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S t udyGui de Chur c hi l l ’ sWarCabi net MUNTR2015 "You ask, what is our aim? I can answer in one word. It is victory. Victory at all costs. Victory in spite of all terrors. Victory, however long and hard the road may be, for without victory there is no survival." -Winston Churchill LETTER OF THE SECRETARY-GENERAL Dear Participants, My name is Nezahat Yeşim YARGICI, and I as the humble Secretary-General of Model United Nations Turkey 2015, would like to proudly welcome you to the MUNTR family, in the name of Director-General Tolga Öner and each and every member of our Academic and Organization teams. This year’s conference is built around the concept of change. Believing that change for the better can only be realized through appreciation of the past, we have set the theme of the conference as ‘Legacy and Reform’. After celebrating the successful story of a decade, MUNTR 2015 will be the 11th session of the conference. Starting a new decade, we feel the privilege of having space for creativity and change. We not only want to give you a better MUN experience, but a new and different one. Working day and night, our team wishes to create something more than a simulation, but a true platform of diplomacy amongst young people where new ideas and insights are welcomed; where the world is shaped by day and shaken by night. The Secretariat has been working relentlessly for the past 7 months in fulfilment of this aim, which this study guide is a result of. Before addressing the academic content, I would like to thank the members of the Secretariat, and in especial, the Under-Secretary-General of Churchill’s War Cabinet, Mr. Mert Eney, a great friend and a great team mate and it is true. This study guide will provide the delegates with the necessary background information prior to the start of the cabinet sessions, therefore further research is advised. Sir Winston Churchill’s War Cabinet is one of the most significant figures in modern history. As 2015 marks the 50th anniversary of the legendary Prime Minister’s death, the delegates of his cabinet will relive history and will try to shape it for better world in the future. King Regards, Nezahat Yeşim Yargıcı Secretary-General of MUNTR 2015 LETTER OF THE UNDER-SECRETARY-GENERAL Dear participants, It is a grand pleasure for us to welcome you all to the Churchill’s War Cabinet in the eleventh annual session of Model United Nations Turkey 2015. My name is Mert Eney and I will be serving as the Under Secretary General responsible for Churchill’s War Cabinet. I am currently studying Law in Bilkent University as a sophomore. I have been part of the global MUN platform since my first year in high school, participating in various positions. MUN has become a vital part of my life, and I find it simply impossible to imagine my life without it. This year, MUNTR holds an academically distinct position in its groundbreaking spectrum of committees—Churchill’s War Cabinet undeniably being one of the frontrunners of such variety. With simulating arguably the single most important event in history—World War II—MUNTR offers an unforgettable debate experience with not only preparing a scholarly-fulfilling environment, but also an innovative landscape with fast-paced discussions, procedure-bending guidelines and crisis-heavy historical scenarios. I would like to distinctively thank our Secretary General Ms. Nezahat Yeşim Yargıcı and our Deputy Secretary General Mr. Gökberk Ekinci, for their utmost effort in preparing not only this document, but also the academic backbone of the conference. I hope that this study guide will provide a pathway to your experience of MUNTR 2015. Mert Eney Under-Secretary-General responsible for the Churchill’s War Cabinet Introduction to Churchill’s War Cabinet A new political landscape was defined from the ashes of the First World War—the previous international scheme was destroyed and a new Europe was reestablished. The European states which fought actively in the Great War could not materialize with the post-war conditions, and as a result, economic and social disintegrations ensued—this situation was an actuality independent from the outcome of the war. Economic depression prevailed in Europe almost continuously for the interwar period, in which debtor nations tried to pay their debts by borrowing more money, at higher rates, resulting in the degradation of national economies. Especially, the German nation suffered from severe economic crisis during the time, due to the high number of requested war reparations of Britain and France—a sanction signed in the Treaty of Versailles. It was not only the effects of the economic crisis that left Europe crippled, but it was also the severe actuality of the casualties. Ten million were killed in the Great War, and more than twenty million were wounded when in comparison, all of the wars of the hundred years leading up to the Great War had claimed a total of only four and one-half million lives. The casualties were so high that it is believed that France had, in average, a death of citizen per minute. The Great War swept a generation from the demographics, and the ones that survived were equally as harmed, with physiological and psychological damages which would show itself during the interwar years—a frantic period in Europe. The interwar years also saw an overgrowing effort to create a shared platform of international dialogue, and with the formation of the League of Nations, this need was somewhat achieved through cooperation and transparency. Although the League of Nations was a big leap for the political landscape of post-war Europe, it, on many occasions, failed to achieve the initial prospects of various nations. It has yet to grow strong enough to make independent choices and it certainly did not create a significant impact on the sociopolitical nature of the Europe. Thus, the goals of deterrence of war and disarmament were left unaccomplished. The void of authority, caused by the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations —the ambiguity of solution choices and a lack of international discourse— was quickly filled by dedicated followers of various political teachings of the 19th century. This variance in the political spectrum overgrew to be a tension between the extreme left and the far right—communists vs. fascists—. The lack of moderates in the governmental environment created a continuity of turmoil and fired the differentiating views of political extremists. This political extremism took control of Europe during these years, creating totalitarian states and intolerant individuals—while Soviet Union adopted communism, Germany, Italy and Spain incorporated fascist doctrines. With the overgrowing tension between two ends of the political spectrum, the road to a second great war was paved. Churchill’s War Cabinet was a Conservative-led coalition government during World War II, led by Winston Churchill—Prime Minister of the United Kingdom—to lead the British campaign during the time period. The War Cabinet structures around a subset of the executive governmental ministry. and Truk Lagoon are among the primary chain A. Timeline of Events Prior to the Commencement of War of islands. Furthermore, Japan joins the League of Nations. June - Treaty of Versailles is signed between 1919i ii iii January - Paris Peace Conference is inaugurated for the purpose of negotiating peace treaties between the belligerents of the Germany and Allied powers. Among its severe political and military sanctions was the limitation of German Armed Forces to 100,000 personnel. Germany is also signed on Great War. April - League of Nations is founded in the to pay large compensations for war damages to various sources. principle for ensuring world peace. May - Turkish War of Independence begins with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk’s arrival to Sivas. September – Adolf Hitler joins the German Workers’ Party. Greek troops land in Smyrna. 1920ivv An intellectual uprising takes place in China January - The Paris Peace Conference is that leads to the May Fourth Movement, completed with the first annual session of which Marxist General Assembly of the League of Nations. sociopolitical theories. The movement takes United States of America does not join the place League. flames in mostly Beijing, with protesting Chinese government’s weak response to the Treaty of The Nazi Party is formed in Germany and Versailles. Japan, as a member of the Adolf Hitler gives a series of sentimental victorious Allies during the Great War, gains a speeches following its formation. mandate islands August - The succeeding leaders of the previously part of the German colonial empire. Ottoman Empire sign the Treaty of Sèvres The Marshall Islands, Marianas, the Carolines, with the Allied powers. The Treaty shows over various Pacific similarity with the Treaty of Versailles in the France, and Italy—this act marks the end of sense that it diminishes demographics of the the Washington Naval Conference. The Ottoman Empire and it radically reduces signing parties agree to limit the size of their Turkish Armed Forces. [The Treaty of Sèvres naval forces. was later annulled with the leadership of April - Treaty of Rapallo is signed between Mustafa Kemal in the Turkish War of the governments of Germany and the Soviet Independence, and the superseding Treaty of Union, reestablishing the diplomatic relations Lausanne is signed in 1923] between states, as well as completing a 1921vivii June - Lady Randolph Churchill of Britain dies at her London home. August - The U.S.–German Peace Treaty, the U.S.–Austrian Peace Treaty and the U.S.– Hungarian Peace Treaty is signed between consecutive states, ending the state of war between them. December - Between the British Government and the Irish Nationalists, a treaty is signed to form the Irish Free State. financial common ground. June – The Main Administration for Literary and Publishing Affairs (Glavlit) was officially established in the Soviet Union with the role of preventing anything from being published that undermined state secrecy, encouraged sedition, inspired national or religious fanaticism or moral degeneration. October - The Russian Civil War concludes with the Bolshevik victory and with the defeat of the last White forces in Siberia. The Civil War was continuing since 1917. 