Download Click to Read - ScaleBlaster Canada, ASECO Solutions

The Principles of
Scale Formation
and Elimination
by the
By ClearWater Enviro Technologies, Inc.
This presentation is available in the following formats:
•Slide Show for PC on Zip Disk or CD-ROM - must have
Microsoft PowerPoint 97 for Windows 95.
•Executable file on Zip Disk or CD-ROM - Must have
Windows 95.
•Book binder format in full color.
•Book binder format in black & white.
Copyright 2001, second edition, ClearWater Enviro Technologies, Inc.
Any reproduction or transmission without written permission if this
publication is strictly prohibited. All rights reserved.
Introduction
attempted to solve the problems
associated with scale buildup-mainly calcium carbonate. Early
Egyptians used permanent magnets
in an attempt to reduce scale
deposits in pipes that carried hard
water.
One of the major problems to these
chemical free alternatives, is the
lack of understanding about the
operating principle or theory of such
products. Many manufacturers of
these products show a lack of
understanding of the principle of
fundamental physics and chemistry.
In the past 130 years or so,
numerous efforts to introduce
permanent magnets or
electromagnetic devices have been
made. More recently, a number of
devices using electromagnetic field
or sound waves have appeared on
the market.
For one reason or another, most of
the devices have failed to control
scale on a consistent and reliable
basis until the creation of the
electronic descaler,
“ScaleBlasterTM”, manufactured by
ClearWater Enviro Technologies,
Inc.
For nearly 3,000 years, man has
3
Introduction (continued)
This presentation will first take a good look at scale--its definition,
where scale is found, the cause of scale and its effects.
The second chapter will take a detailed look at the formation of
scale.
The third chapter will focus on water and its effect on scale
formation.
The fourth chapter will comprise of the complete theory of the
ScaleBlasterTM.
Chapter five will discuss ScaleBlasterTM installation and commonly
asked questions.
There are three Appendices at the end of this presentation. The first
one contains ScaleBlasterTM owner’s manuals, the second contains
specification sheets for each model and the third contains laboratory
test results.
4
Chapter 1
What is Scale?
Scale is a coating or precipitate
deposited on surfaces that are in
contact with hard water. The most
common form of scale is calcium
carbonate and occurs naturally as
an ingredient of chalk, limestone
and marble. Water passing over
and permeating through such rocks
dissolves calcite and when this
water subsequently flows through a
water system, the calcite
precipitates out in the form of a very
hard scale on surfaces.
5
When hard water is heated and
evaporation takes place, the
problems are increased
tremendously. Calcite forms ever
growing layers of rock-like deposits
until pipes are totally blocked.
In summary, scale is the
accumulation of mineral deposits
typically from a water stream.
Depending on the type of industry
you are in, scale is known by many
names.
Chapter 1
•Fouling: often used to describe scale deposits created by
living organisms
•Microbiological Fouling: scale deposits created by living
organisms
•Sediment (sludge): loosed deposits on pipelines and vessels
•Gypsum: all types of scale deposits in the oil industry
•Stone: deposits in the brewing and dairy industries
•Incrustation: scale in marine (sea water) boilers
•Marine Fouling: growth of marine organisms on ship hulls
and water intakes and conduits
•Calculus: mineral deposits in humans and animals
6
Chapter 1
Residential Applications
Where is scale found?
In the home, scale can be found:
•Inside hot water pipes
•Inside hot water heaters
•On shower and bath surfaces
•Around faucets and water fixtures
•Humidifiers
•Around appliances, i.e., coffee machine,
dishwasher
7
Chapter 1
Commercial Applications
Where is scale found?
In industry, scale will accumulate:
•Inside hot water pipes
•Inside heat exchangers
•in cooling towers
•In distillation columns
•Any other processing equipment that
uses a lot of water, i.e., injection mold
machine
8
Chapter 1
Most Common Types of Scales
Calcium carbonate is by far the most common scale found in typical water
processing, both in industry and in the home. We use carbonate in many
different ways in our lives. We enjoy its beauty (pearls), we build our
world with it (cement), we use it to teach students (chalk), and we live with
its pains (gall stones). And, as scale, we must treat its presence.
The most common scales (although there are others) include:
•Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)
•Calcium Sulfate (CaSO4)
•Barium Sulfate (BaSO4)
•Silica (SiO2)
•Iron (Fe2O3 & Fe2O4)
9
Chapter 1
Why is Scale a Problem?
It is a Nuisance!
It is difficult to clean, is unattractive and can promote bacterial growth,
mold and mildew and corrosion.
It Costs Money!
It reduces the efficiency of boilers, hot water heaters, heat exchangers, air
stripping columns, etc., which makes them more costly to operate.
Equipment must be shut down and cleaned out, costing industry billions of
dollars in down time and labor. Equipment also has to be periodically
replaced, due to scale accumulation.
Safety!
As scale accumulates in conduits, the pressure drops can increase to
unsafe levels. Also, boilers may become blocked entirely, creating a high
pressure “bomb”. Loss of heating efficiency will cause heating elements
to work harder, creating potential for local overheating.
10
Chapter 2
Scale Formation
DISSOLVED MINERALS
WATER
This section will describe exactly
how scale formation takes place.
