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Chapter 7 Part C The Skeleton © Annie Leibovitz/Contact Press Images © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by Karen Dunbar Kareiva Ivy Tech Community College Part 2: The Appendicular Skeleton • Consists of bones of the limbs and their girdles – Pectoral girdle • Attaches upper limbs to body trunk – Pelvic girdle • Attaches lower limbs to body trunk © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7.4 The Pectoral Girdle • Pectoral girdle (shoulder girdle) consists of clavicles (anteriorly) and scapulae (posteriorly) – Attach upper limbs to axial skeleton – Provide attachment sites for muscles that move upper limbs – Offer great degree of mobility because: • Scapulae are not attached to axial skeleton • Socket of shoulder joint is shallow and does not restrict movement © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.25 The pectoral girdle with articulating bones. Acromioclavicular joint Clavicle Scapula © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Clavicles • Also called collarbones • S-shaped sternal end articulates with sternum medially • Flattened acromial end articulates laterally with scapula • Anchor muscles and act as braces to hold the scapulae and arms out laterally © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.26a The clavicle. Sternal (medial) end Posterior Anterior Acromial (lateral) end Right clavicle, superior view © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.26b The clavicle. Acromial end Trapezoid line Anterior Sternal end Posterior Conoid tubercle Right clavicle, inferior view © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Scapulae • Also called shoulder blades; thin, triangular flat bones on dorsal surface of rib cage, between ribs 2 and 7 • Each scapula has three borders – Superior: shortest, sharpest border – Medial (vertebral): runs parallel to spine – Lateral (axillary): near armpit, ends superiorly in glenoid cavity fossa (shoulder joint) © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Scapulae (cont.) • Each scapula has three angles where borders meet: – Superior angle: between superior and medial – Lateral angle: between superior and lateral – Inferior angle: between medial and lateral © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Scapulae (cont.) • Bone features – Spine: prominent ridge posteriorly – Acromion: lateral projection that articulates with acromial end of clavicle to form acromioclavicular joint – Coracoid process: anterior projection that anchors bicep muscle of arm – Suprascapular notch: opening for nerves – Several large fossae named according to location © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.27a The scapula. Acromion Suprascapular notch Coracoid process Superior border Superior angle Glenoid cavity Subscapular fossa Medial border Lateral border Inferior angle Right scapula, anterior aspect © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.27b The scapula. Suprascapular notch Coracoid process Superior angle Supraspinous fossa Spine Infraspinous fossa Medial border Right scapula, posterior aspect © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Acromion Glenoid cavity at lateral angle Lateral border Figure 7.27c The scapula. Supraspinous fossa Infraspinous fossa Posterior Subscapular fossa Anterior Acromion Supraspinous fossa Supraglenoid tubercle Coracoid process Spine Glenoid cavity Infraspinous fossa Infraglenoid tubercle Subscapular fossa Inferior angle Right scapula, lateral aspect © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7.5 The Upper Limb • 30 bones form skeletal framework of each upper limb – Arm • Humerus – Forearm • Radius and ulna – Hand • 8 carpal bones in the wrist • 5 metacarpal bones in the palm • 14 phalanges in the fingers © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Arm • Humerus: only bone of the arm; the largest and longest bone of upper limb • Articulates superiorly with glenoid cavity of scapula • Articulates inferiorly with radius and ulna © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Arm (cont.) • Bone features – Head: proximal end that fits into glenoid cavity of scapula – Anatomical neck: slight constriction inferior to head – Greater tubercle is separated from lesser tubercle by the intertubercular sulcus • Sites of attachment of rotator cuff muscles – Surgical neck: most frequently fractured part of humerus © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Arm (cont.) • Bone features (cont.) – Deltoid tuberosity: about midway down shaft; site of deltoid muscle attachment – Radial groove: carries radial nerve – Trochlea: distal hourglass-shaped condyle – Capitulum: distal ball-like condyle – Medial and lateral epicondyles: points of muscle attachment – Medial and lateral supracondyle ridges – Fossae: coronoid, olecranon, and radial © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.28 The humerus of the right arm and detailed views of articulation at the elbow. Head of humerus Greater tubercle Greater tubercle Lesser tubercle Intertubercular sulcus Head of humerus Anatomical neck Radial groove Deltoid tuberosity Lateral supracondylar ridge Radial fossa Photo, anterior view © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Surgical neck Deltoid tuberosity Medial supracondylar ridge Coronoid fossa Olecranon fossa Radial fossa Medial epicondyle Capitulum Greater tubercle Lateral epicondyle Trochlea Illustration, anterior view Illustration, posterior view Figure 7.28 The humerus of the right arm and detailed views of articulation at the elbow (continued). Humerus Coronoid fossa Capitulum Medial epicondyle Head of radius Radial tuberosity Radius Anterior view at the elbow region © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Trochlea Coronoid process of ulna