1922 viii February - The Washington Naval Treaty is signed between the respective governments of the United Kingdom, the United States, Japan, Benito Mussolini is appointed prime minister of Italy by King Victor Emmanuel III after the March on Rome. November - The Grand National Assembly of 1924xi Turkey abolishes the Ottoman Sultanate. The January - Founder and the Leader of the family of the Sultanate is later banished from Soviet Union Vladimir Lenin dies—Lenin was the Republic of Turkey. not only a successful political figure, but also 1923ixx January - The French army occupies the area of Ruhr. This act is carried as a symbolic message to Germany due to its failure to complete the payments of war reparations. July - The Treaty of Lausanne was agreed between the Allies and Turkey. The Turkish Republic did not recognize the Treaty of Sèvres even though the Sultanate of the Ottoman Empire did. October – The Turkish Republic is officially formed after the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. November - Adolf Hitler fails to lead the Nazis in a protest to overthrow the German government—the event is later called as The Beer Hall Putsch. The police suppressed the attempt in the following day. a pioneer to the Marxist thought. His understanding of Marxism helped shape the political foundation of Soviet Union. Joseph Stalin, [his later successor] begins to carry civic campaigns for his possible leadership. February - The United Kingdom recognizes the Soviet Union. Following the Beer Hall Putsch, the failed protest, Adolf Hitler faces trial for treason to the German state and government. April - Adolf Hitler is sentenced to 5 years in jail for his active participation in the Beer Hall Putsch [only to serve 8 months]. Italian Fascists won the elections in Italy with a 2/3 majority. June - A group of Italians known for their extremist right-wing views kidnapped and later killed Italian socialist leader Giacomo Matteotti. It is believed that the homicide was a response to Matteotti’s comments on November - Queen Alexandra died at Fascists which included accusation of fraud. Sandringham August - The Allied occupation of the area of United Kingdom. Ruhr ends with the approval of Dawes Plan. December - The Locarno Treaty which The plan also drew a blueprint for Germany’s defined and settled the borders of Western payment of war reparations. With this Plan, Europe is signed (and later ratified) in France withdrew its troops from the Ruhr. London. Additionally, the Treaty served as a House, Norfolk, England, foundation of political normalization between 1925xiixiii January - Italian leader Mussolini proclaimed political responsibility for the murder of Germany and the Allied Powers of Western Europe. Giacomo Matteotti, the socialist politician. 1926xivxvxvi February - Between Japan and the Soviet January - In Greece, a longtime political Union, diplomatic relations are established to figure, Theodoros Pangalos, declares himself an extent that both states agreed upon. the dictator of state. Adolf Hitler was released from prison. The Belgian and British troops leave Cologne, same day, the Nazi Party gained permission to Germany. publish its newspaper which contains right- February - After his release, Adolf Hitler wing political propaganda, once again. summoned the senior Nazi Party leadership to The Nazi Party is re-launched with a rally in a convention at Bamberg. His proportionally Munich long speech covered major contemporary July - Adolf Hitler's autobiographical manifesto Mein Kampf is published. political concepts, ranging from party policies to the rejection of Strasser’s alternative party programme. [Adolf Hitler would rise to gain greater power through each consecutive year December - Hirohito becomes the Emperor of for a decade] Japan upon his father’s passing. March - Wang Jingwei flies to Paris and Zhou Enlai flies to Shangai, political rivals of Chiang Kaishek —Kaishek ordered the arrest of highest Communist leaders like Jingwei and Enlai after discovering a communist plot to kidnap him. Kaishek rises as the sole leader of the Nationalist Party and its military forces. April - Greek dictator Theodoros Pangalos is elected president. Union and Germany, allowing either country to remain neutral if one or the other is attacked by a third country. nationalist leader Symon Petliura in Paris. September - Germany joins the League of Nations. November - The fallen martyrs of Adolf Hitler’s 1923 Putsch is honored with the first annual memorial day, with initiations by the National Socialist Party. Chinese garrison and a vast of labor leaders were purged by the order of Bai Chongxi. Many were later executed. Kaishek declared martial law in China—this act marked the beginning of a bloody purge against Chinese Communists. The Chinese communists. May - Saudi Arabia gains independence from United Kingdom with the Treaty of Jeddah. October - After his expulsion from the May - Russian Jew Sholom Schwartzbard Ukrainian April - Communists from the Nationalist Civil War begins between nationalists and The Treaty of Berlin is signed between Soviet assassinates 1927xvii Politburo, Leon Trotsky denounced Joseph Stalin’s political agenda, and accused him as being ‘the real danger to the Leninist Party’. He did not receive much support. November - After his public speech against Stalin, Leon Trotsky is expelled from the Soviet Communist Party. With this act of political singularity, Joseph Stalin gained an undisputed control over the Soviet Union. December - Iraq gains independence from the April – Soviet Union passes a new legislation United Kingdom. banning all religions from ‘engaging in anything more than divine services’. Among 1928xviii May - Jinan Incident begins—a limited armed bible circles, religious youth and women's conflict between China and Japan. June - Huanggutun Incident happens— Japanese agents assassinate the Chinese August - The main political and military powers of the world meet in Paris to sign the Pact, movements, church reading rooms and libraries and all forms of religious education are banned thoroughly. warlord Zhang Zuolin. Kellogg-Briand the frame of this legislation, all study groups, which outlaws aggressive warfare between states. October - In Soviet Union, the First Five- July - The Kellogg-Briand Pact, with ratification, goes into effect. October – Wall Street crashes. With this economically catastrophic event, The Great Depression begins. Year Plan is presented—the economical 1930xxixxii readjustment that aims to elevate the status of April - London Naval Treaty is signed Soviet industries. between UK, USA, France, Italy and Japan in 1929xixxx February - Litvinov's Pact is signed in order to regulate the submarine warfare and limit naval shipbuilding. Moscow by the Soviet Union, Poland, Estonia, September - The Nazi Party received a total Romania and Latvia. The Pact outlaws of 6,371,000 votes in a national election, aggressive warfare along the lines of the which earned them 107 seats in the Reichstag, Kellog-Briand Pact. as well as representing about 18% of the total March - Japan withdraws troops from China, votes. ending the Jinan Incident. June - The occupation of Rhineland ends with 1932xxv France withdrawing its troops from the area. January - The Soviet Famine of 1932-33 1931xxiiixxiv September - The Japanese troops stage a false flag bombing against a Japanese-owned railroad in the Chinese region of Manchuria, blaming Chinese dissidents for the attack. The Japanese invade Manchuria using the Mukden incident as a pretext. November - Chinese forces attacked a group of Japanese troops at Nenjiang Bridge. Although the numerical advantage of the Japanese, their artillery and light tanks drove off the Chinese attacks by inflicting heavy casualties. December - Winston Churchill was struck by a car in his visit to New York City. He suffered injuries but recovered fully. begins with the collectivization of agriculture of the First Five-Year Plan.1 Heinrich Brüning, German Chancellor, summoned a meeting with Adolf Hitler about the upcoming election. Due to President Paul von Hindenburg’s old age, Brüning wanted to convince Hitler to persuade Reichstag to withdraw the elections for the purpose of keeping Hindenburg in power. Hitler however was planning on to challenge Hindenburg in the elections. The Stimson Doctrine is adopted in the United States, which proclaims the refusal of acceptance of border changes made by force. The Japanese troops attack Shanghai using anti-Japanese violence as a pretext and thus begin the January 28 incident. February – War in Manchuria ends with Japan in control of Manchuria. The Soviet famine of 1932–33 affected the major grain-producing areas of the Soviet Union, leading to the deaths of millions in those areas and severe food insecurity throughout the USSR. These areas included Ukraine, Northern Caucasus, Volga Region and Kazakhstan, the South Urals, and West Siberia. 1 The League of Nations tried to review and September - Hermann Göring is elected the respond to the Japanese violation of Chinese president of the new German Reichstag sovereignty but failed in its attempt. Japanese session. German Chancellor Franz von Papen attack has received no substantive respond tried to dissolve the Reichstag with and order, from the League of Nations. however failed in his attempt to do so by the Adolf Hitler was named a liaison to political regulations of Göring. Braunschweig and with this position he was November - Paul von Hindenburg met with able to gain citizenship. This appointment now his challenger in elections, Adolf Hitler to enabled Adolf Hitler to run for the office of discuss the President of Germany, against incumbent Chancellorship. Hindenburg offered Hitler Paul von Hindenburg. Because Hitler was Chancellorship which had no power to born in Austria, it was only with this dissolve the Reichstag or the Vice Chancellor exceptional status of the city of Braunschweig position that he was able to be considered a German regulation by Hindenburg was part of the offer citizen. due to his will to force the Nazi Party to March - Out of the occupied Manchuria, cooperate with rival parties. Japan creates the puppet state Manchukuo. The League of Nations demanded a ceasefire between Japanese and Chinese forces in China. However, it failed to transform such demand to action. April - Adolf Hitler loses against Paul von Hindenburg in Presidential elections, in a runoff. Hitler’s under Franz motivations von Papen. for This 1933xxvi January - Japanese troops attacked Hebei Province, China. Adolf Hitler was appointed the Chancellor of Germany. The Nazi Party acquired 3/11 cabinet posts. President Paul von Hindenburg required Vice Chancellor Franz von Papen to accompany Hitler for all meetings between the President and the Chancellor. This, he Reichstag passes the ‘Enabling Act’ that believed, would deliberately prevent Hitler provides legal base for the dictatorial powers from arranging radical sociopolitical changes. of Hitler. However, very prematurely, Hitler tried to Jewish people not residing in Germany called assemble a reelection of the Reichstag. He for a boycott of German goods. failed in his attempt to acquire this great Japan