DISSOLUTION
SUPERSATURATION
NUCLEATION
PRECIPITATION
SCALE
CRYSTAL GROWTH
Summary chart of how11 scale forms
Chapter 2
Dissolution
How scale (calcium carbonate) gets into the water stream
Step 1: Water becomes acidic
Whenever it rains, water in contact
with air will absorb the CO2 gas in
the air
CO2 gasses
(carbon dioxide)
The following chemical reaction takes place:
CO2 + H2O
H2CO3
12
Chapter 2
Step 2: Acidic water dissolves calcium carbonate
As the acidic rain
water reaches the
surface, it passes over
and permeates
through rocks such as
limestone, marble and
seashells, forming
soluble calcium ions
and bicarbonate ions.
CaCO3
+ H2CO3
(calcium carbonate) (carbonic acid)
13
Ca++ + 2HCO3
(in solution)
Chapter 2
Step 3: Any condition which alters the solubility of calcium
bicarbonate will result in the precipitation of calcium
carbonate (scale)
There are three (3) major factors that can alter the solubility of
calcium bicarbonate and thus causes scale:
A.) Temperature effect on
solubility
A change from cold to hot
water will cause scale to form.
Solubility
of
CaCO3
The reason? When the
temperature increases, CO2
evaporates, allowing scale to
precipitate. Heating water
also causes evaporation,
leaving minerals behind.
20o
40o
60o
Temperature oC
14
80o
Chapter 2
B.) pH Change on Solubility
Solubility of CaCO3 decreases with an increase to the pH.
The reason? pH is a measure of the acidity of the liquid. The
lower the pH, the higher the acid content. This will dissolve
more calcium carbonate.
Solubility
of
CaCO3
3
5
7
pH
15
9
11
Chapter 2
C.) Pressure Effect on Solubility
A change in water pressure from high to low will cause scale to form.
Pressure drop may occur from internal friction between the molecules of
water, external friction between the water and the walls of the piping system,
or rough area in the channel through which the water flows.
Pressure Loss
Results in
Less dissolved
carbon dioxide
Results in
Decreased
carbonic acid
concentration
Results in
Decreased
calcium carbonate
solubility
The reason? At a lower pressure, CO2
Results in
evaporates, thus increasing pH. A higher pH
allows for more scale formation.
16
More
scale formation
Chapter 2
Supersaturation
Supersaturation at the point of crystallization is the primary cause of
scale deposition.
Concentration
Definitions:
Saturation: The maximum equilibrium concentration of a compound
that will dissolve into a solution under a given set of conditions
(temperature, pressure, flow velocity, etc.).
Supersaturation: The solutions that contain higher concentrations of
dissolved solute than their equilibrium concentration.
Unstable
(supersaturated)
Meta-stable
Stable
(undersaturated)
17
Chapter 2
To simplify “supersaturation”, it can best be described as scale-causing
ions that barely “hang in the water” When calcium and bicarbonate ions
are hydrated, molecules are attached to the calcium and bicarbonate ions
via ionic bonds, which are much stronger than the van der Waal force. In a
supersaturated solution, the calcium and bicarbonate ions are ‘partially’
hydrated by water molecules. The harder water is, the calcium and
bicarbonate ions are hydrated with much weaker hydration energy. We
conclude that in a supersaturated solution, calcium ions are barely
+
‘hanging in water’.
+
-
Ca ion
Ca ion
Partially hydrated calcium ion unstable supersaturated solution
Fully hydrated calcium ion stable undersaturated solution
18
Chapter 2
Supersaturation leads to precipitation
Supersaturation solutions can be easily triggered into dropping back to the
saturated concentration, forcing the dissolved compound to precipitate or crystallize.
For Example:
A.) Consider an undersaturated 8% salt-water solution in a glass at 80oC.
B.) If you cool the 8% salt-water solution very slowly, you can have almost 8%
solution at room temperature.
C.) When you tap the glass, salt comes out in the form of precipitation.
Concentration
Unstable
(supersaturated)
2
1
Stable
(undersaturated)
3
0o
20o
40o
60o
Temperature oC
19
80o
Chapter 2
How does Solution Become Supersaturated?
Most of the liquids (tap water, sea water) are fully saturated with
scale compounds - calcium carbonate.
When these liquids are used, processed or transported, conditions
change, which causes the solubility of calcium carbonate to drop.
These local regions of lower solubility will become supersaturated
and it is at these regions only, that calcium carbonate will drop out
of solution (nucleate) and crystallize into scale.
20
Chapter 2
Causes of Local Supersaturation
•Increase in temperature
•Increase in pH
•Decrease in pressure
•Agitation of the solution
•Decrease in flow velocity
Even when the bulk solution is less than fully saturated, scale
formation can occur due to local supersaturation.
21
Chapter 2
Nucleation Precipitation
You may be wondering when scale forms, why does it stick to surfaces?
The Answer: The electrostatic attraction between the metal surface
and scale-causing minerals. Gravity plays no role in scale formation.
The unique characteristics of scale
deposits are its uniformity.
Precipitates or crystals formed in
one part of a system and carried to
another part are less adherent than
those crystals formed on site.
SCALE
Scale deposits are due to
electrostatic attraction.
22
Chapter 2
The electrostatic attraction can be described in three theories:
A.) Helmholtz Model
When a metal is in contact with an ionic solution such as water with scaleproducing minerals, the metal surface has a high density of electrons, giving
it a locally negative charge.
