liberal Party (which was
happening for a long period of time) and the immaturity of Labour meant that conservatives were in
the helm. The Conservative Party was a frontrunner in this period, with forming most of the
governments and having the majority of the seats in the Parliament.cxxxiv Since the conclusion of the
First World War, the largest bloc in the Parliament belonged to the Conservative Party.cxxxv Until
1922, the party maintained a wartime coalition with the Liberals, and from the disintegration of the
coalition government to 1929, they formed most of the governments in the leadership of Stanley
Baldwin. For a brief time in 1924, Labor party established a government in the leadership of Ramsay
Macdonald with the support of a fraction of the Liberals.cxxxvi This government, however, did not last
long, due to accusations of collusion with Communists in the recognition of the Soviet government.
The Conservative Party, however, lost its credibility and reputation after the Depression—a common
attribute that was similar to the United States.cxxxvii ‘‘Elections in 1929 saw the Conservatives lost
over 150 seats in Parliament, while Labour nearly doubled its representation were most keenly felt
by the British public, Ramsay Macdonald, the Labour Party leader, became Prime Minister with a
Liberal-Labour coalition cabinet. With the support of some Liberal M.P.'s, Ramsay MacDonald
formed Labour's second government in a Labour dominated coalition.’’cxxxviii
The depression worsened through time, quickly turning into an economic crisis sweeping Europe,
inducing the formation of a broad based coalition government which included ministers from all
three parties (Conservative, Labour, and Liberal) in 1932 known as the ‘National Government’.cxxxix
Until 1935, the Labour leader Ramsay MacDonald led the National Government, when Stanley
Baldwin of the Conservative Party took over. Baldwin retired in 1937 to be replaced by Neville
Chamberlain. After Chamberlain, Winston Churchill came to office as a wartime Prime Minister to
lead the British Campaign through the war.cxl
(Table 1: Prime Minister and office changes during the interwar years in the United Kingdom)
Portrait
Name
Office Duration
Party
Monarch Served
David Lloyd
George
7 December 191619 October 1922
National Liberal
George V
Andrew Bonar
Law
23 October 192220 May 1923
Conservative
George V
Stanley Baldwin
(1st ministry)
23 May 192316 January 1924
Conservative
George V
Ramsay
MacDonald
(1st ministry)
22 January 19244 November 1924
Labour
George V
Stanley Baldwin
(2nd ministry)
Ramsay
MacDonald
(2nd ministry)
Ramsay
MacDonald
(3rd ministry)
4 November 19245 June 1929
Conservative
George V
5 June 1929-24
August 1931
Labour
George V
Stanley Baldwin
(3rd ministry)
7 June 1935-28
May 1937
Neville
Chamberlain
24 August 1931-7
June 1935
28 May 1937- 3
September 1939
National Labour
(National
Government)
Conservative
(National
Government)
Conservative
(National
Government)
George V
George V,
Edward VIII
George VI
George VI
d) Conclusion
The interwar period is undeniably defined as one of the toughest times in the shared history of the
world. The diplomatic outcome of The Great War majorly defined and determined the landscape of
European relations during this period—with the initial event being the Paris Peace Conference.
During this decade defining political event, large blocks of territory in Eastern Europe were
dismantled among countries, with also drawing the boundaries for new independent states. These
states were not economically or politically stable; much less their sovereignty was fully adopted. Due
to their primitive approaches to democracy and independence, they were often victims of hostility
and antagonistic ethnic groups.
Moreover, neither the victorious countries nor the defeated ones were more stable than the countries
that were newly formed. Germany, UK, France, Italy and other active participants of the First World
War suffered from political instability and economic disintegration. With the rise of radical,
extremist political oppositions, Europe entered a period of governmental ambiguity, arising from
differentiating ideologies. Both fascism and communism peaked during the interwar years, attracting
more followers than ever before. All of this devastation led to poor administration and depraved
government decisions. Most of the Eastern Europe was left to dictatorial governments with poor
administration, making them an open target for the rearmed Germany.
Germany was not only left devastated by the war, but also by the settlement of the war, in which the
state was regarded as the sole aggressor and the initiative nation of the conflict. The Treaty of
Versailles ordered the military and economic dismemberment of Germany, and it also included
heavy reparation payments to Britain, France, and the other allied nations. Germany highly suffered
from starvation, mass unemployment and rampant inflation during the 1920’s and with the beginning
of the Great Depression, these devastations became unbearable for the nation. German citizens,
during this period, were almost hostile towards foreign powers, and wished the return of the great
German Nation—a condition they were in before the war. With Adolf Hitler’s leadership, the Nazi
Party came into power with promising the demands of the people—primarily assuring a future of
glory and European domination. The Nazi Party hosted military policies heavy on rearmament, in the
purpose of a European conquest—which was, at first, met with neutrality by the Allied forces, for the
purpose of avoiding a second war. It was quickly understood that Germany threatened the peace and
security of the world, and after twenty years, the war begun.