leaves the League of Nations. This was power. based on the decision made by League of February - Battle of the Great Wall begins. Nations which supported China in their claim Japanese troops attack Rehe, China with the on ownership of Manchukuo. League of support of Manchurian troops. Nations also refused to see Manchukuo as an The Reichstag building was destroyed by fire. independent state. The following day, about 10,000 political April - In response to Jewish boycott of opponents of the Nazi Party were arrested. German goods, Germans started to boycott President Paul von Hindenburg issued the Jewish businesses. Reichstag Fire Decree, suspending vital civil Germany began to exclude Jewish students. liberties in Germany. The infamous secret police of Germany, the March - Franklin Roosevelt is inaugurated as Gestapo, is established. President of the United States. May – China and Japan sign the Tanggu Nazi Party receives 44% of votes in Truce, ending the Japanese occupation of Germany's last free election. Manchuria and settling upon a ceasefire. Dachau, the first of many concentration camps China accepts Japanese demands on creating a in Germany, is completed. large demilitarized demographics. zone inside Chinese The first of many Nazi burnings of banned Jewish writers and artists’ works are banned books begin with Party members throughout by a legislation passed by Germany's Reich Germany staging burnings. Culture Ministry. June - After a drastic change in the political Adolf Hitler based a speech on separating the environment of Germany, all non-Nazi parties functions of the Nazi SA2 organization and the are banned, leaving the Nazi Party as the sole German Army. official party in the country. October - Albert Einstein arrives in the Hitler’s Government dissolved the Catholic United States as a refugee from Germany. Christian trade unions in Germany. A vast In Germany, the "Law for Literary Leaders" amount of Trade Union leaders were arrested dictated the content of what could now be and taken to camps and prisons. written. A section of the law excluded Jews July - The "Heil Hitler" salute becomes the from the press, while another required all official symbolic gesture for all public editors to be Aryans. employees in Germany. Additionally, the The Nazi administration, with its continual public limitative legislations on the arts shows a correspondence is changed from ‘Sincerely’ to ‘Heil Hitler’ characteristic of severe philistinism. Germany initiated the application of the Germany leaves the League of Nations. sterilization Following this act, Winston Churchill gave a program for the undesired populations. speech August - Haavara Agreement is signed. The emphasizing on the dangers to peace posed by agreement structured the facilitation the British Parliament of German Jews emigration to Palestine. September - Leó Szilárd conceives the idea of the nuclear chain reaction. warning SA, abbreviation of Sturmabteilung (German: “Assault Division”), byname Storm Troopers, or Brownshirts, German Sturmtruppen, or Braunhemden, in the German Nazi Party, a paramilitary organization whose methods of violent intimidation played a key role in Adolf Hitler’s rise to power. [retrieved from britannica.com] 2 the Nazi government and the German military members (immoral behavior, loss of interest in aviation. party members etc.). November - The first non-political prisoners The German Army declared the dismissal of were sent to concentration camps in Germany. all non-Aryans from military service. [Homeless, alcoholic, and unemployed] March - Soviet troops captured Korla, December - Germany passes a legislation Xinjiang, China. concerning the habitual criminal, defined as "a The person convicted of two criminal offenses, Sondergerichte Courts.3 could be detained in a concentration camp The indefinitely". established. January – Germany passes a legislation entitled "Law for the Prevention of Genetically The 10 year German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact is signed between the eponymous states. February - The Austrian Civil War is concluded with the victory of Austro-fascists. Another German legislation is passed and it established the Nazi Party Courts with full status misdemeanors Philippine reestablished Commonwealth was that gave and by detained governmental power and abolished political parties. Although at the time being, King Boris III was reduced to a puppet-king, Diseased Offspring". investigation administration May - In Bulgaria, a military coup d'état 1934xxviixxviii judicial Nazi Nazi powers punishment of of Party (NSDAP) he successfully regained political power within a year with his counter coup. Bonnie Parker and Clyde Barrow, notoriously known as Bonnie and Clyde, were killed in a shoot out in Bienville Parish, Louisiana, United States while robbing a bank. June - In Germany, the events known as the Night of the Long Knives took place. The SS and the Gestapo killed potential rivals of Special courts without the usual safeguards in legal procedure, to deal with political cases. 3 Hitler. These individuals spanned across a Londoners would be lost in the first week of wide range of political backgrounds; from the war]. Nazi Party to the SA leader Ernst Röhm and to December - Japan renounces the Washington the anti-Nazi conservatives. Naval Treaty and the London Naval Treaty. Adolf Hitler and Mussolini met in Venice, Italy. March - The first of many violations of July - The SS is now instituted as an independent organization of the Nazi Party, reporting directly to Adolf Hitler. August - President Paul von Hindenburg dies. As a result, Adolf Hitler is self-entitled as the Führer of Germany, becoming Head of State as well as Chancellor. Wehrmacht 4 members begin swearing a personal oath of loyalty to Hitler. The former method of such oath was to the German constitution. September - The Soviet Union joins the League of Nations. November - Winston Churchill gave a note to the House of Commons as a form of warning regarding the foreseeable aerial attacks to Britain by hostile forces [as many as 40,000 The Wehrmacht was the unified armed forces of Germany from 1870–1918 and 1935 to 1946. 4 1935xxix Versailles Treaty begins with Adolf Hitler announcing the mandatory military conscription. April - The nationwide network of clinics for racial hygiene was established in Germany. The institution aims to collect information regarding citizens’ racial belonging and the purity of such affiliation. This information will be used as a means of racial discrimination in the country, as well as an implementation of social Darwinist concepts. May - The Intel that Germany was rearming leaked, and in a state of frenzy, France concluded a separate alliance with the Soviet Union. German military required "Aryan heritage" for service. June - Germany and the United Kingdom March - Germany remilitarizes the previously signs the Anglo-German Naval Agreement— occupied Rhineland, violating the Treaty of the agreement aims to limit German naval Versailles. Upon this acts success, the rearmament by allowing Germany to build a Reichstag is dissolved by Adolf Hitler and fleet that's 35% the tonnage of the British fleet reelections took place—a great amount of September - Nuremberg Laws are passed in approval for the action is summoned. the Reichstag. These laws properly introduced The United Kingdom, United States, and anti-Semitism in German legislation. France sign the Second London Naval Treaty. October - Italy invades Ethiopia, starting the Italy and Japan declined to sign this treaty on Second Italo–Abyssinian War. political basis. 1936xxxxxxi February - The German Secret police, Gestapo, was commissioned in only answering May - The Second Italo–Abyssinian War ends as the Italian troops march into the Ethiopian capital. to Adolf Hitler via Heinrich Himmler. This act 1937xxxii invades normal civil law. January - Franklin Roosevelt was inaugurated The British Cabinet approves a report that for second term as US President. commissions the expansion of the Royal Navy Adolf Hitler proclaimed that Germany would and the remilitarization of the Army. The continue to guarantee Dutch and Belgian report also introduced ‘shadow factories’ neutrality. which are paid for with public money, but are July - The Second Sino-Japanese War begins managed by industrial companies. with The Marco Polo Bridge, where Chinese February 26 Incident began in Japan, which and Japanese troops clash. was a failed coup attempt. September - China, in a session in the League of Nations, requested intergovernmental intervention regarding the Japanese Winston Churchill, in his speech conducted in invasion—in a form that the League approves. the House of Commons, suggested with October - Celal Bayar is appointed as the new utmost importance that if United Kingdom, Prime Minister of Turkey. United States, and Soviet Union collectively December - The puppet state of Mengjiang is asserted pressure on Germany, Hitler might established in the Inner Mongolia region of the abandon its claims for the Sudetenland region Republic of China. of Czechoslovakia. However, his suggestions Italy withdraws from the League of Nations. were not met with much support by the British Japan attacks the American gunboat Panay, politicians. thus inducing the USS Panay incident. September - Germany, France, the United 1938xxxiii January - Following the USS Panay incident, the Allison incident occurs, further stressing the relations between Japan and the United States. March - Austria is annexed by Nazi Germany with the Anschluss movement. April – Japanese troops capture the Chinese city of Xuzhou. July - The Soviet–Japanese border conflicts begin.5 Kingdom, Agreement. and Italy The sign Munich The Munich Agreement concluded to allow Germany to annex the Czechoslovak Sudetenland area in exchange for peace. This was a failed attempt to appease Hitler. November – In Paris, German Jew Herschel Grynszpan—who was exiled— assassinates German consular aide Ernst vom Rath. The Kristallnacht Pogrom 6 begins Germany. August – Soviet Union wins the Battle of Khasan against Japan. Also referred as the Night of Broken Glass; many Jewish shops and synagogues are smashed, looted, burned, and destroyed throughout the country. 