The solvated positive ions such as H+, Ca++ and Mg++ align themselves
along the surface of the metal surface, producing an (electric) double layer-no thermal motion of ions considered.
Helmholtz Model
Metal
Surface
_
_
_
_
_
_
+
+
Positive Ions
+
Water
+
Double Layer
23
Chapter 2
B.) The Gouy-Chapman Model - Diffuse Double-Layer
Due to the thermal motion of the ions in the solution, the population of
positive charges (i.e., H+, Ca++ and Mg++) decreases exponentially with
increasing distance from the metal surface.
Gouy-Chapman Model
Probability
of Positive
Charges
Pipe Wall
Pipe Center
24
Chapter 2
C.) Stern Model - The Previous Two are Combined.
The positive ions closest to metal surface are constrained into a
rigid Helmholtz plane while outside the plane, the positive ions are
dispersed as in Gouy-Chapman model.
Stern Model
Metal
Surface
_
_
_
_
_
_
+
+
Water
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Double Layer
Exponential Decrease
of Positive Ions
It is this electric potential (or coulombic) difference
that causes the attraction of the scale to surfaces,
which explains their uniform deposition.
25
Chapter 2
Crystal Growth into Scale
There are two types of calcium carbonate--calcite and aragonite.
Calcite is a calcium carbonate which is formed at a lower temperature
(below 30oC) and is easily removed by a weak acid. Calcite is less
adherent than aragonite and has a hexagonal crystal shape. It’s
specific gravity is 2.71.
Aragonite is formed at a higher temperature (above 30oC) and is difficult
to remove. It has an orthorhombic crystal shape and a specific gravity of
2.94. Aragonite is a more troublesome form of calcium carbonate than
calcite because it forms a harder and denser deposit than calcite in
boilers and other heat transfer equipment. When calcium carbonate is
formed at temperatures above 30oC, both aragonite (80%) and calcite
(20%) are formed. Pearls are made out of aragonite.
26
Chapter 2
Summary of the Two Types of Calcium Carbonate
Calcite
Specific Gravity 2.71
Less Adherent to Pipe & Heating Surface
Crystal Form
Visualization through
Microscope
Carbonate Layer
Orientation
(top view)
Carbonate Layer
Orientation
(side view)
Ca
Carbon
Ca (not shown)
Carbon
Oxygen
Oxygen
CO3 groups in same direction
CO3 groups in same direction
Aragonite
Specific Gravity 2.94
Adherent to Pipe & Heating Surface
Crystal Form
Visualization through
Microscope
Carbonate Layer
Orientation
(top view)
Carbonate Layer
Orientation
(side view)
Ca
Carbon
Ca (not shown)
Carbon
Oxygen
Oxygen
CO3 groups in opposite directions
27
CO3 groups in opposite directions
Chapter 3
Basics of Water Chemistry
Water is a polar molecule.
Oxygen
Hydrogen
In a water molecule, two hydrogen atoms are joined to an oxygen
atom by a covalent bond (a shared pair of electrons).
Oxygen is highly electron-negative, which means it will strongly
attract the shared electrons from the covalent bonds. This gives the
oxygen side of the molecule a strong overall negative charge.
A hydrogen molecule has a positive nucleus, with one electron
orbiting around it. When this electron is locked in a covalent bond,
and the bonding electrons are pulled towards the other atom, this
“hydrogen” side of the water molecule becomes strongly positively
charged.
The physical water treatment technology takes advantage of this
unique characteristic of water, the polar molecule.
28
Chapter 3
Hydrogen Bonds (van der Waals force)
The positive hydrogen of one water molecule is strongly attracted to the
negative oxygen of a neighboring water molecule.
What determines whether water is a gas, a liquid, or a solid?
•Gas (steam): very weak hydrogen bonds
•Liquid (water): relatively strong
•Solid (ice): very strong
29
Chapter 3
Liquid Water
In the liquid state, there is a mixture of separate water molecules and
agglomerates of hydrogen bonded molecules.
Separate
water
molecules
Ice-like
aggregates
The more free, or separate water molecules are available, the
more “reactive” the water will be as a solvent.
30
Chapter 3
Dielectric Constants
The electrostatic attraction is given by the Coulomb potential,
Coulomb potential
_
1_______
dielectric constant
where the dielectric constant is the ratio of permittivity of a medium to that of
a vacuum.
Dielectric constants
water at room temperature = 78.5
Plexiglas = 3.4
Teflon = 2.1
vacuum = 1
The Coulomb potential in water is reduced from the vacuum value by nearly
two orders of magnitude.
This is why water is such a successful solvent: the Coulomb interactions are
so strongly reduced by the solvent that the ions interact only weakly with
each other and do not aggregate into a crystal.
31
Chapter 3
Temperature Effect
On Dielectric Constant - Curie’s Law
Dielectric constant of water
= 78.5 at room temperature
= 55.8 at 100o
Dielectric Constant
of Water
Temperature
With increasing temperature, the electrostatic attraction increases due to the
decrease in dielectric constant.
However, the disruptive effects of thermal motion increase much more rapidly
than the electrostatic attraction with increasing temperature.
Salt, sugar, and detergent can dissolve more at higher temperatures.
32
Chapter 3
Why does a liquid flow easier when it is hot than cold?