Bibliography
i
Ww2db.com, (2014). 1919 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1919/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2014].
ii
Rhodes, B. (2001). United States foreign policy in the interwar period, 1918-1941. Westport,
Conn.: Praeger.
iii
Stearns, P. (2001). Encyclopedia of European social history from 1350 to 2000. New York:
Scribner.
iv
Ww2db.com, (2014). 1920 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1920/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2014].
v
Van Wie, P. (1999). Image, history, and politics. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America.
vi
Ww2db.com, (2014). 1921 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1921/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2014].
vii
Weinberg, G. (1995). Germany, Hitler, and World War II. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge
University Press.
viii
Ww2db.com, (2014). 1922 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1922/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2014].
ix
Ww2db.com, (2014). 1923 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1923/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2014].
x
Walsh, B. (2001). GCSE modern world history. London: John Murray.
xi
Ww2db.com, (2014). 1924 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1924/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2014].
xii
Ww2db.com, (2014). 1925 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1925/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2014].
xiii
Stearns, P. and Langer, W. (2001). The Encyclopedia of world history. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
xiv
Ww2db.com, (2014). 1926 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1926/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2014].
xv
Rhodes, B. (2001). United States foreign policy in the interwar period, 1918-1941. Westport,
Conn.: Praeger.
xvi
Payne, S. (2004). The Spanish Civil War, the Soviet Union, and communism. New Haven: Yale
University Press.
xvii
Ww2db.com, (2014). 1927 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1927/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2014].
xviii
Ww2db.com, (2014). 1928 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1928/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2014].
xix
Ww2db.com, (2014). 1929 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1929/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2014].
xx
Doerr, P. (1998). British foreign policy, 1919-1939. Manchester, UK: Manchester University
Press.
xxi
Ww2db.com, (2014). 1930 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1930/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2014].
xxii
Soward, F. (1944). Twenty-five troubled years, 1918-1943. London, N.Y.: Oxford University
Press.
xxiii
Ww2db.com, (2014). 1931 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1931/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2014].
xxiv
Bbc.co.uk, (2015). BBC - History - British History in depth: Overview: Britain, 1918 - 1945.
[online]
Available
at:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwtwo/overview_britain_1918_1945_01.shtml
[Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
xxv
Ww2db.com, (2014). 1932 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1932/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2014].
xxvi
Ww2db.com, (2014). 1933 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1933/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2014].
xxvii
Ww2db.com, (2014). 1934 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1934/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2014].
xxviii
Dutt, R. (1936). World politics, 1918-1936. London: V. Gollancz.
xxix
Ww2db.com, (2014). 1935 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1935/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2014].
xxx
Ww2db.com, (2014). 1936 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1936/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2014].
xxxi
Weinberg, G. (1970). The foreign policy of Hitler's Germany. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
xxxii
Ww2db.com, (2014). 1937 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1937/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2014].
xxxiii
Ww2db.com, (2014). 1938 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1938/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2014].
xxxiv
Ww2db.com, (2014). 1939 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1939/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2014].
xxxv
Weinberg, G. (1995). Germany, Hitler, and World War II. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge
University Press.
xxxvi
Doerr, P. (1998). British foreign policy, 1919-1939. Manchester, UK: Manchester University
Press.
xxxvii
Fussell, P. Wartime: Understanding and Behavior in the Second World War. New York.
xxxviii
Buell, Raymond L. Europe: A History of Ten Years. The Macmillan Co., New York: 1928.
xxxix
Bytwerk.com,
(2015).
Nazi
Posters:
1933-1939.
[online]
Available
at:
http://www.bytwerk.com/gpa/posters2.htm [Accessed 31 Jan. 2015].
xl
Ibid.
xli
Ibid.
xlii
Dutt, R. Palme. World Politics 1918 - 1936. International publishers, New York: 1936.
xliii
Ibid.
xliv
Ibid.
xlv
Van Wie, P. (1999). Image, history, and politics. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America.
xlvi
Ibid.
xlvii
Ibid.
xlviii
Kitchen, M. (1988) Europe Between the Wars: A Political History. Longman Group, London.
xlix
Ibid.
l
Ibid.
li
Ww2db.com, (2014). 1935 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1935/ [Accessed 25 Jan. 2015].
lii
Weinberg, G. (1970). The foreign policy of Hitler's Germany. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
liii
Weinberg, G. (1995). Germany, Hitler, and World War II. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge
University Press.
liv
Payne, S. (1970). The Spanish Revolution. New York: Norton.
lv
Rusarchives.ru,
(2015).