6 5 Alternatively known as the Battle of Lake Khasan. is in 1939xxxivxxxvxxxvixxxvii Adolf Hitler continues with his expansionist January - For the first time in history, an policy, and demands the return of the Free uranium atom is split in United States. City of Danzig to Germany. The 5-year naval expansion programme The Polish are granted a guarantee of intended to provide for a huge German fleet, independence by the UK and France. otherwise is April - The Spanish Civil War ends with the commissioned by Adolf Hitler, for the purpose Nationalists’ victory—as a result, Spain of proclaiming Germany as the a naval becomes a dictatorship. supreme state. Adolf Hitler was intending to Adolf Hitler commissions the German military defeat the Royal Navy. to start relevant preparations for the Fall Weiss March - The pro-German Slovak Republic is the codename for the attack on Poland. created. Italy, under commands of Benito Mussolini, known Germany occupies as the Plan Z, Czechoslovakia in invades Albania. Albania responds with little violation of the ongoing peace process and the to none military resistance, resulting in their Munich Agreement conducted for this aim. personal union of the Italian and Albanian The Czechs do not structure any organized crown. resistance due to their loss of their main Even though the Soviet Union suggests a defensive line with the annexation of the tripartite alliance with the UK and France, Sudetenland. both countries reject it. Germany creates the Protectorate of Bohemia Adolf Hitler declares the renunciation of the and Moravia. The protectorate includes those Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the portions of Czechoslovakia not incorporated German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact. into Germany, Poland, Hungary, (or the new May - The border war between the Soviet Slovak Republic). Union and Japan begins after Japan’s invasion. Japan and Manchukuo fight against the Soviet August - The Einstein-Szilárd letter is sent to Union events Franklin D. Roosevelt, warning the US alternatively known as the Battle of Khalkhin President on the possibility of a German Gol. Soviet Union leaves victoriously and atomic bomb program, which induced the peace is sustained between states. Manhattan Project. Scandinavian countries—Sweden, Norway, Between the Nazi Germany and the Soviet and Finland—reject Germany's proposal of a Union, non-aggression pact. signed—the pact made secret provisions The Pact of Steel is signed between Fascist regarding the division of Eastern Europe. This Italy and Nazi Germany. Although the initial protocol was conducted by Hitler to make sure naming further the threat of Soviet intervention during the cooperation between the two states, the main German invasion of Poland is completely purpose of the Pact is military alliance. eradicated. June and of - Mongolia the Pact the declares Pact is concession in the North China Treaty Port of Adolf Hitler, invades Poland, Italy will not Tientsin, known as the Tientsin Incident. follow the Pact of Steel. After this message, July Neville Hitler delays the launch of the invasion for Chamberlain declares support for Poland and five days in order to make sure British and states British government’s outlook on the French neutrality on the subject. Prime the Molotov-Ribbentrop Mussolini states that if the German Dictator, British blockade the British - Japanese in Minister Free City of Danzig, not seeing it as an internal German-Polish affair. Chamberlain further asserts that Britain would intervene on behalf of Poland in case of territorial hostility. September – Germany sends an ultimatum to Poland regarding the Polish Corridor and the Free City of Danzig. Without response to the dictatorships ultimatum, Germany invades Poland, starting the war. B. Sociopolitical Causes of World War II a) Rise of Adolf Hitler and the Territorial and Political Advancement of Nazi Dictatorship The rise of Nazi Germany was a center figure of the interwar period that led to the outbreak of the war—a period that was marked with fragile peace and diminutive security. The Nazi Party’s outlook on the period and its later advancement is forever entwined with its leader, Adolf Hitler. After failing in admittance to the Vienna Arts Academy, he began to develop interest in politics.xxxviii After he served his years in the army, he seized the power in the German Workers Party, in 1920, to rename it as the National Socialist German Workers Party (Nazi Party in short). (Figure 1: Nazi propaganda poster regarding the fourth referendums Hitler called out during 1930's. This poster simply urges a 'yes' vote.)xxxix The Beer Hall Putsch happened right after Hitler’s seizure of power, a small protest that failed. Hitler, in great amounts, blamed the socialists and Jews, who he said had surrendered the nation, regarding Germany’s loss in the Great War.xl With the publishing of Mein Kampf (My Struggle), he provided a blueprint for his understanding of what German policy should be, with references to racial discrimination; outlining Aryan superiority and Jewish inferiority. xli The years between 1925 and 1929 were a fairly stable interval for Europe, and such Nazi advancement was not developed. Nevertheless, starting with the Great Depression and decent into the war, the Nazi Party gained an overwhelming support from the German citizens.xlii In this time of instability, Hitler promised economical growth and political advancement, and quickly rose to Chancellorship on January 30, 1933. After gaining such power in the Reichstag, Hitler started to modify the political and military landscape of Germany through his private army, the S.A. -members of elite troops- roamed the streets terrorizing political opponents. xliii With the adaptation of the Enabling Act of 1933, Hitler gained power to make decrees with the status of law—giving him a status above all legislations, making him an authoritarian figure. xliv After his appointment as the Chancellor of Germany, the Nazi Party, with the leadership of Adolf Hitler, began to eliminate political oppositions of the party as well as the ideology it advocates. Hitler, later, became the self-appointed ‘Führer’ of Germany, with centralizing all governmental and administrative powers under his dictatorship.xlv Considering the post-Great War status of Germany and the beginning stages of the Great Depression, Hitler created seemingly radical changes in both social areas of the state and in its inner and foreign policies. Adolf Hitler, following the teachings of National Socialism, changed the political landscape of post-WWI Germany with his applications of diversified militarism and hostile approaches to the Treaty of Versailles and racial/sexual minorities.xlvi Through this escalation in national military spending, Hitler was able to transform the unemployment and the general economic devastation (considering the post-war status) by military recruitment and increasing the manpower in related areas. The re-establishment of a strong economic stability elevated the regime's popularity among the common citizen.xlvii Hitler’s policy comprised of a planned economy aiming to reconstruct employment—the unemployed gained jobs through working on government projects, jobs were opened through shortening working hours and labor was forbidden to organize. The Nazi Regime was overly totalitarian in all fields of control.xlviii Hitler personally oversaw all functions of the economy. The entirety of the education system and every method of expression were monitored through various means of regulation. The Nazi regime reflected infuriating amounts of philistinism —not only creating a system of regulation (Ministry of Propaganda) for all movies, newspapers, radio and art forms, but also rewriting curricula and textbooks to reflect Nazi ideology.xlix The Ministry aimed to mobilize German anti-Semitism in support of Nazi persecution of German Jews. Germany adopted these structurally national socialist policies in order to help persecute Jews and other ethnic/sexual minorities while conquering all of Europe for the Aryan race—the main plan resulting in the outbreak of the war.l Hitler also conducted drastic violations to the Treaty of Versailles. The initial commands of the Treaty required Germany to indefinitely diminish the size of its army to 100,000 men, and destroy their tanks, air force, and U-boat fleet. Starting in 1935, with Hitler announcing the mandatory military conscription, the dictatorship responded poorly to the requirements of the Treaty. li Hitler not only structuralized a dogmatic inner policy with heavy militarization and regulation of civic duties/artists, he also formulated a hostile foreign policy. He, chronologically, won back the Saar (1935), re-militarized the Rhineland (1936), formed an alliance ("axis") with Mussolini's Italy (1936), sent massive military aid to Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936–39), seized Austria (1938), took over Czechoslovakia after the British and French appeasement of the Munich Agreement of 1938, formed a peace pact with Stalin's Russia in August 1939, and finally invaded Poland in September 1939.lii Hitler’s racial policies quickly transformed into a hostile racial classification. This fragmentation in the social landscape of Germany was preeminent even before the introduction of proper anti- Semitism in legislations. The Reichstag, under strict orders of Hitler, was able to structure institutions to distinguish between the Aryan race (considered the ‘purest race’ and therefore ‘championed’ above all) and others. Jewish people and other racial (Romani’s) and sexual (homosexuals) minorities that were considered undesirable, were persecuted and murdered. Members of different political followings such as those that are liberal, socialist, and communist were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. Further aspects of civic life are limited into regulations defined by Hitler’s dictatorship. Perhaps the greatest permanent hostility towards the initiation of the war was with the aggressive territorial demands in Europe, threatening with war if they were not concluded. It seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939, launching war in Europe.liii b) Spanish Civil War The Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936 as a result of political indifference of specific ideologies towards each other in the Spanish social landscape. The war began after Spanish Republican Armed Forces’ pronunciamiento7, and quickly developed into a frenzy of opposition groups fighting with each other for political power.liv (Figure 2: Republican International Brigadiers at the Spanish Civil War)lv While the Civil War did not spread to the neighboring states, it disintegrated Europe’s political scenery, with Germany and Italy supporting Nationalists led by General Francisco Franco in Spain whereas the Soviet Union reinforced the existing government, the Spanish Republic.lvi However the Europe’s involvement to the Civil War may be, the League of Nations never interfered with the events, and with this neutrality, failed to ensure peace and security in Europe, both politically and 7 Declaration of opposition socially. The Civil War was concluded with the victory of Nationalists in 1939. Although Spanish Civil War did not cause a definite and