Example: all liquids including water and engine oil
Moving a water molecule from site to site involves breaking weak van der
Waals bonds (i.e., hydrogen bonds).
Answer: With increasing temperature, the hydrogen bonds of water become
weaker and easier to break.
Easy to flow.
1__
Viscosity =
~ e E/RT
Fluidity
The Boltzmann Distribution:
The population (i.e., average number of particles) of each energy level
can be calculated using the Boltzmann distribution.
Ni/Nj=e-(Ei-Ej)/kT
where N is the ratio of the numbers of particles with energies Ei and Ej.
ScaleBlasterTM technology provides a means to break
the hydrogen bond of water without increasing
temperature.
Water becomes free.
33
Chapter 3
Solvation
When ionic crystals dissolve in solvents, this is called solvation. When
the solvent is water, it is called “hydration”.
The cations (positive ions) are hydrated as a result of their interaction
with the oxygen of the water molecules.
The anions (negative ions) are hydrated by their interaction with the
more positive regions of the water molecules (hydrogen atoms).
-
+
34
Chapter 3
Solvation: Procedure
1. As water dissolves a substance, water molecules will surround and form an
electrostatic bond with the dissolving ion.
2. As these bonds between water molecules and dissolving ions form, energy
is released (known as the heat of hydration).
3. When this hydration heat becomes larger than the bonding energy between
the ions of the dissolving substance, the ion will “dissolve” into the water
solution.
Solution of Ionic Compound
Crystal Lattice
Water Molecules
35
Chapter 3
4. Heats of hydration are typically much smaller than the bonding energy
between the positive and negative ions of an ionic compound. Therefore,
each ion of a solute must be surrounded by many water molecules before it
can be solvated.
In other words, large aggregates of water can not effectively dissolve solutes,
whereas separate water molecules can.
Solvation
A substance will only dissolve if the attractions between its charge centers
and the water molecules are sufficient to overcome the attractions between its
own charge centers.
Solution of ions and polar covalent molecules (i.e., alcohol, glycol, sugar) in
water.
Solution of Polar Covalent Compound
Polar Covalent
Molecule
36
Chapter 3
Summary
1. Water is a polar molecule.
2. Most water molecules are locked in agglomerates or aggregates hydrogen bonds.
3. Physical treatment of water breaks the hydrogen bonds, freeing water
molecules.
4. More individual (separate) water molecules are available to surround scalecausing compounds.
Concentration
5. Therefore, the unstable supersaturation state becomes the stable (under)
saturation state.
Unstable
(supersaturated)
Meta-stable
Stable
(undersaturated)
Temperature
37
Chapter 3
Definition of Hard Water
Hard water is a very serious problem and is a very common one. Over
85% of the United States experiences hard water with similar numbers
worldwide. Only in communities that draw water directly from snow filled
mountain streams enjoy ideal water in terms of low hardness.
The most common method of designating the hardness of a water supply in
the industry is classified as gpg (grains per gallon).
Grains per gallon equals the number of grains of a given substance in one
U.S. gallon of water. One grain = 1/7,000 pound and one U.S. gallon of
water weighs 8.33 pounds.
Hardness can be expressed in terms of ppm (parts per million).
Conversion of parts per million or milligrams per liter into grains per gallon
is simple. Divide the parts per million (or milligrams per liter) by 17.1 to
convert to grains per gallon.
Parts per million
(milligrams per liter) = grains per gallon
17.1
38
Chapter 3
Water is classified into five (5) levels of hardness:
GPG
PPM
Classification
less than 1.0
1 - 3.5
3.5 - 7.0
7.0 - 10.5
10.5 and above
less than 17.1
17.1 to 60
60 - 120
120 - 180
180 and above
soft
slightly hard
modestly hard
hard
very hard
39
Chapter 3
Hard Water Vs. Soft Water
Hard Water Benefits
•Mineral rich - health benefits
Soft Water Benefits
•No scale problems
•Cleaning easier
•Skin and hair rinsed more easily
•Less soap and detergent
required
Hard Water Problems
Soft Water Problems
•Scale buildup in pipes
•Soft water made by softener
contains high levels of salt which
can lead to high blood pressure
and heart attacks
•Reduced hot water efficiency
•Soap doesn’t lather well
•Scale buildup in appliances
•Leaves soap curd and detergent
deposits on fabrics
40
Chapter 3
About 85% of the United States experiences hard water
41
Chapter 4
ScaleBlasterTM Theory
The majority of ScaleBlasterTM units (SB-50, SB-125, SB-200, SB-400, SB600) are are developed with a square-wave technology, and are
manufactured and designed to work on any non-ferrous based pipes. If a
ferrous based pipe exists, a small section of the pipe must be removed and
replaced with either PVC or copper pipe, or the other option is to install the
SBR-800 unit, which uses radio-wave technology and can handle pipe size
of up to 1 inch.
This booklet deals only with the square-wave technology.
42
Chapter 4
ScaleBlasterTM Theory
For Non-ferrous Based Pipes
The ScaleBlasterTM unit is composed of a signal cable that is wrapped
several times around a pipe and an electronic unit that sends out a complex,
dynamic current to produce extremely small, time-varying, oscillating fields
inside the pipe. This electronic unit is available in several sizes in terms of
power strength. The larger the size of the pipe, the more power is required.