Radial notch Ulna Humerus Olecranon fossa Olecranon Medial epicondyle Lateral epicondyle Head Neck Ulna Posterior view of extended elbow Radius Forearm • Two parallel bones form forearm skeleton: ulna and radius • Proximal ends articulate with humerus and each other • Distally articulate with each other at the radioulnar joint • Interosseous membrane connects radius and ulna along their entire length © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Forearm (cont.) • Ulna – Medial bone in forearm – Forms major portion of elbow joint with humerus – Bone features • Olecranon and coronoid processes: grip trochlea of humerus, forming hinge joint – Processes separated by trochlear notch • Radial notch: articulates with head of radius • Ulnar head: knoblike distal portion • Ulnar styloid process: ligament attachment © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Forearm (cont.) • Radius – Lateral bone in forearm – Bone features • Head: articulates with capitulum of humerus and radial notch of ulna • Radial tuberosity: anchors biceps • Ulnar notch: articulates with ulna • Radial styloid process: anchors ligaments © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.29 Radius and ulna of the right forearm. Olecranon Head Neck Coronoid process Radial notch of the ulna Head Neck Radial tuberosity Radial tuberosity Olecranon Trochlear notch Coronoid process Proximal radioulnar joint Head of radius Neck of radius Interosseous membrane Ulna Ulna Radius Radius Ulnar notch of the radius Radius Head of ulna Ulnar styloid process Radial styloid process Photo, anterior view © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Radial styloid process Ulnar styloid process Distal radioulnar joint Illustration, anterior view Radial styloid process r Illustration, posterior view Figure 7.29 Radius and ulna of the right forearm (continued). Ulnar notch of radius Olecranon View Articulation for lunate Trochlear notch Articulation for scaphoid Coronoid process Radial styloid process Radial notch View Proximal portion of ulna, lateral view © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Head of ulna Ulnar styloid process Distal ends of the radius and ulna at the wrist Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 7.5 • Colles’ fracture: break in distal end of radius • Very common fracture because person falling attempts to break fall with outstretched hands © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Hand • Bones of the hand include carpus, metacarpus, and phalanges • Carpus (wrist): eight bones in two rows • Proximal row: lateral to medial – Scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, and pisiform • Distal row: lateral to medial – Trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate – Only scaphoid, lunate, and triquetrum form wrist joint © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Hand (cont.) • Metacarpus (palm) – Five metacarpal bones (I to V from thumb to little finger) form the palm • Bases articulate with carpals, and heads articulate with proximal phalanges • Phalanges (fingers) – Fingers (digits): numbered I to V starting at thumb (pollex) – Digit I (pollex) has two bones: no middle phalanx – Digits II to V have three bones: distal, middle, and proximal phalanx © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.30 Bones of the right hand. Phalanges • Distal • Middle • Proximal Carpals • Hamate • Capitate • Pisiform • Triquetrum • Lunate Sesamoid bones V Ulna Anterior view © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Metacarpals • Head • Shaft • Base IV III II I Carpals • Trapezium • Trapezoid • Scaphoid I II Radius III IV V Carpals • Hamate • Capitate • Triquetrum • Lunate Ulna Posterior view Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 7.4 • Median nerve and tendons travel through carpal tunnel – Tunnel formed by ligaments through wrist • Carpal tunnel syndrome can occur from overuse and inflammation of tendons, which can compress median nerve, causing tingling and numbness © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7.6 The Pelvic Girdle • Also called hip girdle; is formed by 2 hip bones (coxal bones, or os coxae) and sacrum – Attach lower limbs to axial skeleton with strong ligaments – Transmit weight of upper body to lower limbs – Support pelvic organs • Less mobility but more stability than shoulder joint • Three fused bones form coxal bone – Ilium, ischium, and pubis – Deep socket, acetabulum, formed at point of fusion receives head of femur © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.31 Pelvis. Base of sacrum Iliac crest Iliac fossa llium Hip bone (coxal bone or os coxae) Sacrum Pubis Coccyx Sacroiliac joint Anterior superior iliac spine Sacral promontory Anterior inferior iliac spine Pelvic brim Acetabulum Pubic tubercle Pubic crest Pubic symphysis Ischium Pubic arch © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Ilium • Ilium – Superior region of coxal bone – Auricular surface articulates with sacrum (sacroiliac joint) • Ischium – Posteroinferior part of hip bone • Pubis – Anterior portion of hip bone – Pubis joins at pubic symphysis joint © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Ilium (cont.) • Superior region of hip bone • Consists of body and winglike ala – Iliac crests: thickened superior margin of ala – Iliac crest ends at anterior superior iliac spine and posterior superior iliac spine • Greater sciatic notch: sciatic nerve passage • Gluteal surface contains three ridges: posterior, anterior, and inferior gluteal lines • Iliac fossa: concavity on ala • Auricular surface articulates with sacrum • Arcuate line: defines pelvic brim © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Ischium • Posteroinferior part of hip bone • Consists of body and ramus • Three important markings: – Ischial spine – Lesser