major affect on the initiation of the war in Europe, it surely transfigured the political landscape of Europe and help match countries with ideologies that led to the War itself.lvii c) Rhineland Occupation and the German Remilitarization of the Area (Figure 3: Map showing the Rhineland occupation and related demographics of the area through a historical perspective)lviii After the French occupation of Rhineland following the Great War, the events regarding the demographic unrest were seemingly stabilized. In 1930, the French occupation ended when the troops were withdrawn from the area. However, due to Hitler’s overwhelmingly aggressive foreign policy, Rhineland was remilitarized against the strict orders of the Treaty of Versailles. lix Germany moved its newly recruited troops to a restricted area in western Germany, where they were not allowed under the Treaty of Versailles. Although this violation happened in an unambiguous state, France did not act because of contemporary political instability at the time; and Britain thought the subject matter of Versailles Treaty was unjust.lx This was the first of many violations conducted by the Nazi Germany to the Treaty of Versailles, and it paved the way to the war. d) Second Italo-Ethiopian War Between the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy and the armed forces of the Ethiopian Empire, the Second Italo-Ethiopian War was fought—it lasted from 1935 to 1936. The war ended with the military occupation of Ethiopia. lxi The war was mostly caused by the Italian Dictator Benito Mussolini’s desire to expand the Italian Empire in Africa—not only to increase the demographics of colonization but also to expand in terms of workforce and industrialization. The war was crucial in the evaluation of the effectiveness of League of Nations in international turmoil. League of Nations’ sanctions on oil sales were ineffective. lxii Italy annexed Ethiopia in May and created the single colony Italian East Africa—merging Ethiopia, Eritrea and Somaliland. After a condemning speech by Emperor Haile Selassie, Mussolini declared the country's withdrawal from the League of Nations.lxiii e) Invasion of Manchuria and the Second SinoJapanese War (Figure 4: Japanese troops marching into Mukden, 18 September 1931)lxiv The Second Sino-Japanese War [named after the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–95], was a military conflict between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan starting in 1937. lxv Before the war, however, it was Japanese act of taking advantage from China’s political and military weakness in the Warlord Era. Japan formulated the Mukden Incident in 1931, creating the puppet state of Manchukuo in Manchuria—it was not only the creation of a new state, but using Puyi, the last emperor of China, as its emperor. This event led to the 1937 incident of Marco Polo Bridge, triggering the Second SinoJapanese War.lxvi The invasion started with a series of bombings of Shangai, Nanjing and Guangzhou—territorially and developmentally important cities of China. The Japanese troops were fairly successful in their methodological approach to Chinese borders, were a lot of which were destroyed to become puppet states of Japan—as much as three. The Japanese Army captured Nanjing—the Chinese capital—and committed series of war crimes that resulted in the Nanjing massacre.lxvii The war was mostly based on the Japanese imperialist policy—The Empire was vastly interested in the expansion of military and political resources, as well as the raw material reserves and related economical resources in the area. Regarding the competition for resources and markets in the postindustrial revolution era, the Japanese imperialist agenda was a common attribute of the period— especially food and labor goods were favored by the nation, since Japan, demographically, was in a disadvantage.lxviii Especially before the Second Sino-Japanese War, China and Japan mostly fought in small, localized engagements—that in most cases were named as incidents rather than full-scale armed conflicts and/or wars.lxix Both events (the Manchuria invasion and the Second Sino-Japanese War) are politically entwined in their definition of the foreign outlook to Japan. Starting from 1931, the events between the two states manifested with an overwhelmingly intergovernmental antipathy to Japan, lasting for the decade. lxx The events preoccupied the political agenda of League of Nations, in the sense that the organization issued several reports on the everlasting armed conflict. League of Nations accused Japan regarding the aggressive invasion, causing Japan to withdraw from the League. However, the war was crucial in projecting the understanding to nations that the League was inefficient and powerless in stopping a state from committing an aggressive policy against other countries—that if a strong nation such as Japan can commit obvious hostility without serious consequences, any nation can. This provided a blueprint for further aggressive actions concluded by other states, such that Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini followed Japan’s example in three years, attacking their neighbors—In the case of Italy, against Abyssinia, and Hitler, against Czechoslovakia and Poland.lxxi d) Anschluss Pan-Germanism -the idea that collecting all individuals of German ethnicity under one Greater Germany, into one nation-state- was a popular political ideology among Germans during the interwar period. This ideology, although it was Europe-specific, it mostly included Germans living under Austria. Anschluss was the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany in March 1938. The ideology behind Anschluss goes as far back as to 1866, to the Austro-Prussian War, when the war concluded with the dissolution of the 19th-century German Confederation stood for the ideal version of the subject—a loose link between Austria and various independent German monarchies (e.g. Prussia and Bavaria) was sustained through the Anschluss movement.lxxii The movement was to gain continuity, nevertheless, due to the Treaty of Saint Germain (10 September 1919) and the Treaty of Versailles (28 June 1919), the movement was cut short with the prevention of both the union and the continued use of the name "German-Austria".lxxiii Although The Stresa Front was conducted between the governments of Britain, France and Italy to ensure the independence of Austria; the Front did not meet its initial aims. After the creation of the Rome-Berlin Axis, Italy, with Mussolini’s leadership, lost its interest in maintaining the states independence.lxxiv The Austrian government politically resisted the Anschluss, but without fighting between the states took place due to Austrians enthusiasm regarding the merging of states. After some time, the Austrian government gave up because they were not provided for any sort of outside support. lxxv As a result, Austria was fully absorbed by German powers. Outside forces showed continuity in their neutrality towards the entire event—Italy even grew closer to the Nazi regime.lxxvi e) Border War between Soviet Union and Japanese Troops In 1939, the Japanese troops attacked the Mongolian People’s Republic from west Manchuria, following the earlier Battle of Lake Khasan in 1938. The conflict is alternatively named after the river Khalkhyn Gol, which passes through the battlefield.lxxvii The Japanese Sixth Army was defeated by Soviet units under General Georgy Zhukov. After this battle, however, a peace was made between the subjects of war, with Japan contemplating south to expand its empire—and creating further conflict with the United States over the Philippines and the Dutch East Indies—and the Soviet Union focusing on the western border of the state. Soviet Union, regardless of peace, left about 1.5 million troops to guard the frontier with Japan.lxxviii f) Munich Agreement and the German occupation and Slovak independence (Figure 5: From left to right: Chamberlain, Daladier, Hitler, Mussolini, pictured before signing and the Ciano Munich Agreement, which gave the Sudetenland to Germany.) The Munich Agreement was a settlement between Germany, France, United Kingdom and Italy (Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia was not included) regarding the annexation of specific portions of Czechoslovakia—also including country's borders mainly inhabited by German speakers, for which a new territorial designation "Sudetenland" was created.lxxix The Munich agreement was a failed attempt of appeasement towards Germany. The main aim of the Munich conference was to debate over the prospect of the Sudetenland, regarding the ethnic demands made by Adolf Hitler.lxxx Considering that Sudetenland was of utmost strategic importance to Czechoslovakia—and also to Eastern Europe—because most of Czechoslovakian border defenses were situated there—along with many banks and heavy industries. In exchange of this agreement, Hitler promised on behalf of Germany that he would not make further territorial claims in Europe.lxxxi Because Czechoslovakia was not allowed to participate in the conference, French and British negotiators informed the Czechoslovak representatives about the agreement. lxxxii If such a case occurred where Czechoslovakia would not accept the agreement, France and Britain stated their approach considering Czechoslovakia to be responsible for war. As a result, Germany took the Sudetenland unopposed. German troops invaded Prague in March 1939, invading the Munich Agreement. As a result, Slovakslxxxiii declared their independence and the country of Czechoslovakia disappeared.lxxxiv C. Descending into War: Britain during Interwar Years a) Overview (Figure 6: British propaganda poster for the Second World War)lxxxv The post-Great War politics were difficult to adjust for the British government—not only the Empire lost its global supremacy, but it also fell into a state of crises in its sociopolitical structure between the wars. The British Empire was territorially larger than ever in these years, however, due to its weak political structure, the Empire could not properly manage these colonies/annexes.lxxxvi After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, its territories was largely divided between UK and France, but these states quickly lost their annexes due to failed representations, poor administration and an overall economical instability to maintain the security of such areas—British Empire could not afford building bases or ships to defend its Empire, mirroring the period before 1914.lxxxvii The gap left by the British Empire was filled by the United States, with them becoming the new supreme world power-state, causing Europe to lose its decades-long self-proclamation as the political power. Regarding US’ redefinition of power balances