This unit is designed to work on non-ferrous based pipes only. The current
that produces an oscillating field is known as Ampere’s Law.
ScaleBlaster’sTM signal produces a unique square wave current that
sweeps all the frequency responses from 1,000 - 12,000 Hz at a rate of 20
times a second. When the strength of the oscillating field varies with time
and changes direction, an induced current is produced inside the pipe, a
phenomenon known as Faraday’s Law of Induction. This induced,
oscillating electric field provides the necessary molecular agitation for scale
prevention and removal.
43
Chapter 4
The induced molecular agitation (IMA) of the ScaleBlasterTM technology
causes the unstable mineral ions to precipitate, providing initial nucleation
sites for further precipitation of adjacent mineral ions. A snowball effect starts,
resulting in growth of many crystals, each consisting of numerous mineral
ions. These insoluble crystal salts become large in size and float with water,
thus they do not stick to the metal surfaces because the crystals do not have
the charges at the surface anymore.
ScaleBlaster’s Square Wave Current
Unstable Supersaturated Water
- Easy to Make Scale
Stable Undersaturated Water Hard to Make Scale
Flow
Positively Charged
Calcium Ion
Negatively Charged
Bicarbonate Ion
ScaleBlaster’s
Induction Coils
Induced Molecular
Agitation (IMA)
44
Insoluble Calcium
Carbonate Crystal
- No Surface Charges
Chapter 4
As the by-products of the precipitation and snowball effect of mineral particles,
the free water molecules become available to dissolve existing scale. In other
words, the electronic signal generated through the ScaleBlasterTM induction
coil breaks apart water molecules with calcium carbonate attached and thus
becomes an empty water molecule that immediately begins to attract calcium
molecules from scale buildup on pipes throughout the system.
Calcium Molecule Torn from
Water Molecule
Electronic Signal
Calcite (Scale) Buildup
Complex Modulating
Frequency Waveform
Empty Water Molecules Attract
Calcium Molecules from Scale
Buildup on Pipes Throughout System
Water Pipe
Direction
of Flow
ScaleBlaster
Induction Coils
Water Molecule with
Calcium Carbonate
Molecule Attached
45
Chapter 4
It is well known in water chemistry that most water molecules are
locked in aggregates in liquid water and less than 20% exists as
free water molecules. This is because water molecules have a
dipole moment - the hydrogen atom is attracted to the oxygen atom
of the adjacent water molecule. The frequency modulation
technology developed by ScaleBlasterTM allows the induced
electrical agitation to tune to the natural frequency of the water
molecules vibrating in the aggregates. Through the cooperative
resonance of the water molecules, free water molecules become
available, dissolving existing scale in the pipe.
46
Chapter 4
ScaleBlaster’sTM Square Wave Current
Most water molecules are
locked in aggregates, making
water a less efficient solvent.
Hydrogen bonds are broken. More
separate water molecules are
available to remove existing scale.
Flow
Free Water
Molecule
Aggregates of
Water Molecules
Induced Molecular
Agitation (IMA)
Schematic diagram of the operation of ScaleBlasterTM : Aggregates of water
molecules contain most water molecules in liquid water. Induced molecular
agitation breaks hydrogen bonds in aggregates, and separate water
molecules become available, removing existing scale.
47
Chapter 4
Signal cable wrapped
externally around pipe.
Complex dynamic inaudible
magnetic signal at sonic
frequencies causes turbulence
in water molecules and ion
exchange in mineral atoms.
Incoming water containing
calcium and other minerals
in solution.
Crystals unable to
adhere to any surface
and therefore do not
precipitate out as hard
scale.
Signal takes calcium out
of solution-forming
minute charged soft,
smooth crystals.
48
Chapter 4
Cross Section of scale as it is being
removed from household pipe
A
49
Chapter 4
Cross Section of scale as it is being
removed from household pipe
B
50
Chapter 4
Cross Section of scale as it is being
removed from household pipe
C
51
Chapter 4
Cross Section of scale as it is being
removed from household pipe
D
52
Chapter 4
Cross Section of scale as it is being
removed from household pipe
E
53
Chapter 4
Physical Law on the “IMA”
ScaleBlasterTM signal produces an IMA, induced molecular agitation which
will be fully described in this section.
As reported earlier in this chapter, the ScaleBlasterTM unit involves an electric
unit and a signal cable that is wound around the outside wall of the pipe. The
unit supplies a current inside the coil to produce a magnetic field.
A
m
pere’sLaw
W
hereB=resultingfieldvector
The “right-hand rule” determines the direction of the magnetic field
inside the pipe. The strength of the magnetic field is proportional to the
product of the current and the number of turns in the coil.
54
Chapter 4
ScaleBlasterTM changes the current in the coil 2,000 - 24,000 times a
second. This is done by a frequency-modulated square wave signal.
When the strength of the magnetic field varies with time, an induced current
is produced inside the pipe.
This is known as Faraday’s Law of Induction.
This induced current, when supplied with the proper amount of DC
current in milliamps, produces this induced molecular agitation to take
place at the coil. The strength of this electric field is important.
55
Chapter 4
We will now fully describe the physical laws of induced molecular
agitation (IMA).