sciatic notch – Ischial tuberosity © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Pubis • V-shaped anterior portion of hip bone • Consists of the body and superior and inferior pubic rami • Anterior border forms the pubic crest • Lateral end forms pubic tubercle • Obturator foramen: large opening formed by rami and body • Pubic bones join at pubic symphysis • Pubic arch (subpubic angle): formed by rami; main difference between male and female pelves © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.32a The hip (coxal) bones. Ilium Anterior gluteal line Ala Posterior gluteal line Iliac crest Posterior superior iIiac spine Anterior superior iliac spine Inferior gluteal line Posterior inferior iliac spine Anterior inferior iliac spine Greater sciatic notch Acetabulum Ischial body Ischial spine Pubic body Lesser sciatic notch Pubis Ischium Ischial tuberosity Ischial ramus Lateral view, right hip bone © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Obturator foramen Inferior pubic ramus Figure 7.32b The hip (coxal) bones. Ilium Posterior superior iliac spine Iliac crest Iliac fossa Anterior superior iliac spine Anterior inferior iliac spine Arcuate line Posterior inferior iliac spine Body of the ilium Superior pubic ramus Pubic tubercle Pubis Articular surface of pubis (at pubic symphysis) Inferior pubic ramus Medial view, right hip bone © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Auricular surface Greater sciatic notch Ischial spine Lesser sciatic notch Obturator foramen Ischium Ischial ramus Pelvic Structure and Childbearing • Pelvis: formed by hip bones, sacrum, and coccyx • Female pelvis tends to be wider, shallower, lighter, and rounder than male’s – Adapted for childbearing • Pelvic brim (pelvic inlet): continuous oval ridge that runs from pubic crest through arcuate line and sacral promontory • False pelvis: superior to pelvic brim • True pelvis: inferior to pelvic brim; defines birth canal – Pelvic outlet: inferior margin of true pelvis © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 7.4-1 Comparison of the Male and Female Pelves © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 7.4-2 Comparison of the Male and Female Pelves (continued) © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 7.4-3 Comparison of the Male and Female Pelves (continued) © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7.7 The Lower Limb • Carries entire weight of erect body • Subjected to exceptional forces during jumping or running • Three segments of lower limb – Thigh – Leg – Foot © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Thigh • Femur is largest and strongest bone in the body, making up about one-fourth of person’s height • Articulates proximally with acetabulum of hip and distally with tibia and patella • Patella: sesamoid bone in quadriceps tendon that protects knee joint © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Thigh (cont.) • Bone features – Fovea capitis: small pit in ball-like head – Greater and lesser trochanters: muscle attachment sites • Trochanters connected by intertrochanteric line and intertrochanteric crest – Gluteal tuberosity blends into linea aspera, which diverges into medial and lateral supracondylar lines © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Thigh (cont.) • Bone features (cont.) – Distally, femur ends in lateral and medial condyles that articulate with tibia – Medial and lateral epicondyles: sites of muscle attachment • Adductor tubercle: medial epicondyle bump – Patellar surface: articulates with patella – Intercondylar fossa: lies between condyles © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.33 Bones of the right knee and thigh. Fovea capitis Neck Greater trochanter Head Lesser trochanter Intertrochanteric line Intertrochanteric crest Gluteal tuberosity Linea aspera Apex Anterior Facet for lateral condyle of femur Facet for medial condyle of femur Surface for patellar ligament Medial and lateral supracondylar lines Lateral condyle Intercondylar fossa Medial condyle Posterior Lateral epicondyle Patella (kneecap) Patellar surface Anterior view Femur (thigh bone) © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Lateral epicondyle Adductor tubercle Medial epicondyle Posterior view Table 7.5-2 Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton, Part 2: Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb (continued) © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Leg • Made up of two parallel bones, tibia and fibula – Connected by interosseous membrane • Tibia: medial leg bone that receives weight of body from femur; transmits to foot • Fibula – Not weight bearing; no articulation with femur – Several muscles originate from fibula – Articulates proximally and distally with tibia © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Leg (cont.) • Bone features – Tibia • • • • • • Medial and lateral condyles Intercondylar eminence Tibial tuberosity Anterior border Medial malleolus Fibular notch – Fibular: • Head • Lateral malleolus © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.34a The tibia and fibula of the right leg. Intercondylar eminence Lateral condyle Head Superior tibiofibular joint Medial condyle Tibial tuberosity Interosseous membrane Anterior border Fibula Tibia Inferior tibiofibular joint Medial malleolus Lateral malleolus Inferior articular surface Anterior view © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.34 The tibia and fibula of the right leg (continued). Lateral condyle Lateral condyle Fibula articulates here Tibial tuberosity Line for soleus muscle Anterior view, proximal tibia © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Posterior view, proximal tibia Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 7.4 • Pott’s fracture occurs at distal end of fibula, the