in the Great War, and Wilson’s configuration of peace between the states; the British Empire quietly fell into a position of sophomoric decadence.lxxxviii The interwar years were the British Empire’s final years in protecting its self-actualized value of a supreme world power—as it have been for, arguably, the last 200 years. ‘‘The country was £900 million in debt to the US for war loans, which were to be repaid immediately. Britain's enviable worldwide investments were wiped out, its coal and cotton export markets had collapsed. This was a period of retraction abroad (by the late 1920s the white 'dominions' determined their own foreign policies) and social reform at home. A limited number of women were allowed to vote in 1918, but by 1927 all women over the age of 21 could vote and Britain had universal suffrage for the first time in history. The electorate trebled, bringing in the first government under the Labour party to represent the views of the working class.’’lxxxix Even though British Empire left the Great War victoriously, the government was failing to adjust to the actualities of the period—not only they were politically instable, but also the economical realities were predestined to be despondent.xc Immediately after the Great War, workers of key industries started to plan and carry out strikes—among their demands were higher wages, better working conditions, and shorter hours considering that the war was ended. Specifically, workers in the mining and railway industries were obstinate to the government’s handling of economical readjustments, and troops were present in many protests during this period.xci However spirited these movements were, the socialist agenda popular in the interwar period was not fully recognized in the British political scene—as a result, the aim to nationalize the industry was hibernated for the time being.xcii As a key policy for economical destabilization, government-owned factories were privatized; resulting in the British government having a fraction of businesses they used to own before WWI. To further advance the economy, the government also tried to remain neutral in foreign affairs, hoping that laissez-faire economics would elevate the post-war economy.xciii Economical readjustment was far from reaching; much less political stability was maintained. David Lloyd George of the National Liberal Party, serving as the Prime Minister at the peak of the First World War, was resigned in 1922, ending his 6 years term.xciv As a result of his resignation, the coalition parties under his command disintegration, causing a political fragmentation in the British Parliament—this undeniably ushered a period of political ambiguity. These years were defined by the constant tension between British Conservative Party and the leftist Labour Party—later controlled the government for a short time in 1924. However, the Conservative Party ruled for most of the period (1925-1929).xcv In 1926, The Samuel Commission, as requested by the government, published a report regarding coal industry supporting wage reductions to settle strikes all over the nation in May. The infamous Triple Alliance, compromised of miners, rail workers and other transport-related workers began to strike upon the report, firing workers all over the nation to sympathize with their cause. xcvi However spirited these strikes were, they couldn't kill the high profile of conservatism at the time, and the government held out until 1929. The miners returned to work in December, forced by necessity, and the Trade Disputes Act of 1927 made sympathetic striking illegal.xcvii Over the course of these 5 years, however, the Conservative Party lost direction in their political agenda, and this ambiguity reflected upon government’s decisions—resulting in the victory of the Labour Party in 1929 elections. The Labour government aimed to exercise a great control over domestic economy, but due to hesitations regarding public opinion, was mostly left motionless.xcviii With the crash of Wall Street, the period of depression began throughout the world, leaving the British Empire as damaged as any other powerful state around Europe. This specific economic crisis tore the British Parliament apart with disagreements regarding recovery measures. While Labour Party advocated extremely leftist policies and unwise spending, xcix the Liberal and Conservative Parties were indecisive in what to suggest. Regardless of their indecisiveness, the Conservatives left the 1931 elections with victory, gaining the majority of seats in the Parliament.c The Depression gained a colossal effect on the British economics, cutting off the unemployment benefits in 1931—it would not return until 1934. Britain failed to construct a stable economy during these years, and the nation entered the war with ongoing political and economical damages. The politics were not much structuralized in 1930’s as planned.ci In 1937, Stanley Baldwin, the experienced prime minister and leader of the Conservative Party for the past fifteen years, resigned his post, leaving Neville Chamberlain as his successor. Chamberlain was not beneficial for the British Empire, with following failed policies for appeasement—he conducted the Munich Pact with Adolf Hitler. b) Attempts for Economical Readjustment Britain confronted significant dilemmas over the conversion from wartime to a peacetime economy—the interwar period saw a lot of policy changes regarding unchanging economical problems. The Great War not only created new economical difficulties for Britain, but it also deepened the old disruptions on the state’s economy. Before the war, the majority of the economical income came from British oversea colonies and inner industry, in which the nation failed to maintain the high production that was satisfactory before the war. Britain felt recessional pressures during this period, losing main industries of income—including textile and transport/shipping—to competition overseas. Post-WWI British economics also experienced a financial boom in the early 1920’s, ‘‘mainly attributed to the expansion of the shipping industry due to the surge of demand for the export of coal, steel and manufactured goods. This in turn increased the demand for more ships. As a result this boom was short lived as industry began to slump due to oversupply as well as being faced with competition from other nations.’’cii (Figure 7: Tyldesley miners outside the Miners’ Hall during the strike)ciii The flush of success derived from Britain’s victory in the Great War carried an imaginative prosperity in England in 1919—mostly due to poorly conducted politics of the era—but throughout the 1920’s, overproduction led to depression and chronic unemployment. Some specific sociopolitical problems caused economical disintegration in the British Empire. Demobilization, known as the integration of veterans into civilian life, was especially hard to actualize due to high unemployment rates and veteran specific problems (both physiologically and mentally). Another key problem was the Disruption of Trade, which defines as: During the war, normal trade had been disrupted; and England found it difficult to again trade manufactured goods to pre-war customers. The Americans and the Japanese had taken over many of their international commerce residing in Europe, China, India, and Latin America.civ Another problem regarding the Disruption of Trade was the increased use of oil and electricity both in UK and outside of its territories greatly affected the coal industry—which was regarded in widespread as the traditional backbone of the Empire. cv Disruption of Trade led to problems arising from Indebtedness, which regards the foreign debts of British government. The administration trusted upon the war reparations for the solution of indebtedness, nevertheless, the subject fell short of being effective. cvi ‘‘Large debts owed the United States and the growing social welfare segment of government also greatly affected the performance of the British economy.’’ cvii Regardless of these specific developments towards the economical instability, the most damaging of such developments was arguably the Depression Period.cviii Not only did the post-WWI policies elevate this problem, but also the Wall Street Crash of 1929 induced and fired the whole process. Nevertheless, post war economical readjustment was hard to accomplish for the British government, failing on a number of occasions, and causing serious political damages. (Figure 8: The Subsidised Mineowner—Poor Beggar! from the Trade Union Unity Magazine (1925)cix Unemployment was a major post-war reality of the economic scene of Britain, with over 2 million out of a population of 42 million were left without occupations. cx During the 1920’s, unemployment was largely caused by the fail of an expansion economy targeting post war markets. This policy was planned out to have an adequate response to the loss of markets because of the increase in tariff barriers, other economically industrial nations, and development of competition to the textile industry and replacement of coal.cxiThe British government tried to tackle this economic stress caused by unemployment through some legislative and non-legislative matters, including unemployment insurance, old age pensions, and subsidizing housing. cxii The earlier "National Insurance Act" of 1911 provided benefits to unemployed workers; however, this act was quickly proven to be inadequate to be applied. Before the Labour Party won the majority of seats in the Parliament in 1924 and in 1929, Britain had adopted a welfare state to guarantee the wellbeing of the standardized living for British Workers.cxiii ‘‘To arrest the decline in overseas trade, Britain made trade agreements with the Soviet Union (1924, 1927) and made special treaties with the British Dominions and colonies, who were organized into a voluntary international organization known by the late 1920's as the British Commonwealth. Britain had been an champion of free trade, but the strains of depression were leading it toward protective tariffs. The Great Depression made many countries build tariff barriers and further lessened British export sales. Thus Britain was forced to end the gold standard and free trade and establish protective customs taxes.’’cxiv The unemployment and the shift in key industrial workforce were often protested with strikes and labor disturbances. These acts were specifically popular in 1920’s, with the Great Coal Strike of 1926 being the most prominent act. ‘‘As coal exports fell, mine owners attempted to normalize profits by implementing wage reductions on their employees. Due to the already weakened economy, outcry from the miners abounded. In what became known as Red Friday, the government promised to subsidize any wage reductions