"1936-1939''.
[online]
Available
at:
http://rusarchives.ru/evants/exhibitions/civil-war-spain-kat/171.shtml [Accessed 31 Jan. 2015].
lvi
Ibid.
lvii
Payne, S. (2004). The Spanish Civil War, the Soviet Union, and communism. New Haven: Yale
University Press.
lviii
Bbc.co.uk,
(2015).
[online]
Available
at:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/staticarchive/40bbcc61910f51040eac5d6605b54030c7b81b3d.gif [Accessed
31 Jan. 2015].
lix
Doerr, P. (1998). British foreign policy, 1919-1939. Manchester, UK: Manchester University
Press.
lx
Ibid.
lxi
Baer, G. (1967). The coming of the Italian-Ethiopian War. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
lxii
Ibid.
lxiii
Ibid.
lxiv
Ww2db.com, (2015). Pre-WW2 Photos | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/photo.php?list=sp&sp=prewar [Accessed 31 Jan. 2015].
lxv
Stearns, P. and Langer, W. (2001). The Encyclopedia of world history. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
lxvi
Ibid.
lxvii
Gordon, D. (2006). The China-Japan War, 1931-1945. The Journal of Military History, 70(1),
pp.137-182.
lxviii
Ibid.
lxix
Ibid.
lxx
Harries, M. and Harries, S. (1991). Soldiers of the sun. New York: Random House.
lxxi
Walsh, B. (2001). GCSE modern world history. London: John Murray.
lxxii
Faber, D. (2008). Munich. London: Simon & Schuster.
lxxiii
Ibid.
lxxiv
Ibid.
lxxv
Kitchen, Martin. Europe Between the Wars: A Political History. Longman Group, London: 1988.
lxxvi
Ibid.
lxxvii
Coox, Alvin D.: Nomonhan: Japan Against Russia, 1939. Two volumes; 1985, Stanford
University Press.
lxxviii
Ibid.
lxxix
Cole, R. (2010). "Appeasing Hitler: The Munich Crisis of 1938: A Teaching and Learning
Resource,". New England Journal of History, 66(2), pp.1-30.
lxxx
Ibid.
lxxxi
Ibid.
lxxxii
Ibid.
lxxxiii
Ww2db.com, (2015). Pre-WW2 Photos | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/photo.php?list=sp&sp=prewar [Accessed 31 Jan. 2015].
lxxxiv
Ibid.
lxxxv
Wikipedia, B. (2015). British World War Two propaganda artworks released on Wikipedia Telegraph.
[online]
Telegraph.co.uk.
Available
at:
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/picturegalleries/uknews/9333793/British-World-War-Twopropaganda-artworks-released-on-Wikipedia.html [Accessed 31 Jan. 2015].
lxxxvi
Bbc.co.uk, (2015). BBC - History - British History in depth: Overview: Britain, 1918 - 1945.
[online]
Available
at:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwtwo/overview_britain_1918_1945_01.shtml
[Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
lxxxvii
Ibid.
lxxxviii
Powers, James H. Years of Tumult: The World Since 1918. W.W. Norton and Co., Inc., New
York: 1932.
lxxxix
Bbc.co.uk, (2015). BBC - History - British History in depth: Overview: Britain, 1918 - 1945.
[online]
Available
at:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwtwo/overview_britain_1918_1945_01.shtml
[Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
xc
Ibid.
xci
Ibid.
xcii
Ibid.
xciii
Ibid.
xciv
Bobhistory.wikispaces.com, (2015). Bobhistory - British Interwar Years. [online] Available at:
https://bobhistory.wikispaces.com/British+Interwar+Years [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
xcv
Ibid.
xcvi
Ibid.
xcvii
Ibid.
xcviii
Ibid.
xcix
Eichengreen, B. (2015). The British Economy Between the Wars. [online] berkeley.edu Available
at: http://eml.berkeley.edu/~eichengr/research/floudjohnsonchaptersep16-03.pdf [Accessed 28 Jan.