1.) As we have mentioned before, a wire is wound several times on the
outside of the pipe, thus creating a solenoid coil. When there is a current
flowing in the solenoid coil, a magnetic field is produced called Ampere’s
Law. The right-hand rule determines the direction of the magnetic field
inside the pipe. The strength of the magnetic field is proportional to the
product of the current, I, and the number of turns of coil, N.
B = y on I
Where B = magnetic field vector
[ Wb/m2 or Ns/Cm]
The magnetic strength produced by ScaleBlaster’sTM solenoid coil is
much smaller than that of permanent magnets.
56
Chapter 4
Comparison of Strength of Various Magnets
ScaleBlasterTM -
0.2 - 1.0 Gauss
Simple “Refrigerator” Magnet -
100 Gauss
Bar Magnet -
100 - 1,000 Gauss
Magnets Intended to Remove Scale -
4,000 - 6,000 Gauss
Large Scientific Magnets -
20,000 - 40,000 Gauss
Superconductivity Magnets -
5,000,000 - 10,000,000 Gauss
As you can see, ScaleBlasterTM does not rely on the strength of the
magnetic field at all. The strength of the magnetic field produced by
ScaleBlasterTM is about 1/1000 of a simple refrigerator magnet that
you use to hold notes in the kitchen!
57
Chapter 4
2.) The ScaleBlasterTM changes the direction of the current in the coil
2,000 - 24,000 times a second. Thus, the magnetic field inside the pipe
also changes 2,000 - 24,000 times a second. This step is called
“frequency modulation”.
This frequency modulation is necessary because no one knows the natural
frequency of supersaturated water--water where the calcium ions “are
barely hanging on”. This is the key to ScaleBlaster’sTM success.
As you will see in the rest of this section, hitting the supersaturated’s
“barely hanging in water” ions with the natural frequency is imperative for
the ScaleBlasterTM to perform regardless of flow rate and hardness
level. This is when most permanent magnets fail to do the job.
58
Chapter 4
The natural frequency of the supersaturated water critically depends on its
viscosity (the tendency of a fluid to resist flowing due to internal forces such
as the attraction of the molecules for each other or the friction of the
molecules during flow) and water temperature. Since it is impossible to
determine the natural frequency of water being treated in any given situation,
a frequency modulation method needs to “self-tune” to the natural frequency
of the water.
3.) In order to change the direction of the current, ScaleBlasterTM
technology uses a pulsing or alternate current of a square wave type.
ScaleBlasterTM will change the current from +65mA to -65mA on the small
SB-50 model several times a second. It is this change of current that created
a rapid magnetic flux change. It is imperative to create as rapid a change in
polarities as possible to achieve proper treatment of the water.
This complete frequency modulation must be done during the time the water
is passing through the induced coil to hit the resonance frequency of as
many supersaturated molecules as possible. This is critical to the success of
the ScaleBlasterTM, where most others fail.
59
Chapter 4
All flow rates vary as do pipe sizes. So a unit must be as sophisticated as
the ScaleBlasterTM to be successful.
A - Before
B - After
Flow
Supersaturated
molecules entering
frequency
modulation wave
form
Solenoid Coil
60
By the time the water as
entered “A”, a complete
frequency modulation must
take place on as many of
the supersaturated
molecules as possible to
be 100% effective.
Chapter 4
It is important to have the correct amount of wrapping of coil
around the pipe. Too little will cause not all the supersaturated
molecules from being “fine tuned” to the natural frequency as the
water passes the coil. In other words, a coil only wrapped 1/2 way
may, in theory, hit only 1/2 the water. The descaling process would
take twice as long and the surface tension of the water molecules
would not be altered much to notice any effects of the “descaled”
water.
When the current changes from +65mA to -65mA, the
corresponding magnetic field changes its direction from the right to
the left. When the magnetic field varies with time, an induced
current is produced inside the pipe according to Faraday’s law of
induction:
61
Chapter 4
Note that the strength of the induced electric field, E, not only depends on
the time rate change, t , but also the magnitude of the magnetic field
strength. This is because the value of the right hand side depends on
---B / T in reality. Therefore, the strength of the magnetic field
produced by the solenoid is directly related to the overall performance of
the ScaleBlasterTM system. Many competitor systems fail to deliver the
proper amount of magnetic strength, even though the amount is minimal.
4.) When a particle with charge, q, moves in electric and magnetic fields,
the particle experiences the Lorentz Force.
F = qE + q (VXB)
F = Lorentz force vector [N] and V is the particle velocity vector [m/s].
The Lorentz consists of the electric force (i.e., the first term in the right
and side) and the magnetic force (i.e., the second term). The electric
force is independent of the motion of the charge whereas the magnetic
force depends on the velocity of the charge.
62
Chapter 4
Note that the Lorentz force is the force experienced by the charged particle
passing in an electromagnetic field under a steady state condition what
happens with the ScaleBlasterTM technology is similar to but a very different
phenomenon from the conventional Lorentz force.
What ScaleBlasterTM produces is “IMA”, induced molecular agitation.
Because the induced current changes its direction 2,000 - 24,000 times a
second, the charged particle such as water and other scale-causing ions
experience molecular agitation as they pass the pipe section treated by the
solenoid coil. Since the frequency continuously varies, the net result is “IMA”.