that emerged.’’cxv Over 1.5 million men refused to work in the first week of the Great Coal Strike, but with TUC union’s attempts to negotiate, the strike was quickly called off. These strikes, in general, never led to political revolution.cxvi Although the failing policies of the 1920’s, some economic recovery was able to succeed in the 1930’s. Especially with the General Tariff of 1932, the British economy was able to experience modest government revenue increase. This growth continued with the movement that starched away from the Gold Standard, which allowed economic revitalization.cxvii New industries (e.g. chemicals and auto manufacturing) allowed for economic expansion, unlike the previous industries of the earlier interwar years (e.g. shipping and coal industries). Due to the rise of the Nazi Germany, Britain started to invest in their military vigorously, in 1937. This spending also helped to increase economic growth.cxviii c) Political Instability and the Attempts for Durability ‘‘Responses to the social welfare of the state came from the labour unions who struggled to maintain the wage gains received in wartime. Strikes from British unions broke out over welfare policies and government had to implement military personnel to maintain the production of industry. The Labour Party rose as the second of the two great parties of Britain displacing the Liberal Party after the election of 1922 and opposed the conservatives as official opposition. It soon rose in popularity as it was able to consistently and actively deal with labour legislation and take bolder measure to deal with the troubled economic state of Britain. Led by Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald the labour party decreased Government aid and moderated unemployment relief and inaugurated housing and public works projects. The Labour Party came to power again in 1929 as their representation in the parliament doubled. In the same year the great depression hit and wall street crashed, unemployment tripled, and deficit started to mount up. IN response MacDonald formed a all-party coalition known as the National Government.’’cxix (Figure 9: Britih Parliament during the interwar yearscxx) One of the most daring political problems of the interwar period was the problem with Ireland. Prior to their independence, Ireland was considered part of Great Britain and was ruled by English landlords. Due to ethnic and religious differences between Britain and Ireland, the movement of independence escalated arguably around the nineteenth century. cxxi At 1918, the Irish rebelled against broken promises of home rule and the strains of war.cxxii For over a year, tension and rebellion continued between the underground Irish Republican Army and Imperial British forces. Although the British promised abandonment of the compromise of home rule and autonomy within the British Empire, the Irish under the leadership of Sinn Fein insisted upon total independence and separation.cxxiii By the 1930’s, the Irish were successful to gain independence, and was separated completely from the British, becoming the Irish Republic.cxxiv The Interwar Period also witnessed the transformation of British Empire to the British Commonwealth. The British Empire continued to govern its older colonies and protectorates, adding them the League of Nations mandates in such regions as the Middle East (Trans-Jordan, Iraq and Palestine) and Africa (Tanganyika and Namibia). Overall Britain directly or indirectly controlled 25% of the world's people. cxxv However, dominions of the Great Britain, including Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, became autonomous regarding their domestic government in 1914. After such politically progressive movements, the British Commonwealth was founded with unique diversifications. cxxvi A Wartime Imperial meeting declared that the self-governing be considered autonomous nations within an association know as the British Commonwealth. At another imperial conference in 1926 and in a law known as the Statute of Westminster in 1931, England and its dominions became members of a trade and defensive association known as the British Commonwealth of Nations. Each dominion had the right to choose chose its own government and promulgate its own laws. Dominions could accept or reject laws passed by the British government.cxxvii The British Commonwealth quickly grew to be a sum of economic, political, and historical bonds between the Commonwealth states and Britain, due to virtual independence of the states. cxxviii Regardless of this fact, dominions continued within the commonwealth through recognition by the dominions of the sovereignty of the British Crown. “British domestic concern with economic problems, particularly the affects of the depression upon unemployment and foreign trade, gravely affected and weakened British response to the aggressive policies of Germany, Japan and Italy in the 1930's.”cxxix Although an economic crisis was continuous in the interwar years for the UK, political changes did occur, almost inevitably. There were two very important political changes. cxxx The first being defined as: ‘‘Universal manhood suffrage was finally completed with the final few percent of disenfranchised Englishmen were given their political rights in Britain in 1918, received the franchise in l928.cxxxi The second was: ‘‘the decline of the Liberal Party and the rise of the Labor Party as the major opponent to the Conservative party in British Politics.’’cxxxii There were many government changes in the interwar period, some of which were even carried out through formations of coalition governments. cxxxiii The decline of the Liberal Party (which was happening for a long period of time) and the immaturity of Labour meant that conservatives were in the helm. The Conservative Party was a frontrunner in this period, with forming most of the governments and having the majority of the seats in the Parliament.cxxxiv Since the conclusion of the First World War, the largest bloc in the Parliament belonged to the Conservative Party.cxxxv Until 1922, the party maintained a wartime coalition with the Liberals, and from the disintegration of the coalition government to 1929, they formed most of the governments in the leadership of Stanley Baldwin. For a brief time in 1924, Labor party established a government in the leadership of Ramsay Macdonald with the support of a fraction of the Liberals.cxxxvi This government, however, did not last long, due to accusations of collusion with Communists in the recognition of the Soviet government. The Conservative Party, however, lost its credibility and reputation after the Depression—a common attribute that was similar to the United States.cxxxvii ‘‘Elections in 1929 saw the Conservatives lost over 150 seats in Parliament, while Labour nearly doubled its representation were most keenly felt by the British public, Ramsay Macdonald, the Labour Party leader, became Prime Minister with a Liberal-Labour coalition cabinet. With the support of some Liberal M.P.'s, Ramsay MacDonald formed Labour's second government in a Labour dominated coalition.’’cxxxviii The depression worsened through time, quickly turning into an economic crisis sweeping Europe, inducing the formation of a broad based coalition government which included ministers from all three parties (Conservative, Labour, and Liberal) in 1932 known as the ‘National Government’.cxxxix Until 1935, the Labour leader Ramsay MacDonald led the National Government, when Stanley Baldwin of the Conservative Party took over. Baldwin retired in 1937 to be replaced by Neville Chamberlain. After Chamberlain, Winston Churchill came to office as a wartime Prime Minister to lead the British Campaign through the war.cxl (Table 1: Prime Minister and office changes during the interwar years in the United Kingdom) Portrait Name Office Duration Party Monarch Served David Lloyd George 7 December 191619 October 1922 National Liberal George V Andrew Bonar Law 23 October 192220 May 1923 Conservative George V Stanley Baldwin (1st ministry) 23 May 192316 January 1924 Conservative George V Ramsay MacDonald (1st ministry) 22 January 19244 November 1924 Labour George V Stanley Baldwin (2nd ministry) Ramsay MacDonald (2nd ministry) Ramsay MacDonald (3rd ministry) 4 November 19245 June 1929 Conservative George V 5 June 1929-24 August 1931 Labour George V Stanley Baldwin (3rd ministry) 7 June 1935-28 May 1937 Neville Chamberlain 24 August 1931-7 June 1935 28 May 1937- 3 September 1939 National Labour (National Government) Conservative (National Government) Conservative (National Government) George V George V, Edward VIII George VI George VI d) Conclusion The interwar period is undeniably defined as one of the toughest times in the shared history of the world. The diplomatic outcome of The Great War majorly defined and determined the landscape of European relations during this period—with the initial event being the Paris Peace Conference. During this decade defining political event, large blocks of territory in Eastern Europe were dismantled among countries, with also drawing the boundaries for new independent states. These states were not economically or politically stable; much less their sovereignty was fully adopted. Due to their primitive approaches to democracy and independence, they were often victims of hostility and antagonistic ethnic groups. Moreover, neither the victorious countries nor the defeated ones were more stable than the countries that were newly formed. Germany, UK, France, Italy and other active participants of the First World War suffered from political instability and economic disintegration. With the rise of radical, extremist political oppositions, Europe entered a period of governmental ambiguity, arising from differentiating ideologies. Both fascism and communism peaked during the interwar years, attracting more followers than ever before. All of this devastation led to poor administration and depraved government decisions. Most of the Eastern Europe was left to dictatorial governments with poor administration, making them an open target for the rearmed Germany. Germany was not only left devastated by the war, but also by the settlement of the war, in which the state was regarded as the sole aggressor and the initiative nation of the conflict. The Treaty of Versailles ordered the military and economic dismemberment of Germany, and it also included heavy reparation payments to Britain, France, and the other allied nations. Germany highly suffered from starvation, mass unemployment and rampant inflation during the 1920’s and with the beginning of the Great Depression, these devastations became unbearable for the nation. German citizens, during this period, were almost hostile towards foreign powers, and wished the return of the great German Nation—a condition they were in before the war. With Adolf Hitler’s leadership, the Nazi Party came into power with promising the demands of the people—primarily assuring a future of glory and European domination. The Nazi Party hosted military policies heavy on rearmament, in the purpose of a European conquest—which was, at first, met with neutrality by the Allied forces, for the purpose of avoiding a second war. It was quickly understood that Germany threatened the peace and security of the world, and after twenty years, the war begun. Bibliography i Ww2db.com, (2014). 