2015].
c
Ibid.
ci
Ibid.
cii
Bobhistory.wikispaces.com, (2015). Bobhistory - British Interwar Years. [online] Available at:
https://bobhistory.wikispaces.com/British+Interwar+Years [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
ciii
Ww2db.com, (2015). Pre-WW2 Photos | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/photo.php?list=sp&sp=prewar [Accessed 31 Jan. 2015].
civ
Shsu.edu, (2015). Lecture on England and France in the Interwar Period. [online] Available at:
http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/BrFr.html [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
cv
Keynes, J. (1920). The economic consequences of the peace. New York: Harcourt, Brace and
Howe.
cvi
Shsu.edu, (2015). Lecture on England and France in the Interwar Period. [online] Available at:
http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/BrFr.html [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
cvii
Ibid.
cviii
Ibid.
cix
Ww2db.com, (2015). Pre-WW2 Photos | World War II Database. [online] Available at:
http://ww2db.com/photo.php?list=sp&sp=prewar [Accessed 31 Jan. 2015].
cx
Shsu.edu, (2015). Lecture on England and France in the Interwar Period. [online] Available at:
http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/BrFr.html [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
cxi
Ibid.
cxii
Ibid.
cxiii
Wu, J. (2000). Unemployment-Related Benefits System in the United Kingdom. 1st ed. [ebook]
Hong Kong: Research and Library Services Division Legislative Council Secretariat. Available at:
http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr99-00/english/sec/library/e15.pdf [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
cxiv
Shsu.edu, (2015). Lecture on England and France in the Interwar Period. [online] Available at:
http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/BrFr.html [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
cxv
Bobhistory.wikispaces.com, (2015). Bobhistory - British Interwar Years. [online] Available at:
https://bobhistory.wikispaces.com/British+Interwar+Years [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
cxvi
The Cabinet Papers Interwar period. (2010). 1st ed. [ebook] London: The National Archives.
Available
at:
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/cabinetpapers/themes/interwar-period.html
[Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
cxvii
Ibid.
cxviii
Shsu.edu, (2015). Lecture on England and France in the Interwar Period. [online] Available at:
http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/BrFr.html [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
cxix
Ibid.
cxx
The Albert County Museum & RB Bennett Commemorative Centre, (2015). RB Bennett. [online]
Available at: http://www.albertcountymuseum.com/rb-bennett/ [Accessed 31 Jan. 2015].
cxxi
Bbc.co.uk, (2015). BBC - History - British History in depth: Overview: Britain, 1918 - 1945.
[online] Available at:
cxxii
Ibid.
cxxiii
Collins, M. (1976). Ireland, 1800-1970. London: Longman.
cxxiv
Ibid.
cxxv
Shsu.edu, (2015). Lecture on England and France in the Interwar Period. [online] Available at:
http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/BrFr.html [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
cxxvi
Eichengreen, B. (2015). The British Economy Between the Wars. [online]
http://eml.berkeley.edu.
Available
at:
http://eml.berkeley.edu/~eichengr/research/floudjohnsonchaptersep16-03.pdf [Accessed 28 Jan.
2015].
cxxvii
Ibid.
cxxviii
Stearns, P. (2001). Encyclopedia of European social history from 1350 to 2000. New York:
Scribner.
cxxix
Shsu.edu, (2015). Lecture on England and France in the Interwar Period. [online] Available at:
http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/BrFr.html [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
cxxx
Ibid.
cxxxi
Ibid.
cxxxii
Ibid.
cxxxiii
Kitchen, M. (1988). Europe between the wars. London: Longman.
cxxxiv
Ibid.
cxxxv
Orton, W. (1938). Twenty years' armistice, 1918-1938. New York: Farrar & Rinehart, Inc.
cxxxvi
Ibid.
cxxxvii
Ibid.
cxxxviii
Shsu.edu, (2015). Lecture on England and France in the Interwar Period. [online] Available
at: http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/BrFr.html [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015].
cxxxix
Powers, James H. Years of Tumult: The World Since 1918. W.W. Norton and Co., Inc., New
York: 1932.
cxl
Ibid.
Ant
al
y
a,
Mar
c
h2015
Or
gani
s
edbyt
heModel
Uni
t
edNat
i
onsofTur
k
ey
Undert
hedi
s
c
r
et
i
onoft
heS
ec
r
et
ar
i
at
S
ec
r
et
ar
yGener
al
:
Nez
ahatYeş
i
m Yar
gı
c
ı
Cont
entbyUnderS
ec
r
et
ar
yGener
al
:
Mer
tEney
Gr
aphi
cDes
i
gn:
ÖmerFar
ukTaps
ı
z
Web:
www.
munt
r
.
or
g
EMai
l
:
i
nf
o@munt
r
.
or
g