63
Chapter 4
SB-50 - Maximum 1” pipe / Indoor Installation
Oscilloscope readout of ScaleBlaster’s SB-125 complex
modulating frequency waveform
Oscilloscope readout of ScaleBlaster’s SB-50 complex
modulating frequency waveform
Timebase:
100us/div 100kSa/s
Trigger:
AUTO
Input Coupling:
DC
Input Voltage:
2.5V/div
Delta Time in Second 0.38 ms
Delta Voltage:
10.0 V
DVM:
1.2 VDC
Timebase:
100us/div 100kSa/s
Trigger:
AUTO
Input Coupling:
DC
Input Voltage:
250mV/div
Delta Time in Second 0.36 ms
Delta Voltage:
0.94 V
DVM:
0.47 - 0.57 VDC
Oscilloscope readout of ScaleBlaster’s SB-200 complex
modulating frequency waveform
Oscilloscope readout of ScaleBlaster’s SB-400 complex
modulating frequency waveform
Timebase:
100us/div 100kSa/s
Trigger:
AUTO
Input Coupling:
DC
Input Voltage:
2.5V/div
Delta Time in Second 0.36 ms
Delta Voltage:
9.4 V
DVM:
0.G VDC
Timebase:
100us/div 100kSa/s
Trigger:
AUTO
Input Coupling:
DC
Input Voltage:
2.5 V/div
Delta Time in Second 0.38 ms
Delta Voltage:
10.0 V
DVM:
2.0 VDC
64
ScaleBlaster’s
S
B
6
0
0
M
a
x
i
m
u
m
8
“
p
i
p
e
/
O
u
t
d
o
o
r
I
n
s
t
a
l
l
a
t
i
o
n
T M
Current
Curr ent
Oscilloscope readout of ScaleBlaster’s SB-600 complex
modulating frequency waveform
Timebase:
100us/div 100kSa/s
Trigger:
AUTO
Input Coupling:
DC
Input Voltage:
2.5V/div
Delta Time in Second 0.38 ms
Delta Voltage:
10.0 V
B
Curr ent
B
ScaleBlaster changes the current anywhere from
2,000 - 24,000 times a second.
65
Chapter 4
Supersaturated Water Entering “IMA”
Earlier we mentioned “supersaturated” water as scale-causing ions that are
barely “hanging in the water”.
+
+
-
Ca ion
Ca ion
Partially hydrated calcium ion
- unstable supersaturated solution
Fully hydrated calcium ion
- stable undersaturated solution
As the supersaturated water is being treated by the “IMA”, the calcium and
bicarbonate ions which are barely hanging in water collide with each other.
Since these ions are not fully hydrated, the collision easily results in a solid
calcium carbonate, creating a nucleation site.
66
Chapter 4
Once the new nucleation site becomes available, the snowball effect of
precipitation occurs. A snowball of calcium carbonate will grow until it
becomes so large that there are no more surface charges left to attract other
“partially hydrated" calcium and bicarbonate ions. A large number of
“partially hydrated” calcium ions are precipitated, thus removed from the
supersaturated solution. Subsequently, the unstable “undersaturated”
solution and the scale buildup stops.
67
Chapter 4
+
+
-
-
Ca ion
Bicarbonate
ion
Partially hydrated calcium ion
- unstable supersaturated solution
Partially hydrated bicarbonate ion
- unstable supersaturated solution
“Self-Tuning Induced Molecular Agitation”
(IMA) creates nucleation.
Bicarbonate
ion
Ca ion
Snow Ball Effect Starts
Calcium carbonate crystals grow
large until there is no more
surface charge. These crystals
no longer stick to pipe wall.
68
Chapter 4
We mentioned earlier that scale-causing ions (calcium and bicarbonate ions)
are barely “hanging in water” in a supersaturated solution. When “poorly
dissolved” calcium and bicarbonate ions are removed from the
supersaturated solution through nucleation and precipitation, those ions
which are not involved in the precipitation become fully hydrated by freed
water molecules, resulting in a thermodynamic equilibrium.
As the dissolved calcium and bicarbonate ions precipitate and are removed
from the supersaturated solution through crystal growth, excess water
molecules become available. These water molecules will either recombine
with neighboring water molecules, thus locked in clusters of water or be
used to fully hydrate the “poorly hydrated” calcium and bicarbonate ions
which are barely hanging in water. Since the surface charges of calcium
and bicarbonate ions are greater than that of water molecules, the
temporarily freed water molecules are likely to be attracted to the surfaces of
scale-causing ions.
69
Chapter 4
Induced Molecular Agitation
(IMA)
Bicarbonate
ion
Ca ion
Snow Ball Effect Starts
As a by-product of the snowball
effect, freed water molecules
become available.
Calcium carbonate crystals grow
large until there is no more
surface charge. These crystals
no longer stick to pipe wall.
70
Chapter 4
The ScaleBlasterTM technology takes advantage of the unique characteristics
of water, the polar molecule. The positive hydrogen of one water molecule is
strongly attracted to the negative oxygen of a neighboring water molecule and
the connecting force is the van der Waal force, often referred to simply as
“hydrogen bond”. In the liquid water, there is a mixture of separate individual
water molecules and aggregates of hydrogen-bonded water molecules. The
water molecules in the aggregates do not function as efficiently as solvent as
the separate water molecules.