1919 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at: http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1919/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2014]. ii Rhodes, B. (2001). United States foreign policy in the interwar period, 1918-1941. Westport, Conn.: Praeger. iii Stearns, P. (2001). Encyclopedia of European social history from 1350 to 2000. New York: Scribner. iv Ww2db.com, (2014). 1920 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at: http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1920/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2014]. v Van Wie, P. (1999). Image, history, and politics. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America. vi Ww2db.com, (2014). 1921 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at: http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1921/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2014]. vii Weinberg, G. (1995). Germany, Hitler, and World War II. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press. viii Ww2db.com, (2014). 1922 Timeline | World War II Database. 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Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. xxxvii Fussell, P. Wartime: Understanding and Behavior in the Second World War. New York. xxxviii Buell, Raymond L. Europe: A History of Ten Years. The Macmillan Co., New York: 1928. xxxix Bytwerk.com, (2015). Nazi Posters: 1933-1939. [online] Available at: http://www.bytwerk.com/gpa/posters2.htm [Accessed 31 Jan. 2015]. xl Ibid. xli Ibid. xlii Dutt, R. Palme. World Politics 1918 - 1936. International publishers, New York: 1936. xliii Ibid. xliv Ibid. xlv Van Wie, P. (1999). Image, history, and politics. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America. xlvi Ibid. xlvii Ibid. xlviii Kitchen, M. (1988) Europe Between the Wars: A Political History. Longman Group, London. xlix Ibid. l Ibid. li Ww2db.com, (2014). 1935 Timeline | World War II Database. [online] Available at: http://ww2db.com/event/timeline/1935/ [Accessed 25 Jan. 2015]. lii Weinberg, G. (1970). The foreign policy of Hitler's Germany. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. liii Weinberg, G. (1995). Germany, Hitler, and World War II. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press. liv Payne, S. (1970). The Spanish Revolution. New York: Norton. lv Rusarchives.ru, (2015). "1936-1939''. [online] Available at: http://rusarchives.ru/evants/exhibitions/civil-war-spain-kat/171.shtml [Accessed 31 Jan. 2015]. lvi Ibid. lvii Payne, S. (2004). The Spanish Civil War, the Soviet Union, and communism. New Haven: Yale University Press. lviii Bbc.co.uk, (2015). [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/staticarchive/40bbcc61910f51040eac5d6605b54030c7b81b3d.gif [Accessed 31 Jan. 2015]. lix Doerr, P. (1998). British foreign policy, 1919-1939. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. lx Ibid. lxi Baer, G. (1967). The coming of the Italian-Ethiopian War. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. lxii Ibid. lxiii Ibid. lxiv Ww2db.com, (2015). Pre-WW2 Photos | World War II Database. [online] Available at: http://ww2db.com/photo.php?list=sp&sp=prewar [Accessed 31 Jan. 2015]. lxv Stearns, P. and Langer, W. (2001). The Encyclopedia of world history. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. lxvi Ibid. lxvii Gordon, D. (2006). The China-Japan War, 1931-1945. The Journal of Military History, 70(1), pp.137-182. lxviii Ibid. lxix Ibid. lxx Harries, M. and Harries, S. (1991). Soldiers of the sun. New York: Random House. lxxi Walsh, B. (2001). GCSE modern world history. London: John Murray. lxxii Faber, D. (2008). Munich. London: Simon & Schuster. lxxiii Ibid. lxxiv Ibid. lxxv Kitchen, Martin. Europe Between the Wars: A Political History. Longman Group, London: 1988. lxxvi Ibid. lxxvii Coox, Alvin D.: Nomonhan: Japan Against Russia, 1939. Two volumes; 1985, Stanford University Press. lxxviii Ibid. lxxix Cole, R. (2010). "Appeasing Hitler: The Munich Crisis of 1938: A Teaching and Learning Resource,". New England Journal of History, 66(2), pp.1-30. lxxx Ibid. lxxxi Ibid. lxxxii Ibid. lxxxiii Ww2db.com, (2015). Pre-WW2 Photos | World War II Database. [online] Available at: http://ww2db.com/photo.php?list=sp&sp=prewar [Accessed 31 Jan. 2015]. lxxxiv Ibid. lxxxv Wikipedia, B. (2015). British World War Two propaganda artworks released on Wikipedia Telegraph. [online] Telegraph.co.uk. Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/picturegalleries/uknews/9333793/British-World-War-Twopropaganda-artworks-released-on-Wikipedia.html [Accessed 31 Jan. 2015]. lxxxvi Bbc.co.uk, (2015). BBC - History - British History in depth: Overview: Britain, 1918 - 1945. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwtwo/overview_britain_1918_1945_01.shtml [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015]. lxxxvii Ibid. lxxxviii Powers, James H. Years of Tumult: The World Since 1918. W.W. Norton and Co., Inc., New York: 1932. lxxxix Bbc.co.uk, (2015). BBC - History - British History in depth: Overview: Britain, 1918 - 1945. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/britain_wwtwo/overview_britain_1918_1945_01.shtml [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015]. xc Ibid. xci Ibid. xcii Ibid. xciii Ibid. xciv Bobhistory.wikispaces.com, (2015). Bobhistory - British Interwar Years. [online] Available at: https://bobhistory.wikispaces.com/British+Interwar+Years [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015]. xcv Ibid. xcvi Ibid. xcvii Ibid. xcviii Ibid. xcix Eichengreen, B. (2015). The British Economy Between the Wars. [online] berkeley.edu Available at: http://eml.berkeley.edu/~eichengr/research/floudjohnsonchaptersep16-03.pdf [Accessed 28 Jan. 2015]. c Ibid. ci Ibid. cii Bobhistory.wikispaces.com, (2015). Bobhistory - British Interwar Years. [online] Available at: https://bobhistory.wikispaces.com/British+Interwar+Years [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015]. ciii Ww2db.com, (2015). Pre-WW2 Photos | World War II Database. [online] Available at: http://ww2db.com/photo.php?list=sp&sp=prewar [Accessed 31 Jan. 2015]. civ Shsu.edu, (2015). Lecture on England and France in the Interwar Period. [online] Available at: http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/BrFr.html [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015]. cv Keynes, J. (1920). The economic consequences of the peace. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Howe. cvi Shsu.edu, (2015). Lecture on England and France in the Interwar Period. [online] Available at: http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/BrFr.html [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015]. cvii Ibid. cviii Ibid. cix Ww2db.com, (2015). Pre-WW2 Photos | World War II Database. [online] Available at: http://ww2db.com/photo.php?list=sp&sp=prewar [Accessed 31 Jan. 2015]. cx Shsu.edu, (2015). Lecture on England and France in the Interwar Period. [online] Available at: http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/BrFr.html [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015]. cxi Ibid. cxii Ibid. cxiii Wu, J. (2000). Unemployment-Related Benefits System in the United Kingdom. 1st ed. [ebook] Hong Kong: Research and Library Services Division Legislative Council Secretariat. Available at: http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr99-00/english/sec/library/e15.pdf [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015]. cxiv Shsu.edu, (2015). Lecture on England and France in the Interwar Period. [online] Available at: http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/BrFr.html [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015]. cxv Bobhistory.wikispaces.com, (2015). Bobhistory - British Interwar Years. [online] Available at: https://bobhistory.wikispaces.com/British+Interwar+Years [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015]. cxvi The Cabinet Papers Interwar period. (2010). 1st ed. [ebook] London: The National Archives. Available at: http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/cabinetpapers/themes/interwar-period.html [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015]. cxvii Ibid. cxviii Shsu.edu, (2015). Lecture on England and France in the Interwar Period. [online] Available at: http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/BrFr.html [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015]. cxix Ibid. cxx The Albert County Museum & RB Bennett Commemorative Centre, (2015). RB Bennett. [online] Available at: http://www.albertcountymuseum.com/rb-bennett/ [Accessed 31 Jan. 2015]. cxxi Bbc.co.uk, (2015). BBC - History - British History in depth: Overview: Britain, 1918 - 1945. [online] Available at: cxxii Ibid. cxxiii Collins, M. (1976). Ireland, 1800-1970. London: Longman. cxxiv Ibid. cxxv Shsu.edu, (2015). Lecture on England and France in the Interwar Period. [online] Available at: http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/BrFr.html [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015]. cxxvi Eichengreen, B. (2015). The British Economy Between the Wars. [online] http://eml.berkeley.edu. Available at: http://eml.berkeley.edu/~eichengr/research/floudjohnsonchaptersep16-03.pdf [Accessed 28 Jan. 2015]. cxxvii Ibid. cxxviii Stearns, P. (2001). Encyclopedia of European social history from 1350 to 2000. New York: Scribner. cxxix Shsu.edu, (2015). Lecture on England and France in the Interwar Period. [online] Available at: http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/BrFr.html [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015]. cxxx Ibid. cxxxi Ibid. cxxxii Ibid. cxxxiii Kitchen, M. (1988). Europe between the wars. London: Longman. cxxxiv Ibid. cxxxv Orton, W. (1938). Twenty years' armistice, 1918-1938. New York: Farrar & Rinehart, Inc. cxxxvi Ibid. cxxxvii Ibid. cxxxviii Shsu.edu, (2015). Lecture on England and France in the Interwar Period. [online] Available at: http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/BrFr.html [Accessed 27 Jan. 2015]. cxxxix Powers, James H. Years of Tumult: The World Since 1918. W.W. Norton and Co., Inc., New York: 1932. cxl Ibid. 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