tibia, or both • Common sports injury © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.34c The tibia and fibula of the right leg. Parts of fractured fibula © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. X ray of Pott’s fracture of the fibula Foot • Skeleton of foot includes bones of tarsus, metatarsus, and phalanges • Tarsus: 7 tarsal bones form posterior half – Body weight carried primarily by talus and calcaneus (heel) – Calcaneal tuberosity: part that touches ground • Sustentacular tali (talar shelf): supports talus – Other tarsal bones: cuboid, navicular, and medial, intermediate, and lateral cuneiform bones © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Foot (cont.) • Metatarsals – Five metatarsal bones (I to V from hallux to little toe) – Enlarged head of metatarsal I forms “ball of the foot” • Phalanges – 14 bones of toes – Digit I (hallux, great toe) has two bones: no middle phalanx – Digits II to V have three bones: distal, middle, and proximal phalanx © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.35a Bones of the right foot. Phalanges Distal Middle Proximal Medial cuneiform I ll lll Metatarsals IV V Intermediate cuneiform Lateral cuneiform Navicular Cuboid Talus Trochlea of talus Calcaneus Superior view © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Tarsals Figure 7.35b Bones of the right foot. Intermediate cuneiform First metatarsal Medial view © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Medial Talus malleolar facet Navicular Sustentaculum tali (talar shelf) Calcaneus Medial cuneiform Calcaneal tuberosity Figure 7.35c Bones of the right foot. Lateral Navicular malleolar facet Intermediate cuneiform Lateral cuneiform Talus Calcaneus Lateral view © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Cuboid Fifth metatarsal Foot (cont.) • Arches of the foot – Maintained by interlocking foot bones, ligaments, and tendons – Allow foot to bear weight – Three arches • Lateral longitudinal: low curve that elevates lateral part of foot • Medial longitudinal: arch curves upwards • Transverse: runs obliquely from one side of foot to other © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.36a Arches of the foot. Medial longitudinal arch Transverse arch Lateral longitudinal arch Lateral aspect of right foot © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.36b Arches of the foot. X ray, medial aspect of right foot © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 7.4 • Fallen arches, also called “flat feet,” result from stress on tendons and ligaments of feet • Can be caused by: – Standing immobile for extended periods of time – Running on hard surfaces without proper arch support © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton • Infant skull has more bones than adult skull – Skull bones such as mandible and frontal bones are unfused – Skull bones connected by fontanelles • Unossified remnants of fibrous membranes • Ease birth and allow brain growth • Four fontanelles – Anterior, posterior, mastoid, and sphenoidal © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.37 Skull of a newborn. Frontal suture Frontal bone Anterior fontanelle Ossification center Parietal bone Posterior fontanelle Superior view Occipital bone Frontal bone Parietal bone Ossification center Posterior fontanelle Mastoid fontanelle Occipital bone Temporal bone (squamous part) Lateral view © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Sphenoidal fontanelle Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 7.4 • Congenital abnormalities may distort skull • Cleft palate is the most common condition – No medial fusion of right and left halves of palate – Interferes with sucking – Can lead to aspiration of food into lungs, which may result in aspiration pneumonia © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.38 Cleft lip and palate. A boy born with a cleft palate and lip © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. The boy as a toddler, following surgical repair during infancy Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton • At birth, cranium is huge relative to face • At 9 months, cranium is half the adult size • Mandible and maxilla are foreshortened but lengthen with age • Arms and legs grow at faster rate than head and trunk, leading to adult proportions © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.39a Different growth rates of body parts determine body proportions. Human newborn © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Human adult Figure 7.39b Different growth rates of body parts determine body proportions. Newborn © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 2 yrs 5 yrs 15 yrs Adult Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton • Primary curvatures of thorax and sacrum are convex at birth, resulting in C-shaped spine • Secondary curvatures of cervical and lumbar regions convex anteriorly as child develops © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.40 The C-shaped spine of a newborn infant. © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton • As we age, intervertebral discs become thin, less hydrated, and less elastic – Risk of disc herniation increases • Several centimeters of height loss is common by age 55 • Costal cartilages ossify – Rigid thorax causes shallow breathing and less efficient gas exchange • All bones lose mass, so fracture risk increases © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 7.10 • Appendicular skeleton can suffer from congenital abnormalities • Hip dysplasia occurs in a little over 1% of infants – Acetabulum forms incompletely or ligaments are loose, allowing head of femur to slip out of socket – Treatments include splints or harness to hold femur in place or surgery to tighten ligaments © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