+
+
-
+
-
+
-
+
-
+
+
+
-
+
-
+
+
-
-
+
-
-
+
+
Individual Water Molecules
Water Molecules are Locked in a Cluster
71
Chapter 4
The ScaleBlasterTM technology generates a self-tuning induction using the
frequency modulation with its specially designed square wave form. This selftuning dynamic induction automatically tunes to the natural frequencies of
vibrating water molecules, producing a resonance between the vibrating water
molecules and the dynamic induction. The resonance breaks the hydrogen
bonds in a cluster of liquid water, freeing water molecules. Since the solubility
depends on the number of available separate water molecules, this process
of breaking hydrogen bonds dramatically increases the solubility of water.
The freed individual water molecules will either recombine with neighboring
water molecules or surround (hydrate) the calcium ions. The latter is what
actually happens. In a supersaturated solution, the calcium and bicarbonate
ions are partially hydrated, i.e., barely “hanging in water”, which is the reason
they are unstable. Since the surface charges of the calcium and bicarbonate
ions are greater than that of the water molecule, the freed water molecules
will surround the calcium and bicarbonate ions which are not involved in the
previously mentioned precipitation, thus fully hydrating them. Subsequently,
the unstable supersaturated solution becomes a stable, undersaturated
solution and the scale buildup stops.
72
Chapter 4
+
Ca ion
Freed Separate Water Molecules
Partially hydrated calcium ion
- unstable supersaturated solution
Induced Molecular Agitation
Increases Solubility. (IMA)
+
Ca ion
Fully hydrated calcium ion
- stable undersaturated solution
73
Chapter 4
Oxygen Atom
Hydrogen Atom
How the Descaling Process Works
Untreated Water
Hydrogen Bond
Water molecules are interconnected via hydrogen
bonds. They are not readily available to dissolve
minerals and chemicals.
ScaleBlaster
Treated Water
The hydrogen bonds are broken, freeing
individual water molecules, making water
molecules available to minerals and chemicals.
This is accomplished with a time varying
magnetic field inside the pipe at 2,000 - 12,000
Hz (Faraday’s Law of Induction combined with
ScaleBlaster’sTM square wave signal, IMA)
74
Relaxation time = 10-12 s
Chapter 4
The Hypothesis of Descaling Process
Flow
Calcium
Carbonate
Scales
Pipe Wall
With ScaleBlasterTM Treatment
75
Chapter 4
The Natural Frequency of the Vibration of Water Molecules
The key to ScaleBlaster’sTM success is the way our "IMA" field hits the
resonance frequency of the water molecules.
As we have mentioned before, ScaleBlasterTM changes the current 2,000 24,000 times a second. The actual cycle is 1,000 - 12,000 Hz a second as
we alternate from + 5 volts to - 5 volts.
+ 5 volts
0 volts
- 5 volts
This produces 2,000 - 24,000 pulses of energy every second.
Many experts have estimated the internal frequency of water as
f = 1,000 - 10,000 Hz
The ScaleBlasterTM easily falls in this range and by changing the current it
creates a rapid magnetic flux change. It is critical to create as rapid of a
change in the polarities as possible to properly treat the water.
76
Chapter 4
Hydrogen Bond
Vibration of Water Molecules
The mechanism of breaking the hydrogen bond is resonance!
When the external disturbance provided by ScaleBlasterTM matches the
natural frequency of the hydrogen atom, the hydrogen bonds are broken
instantly. It is important that ScaleBlaster’sTM frequency range exceeds
the best estimate of the internal natural frequency of water because this
natural frequency can vary with temperature, pressure, minerals present,
pH and other factors.
77
Chapter 4
Summary of ScaleBlasterTM Technology
ScaleBlasterTM produces a frequency modulation signal that produces an
“IMA”, induced molecular agitation inside the pipe when applied with a
square wave signal. When water and scale-causing ions (dissolved calcium
carbonate) are treated by the “IMA”, two things happen:
1.) “IMA”: creates nucleation sites, initiating the “snowball” effect.
Suspensions of soft and less-adherent calcium carbonate crystals are
formed, thus removing dissolved calcium and bicarbonate ions from a
supersaturated solution.
2.) “IMA” breaks hydrogen bonds in an aggregate of liquid water, freeing a lot
of water molecules from the aggregate. More free water molecules mean an
increase in the solubility of water. The unstable supersaturated calcium
carbonate solution becomes a stable undersaturated solution, resulting in the
prevention of scale buildup.
78
Chapter 4
Summary (Continued)
In order to produce the above mentioned IMA, ScaleBlasterTM applies a
frequency-modulation technology. This technology is based on a wellestablished induction theory. When there is a change in a magnetic field with
time, an induction of electric field is produced. Since the ScaleBlasterTM
technology utilizes a square-wave current signal which varies it’s direction
2,000 - 24,000 times a second, the direction of the induced electric field
varies accordingly.
Most scale-causing ions have either positive or negative charges.
Furthermore, water molecules, although neutral, are polar molecules, thus
behaving like an ion in an electric field. The oscillation of the induced electric
field provided molecular agitation to these electrically active ions and water
molecules. Subsequently, the scale-causing ions in a supersaturated
solution begin to fall out of water, i.e., precipitate and nucleate, thus initiating
the snowball effect. The solid calcium carbonate crystals which consist of
numerous calcium carbonate molecules become less adherent and flow with
the water in the form of suspended particles.
79