Download A Summary of the Alaskan Marine Arctic Conservation Action Plan

A Summary of the Alaskan Marine Arctic
Conservation Action Plan
April, 2010
Introduction:
The Alaskan Marine Arctic
The Alaskan marine Arctic is one of the most remote and intact marine ecosystems on
earth, and its natural resources provide the foundation for the livelihoods of many
Alaskans. Globally unique species, such as the Pacific Walrus, polar bear, bowhead
whale, and several species of ice seals, characterize the region and are critical to the
cultural and subsistence activities of the Inupiaq people of the Alaskan coast. The vast
continental shelf of the Chukchi Sea supports a highly productive food web, and is
contiguous with the Bering Sea shelf, which supports some of the world’s most
productive fisheries.
However, Alaska’s polar seas are facing intensifying threats to ecosystem health and
resilience on several fronts. Climate change is more pronounced in the polar regions than
anywhere else on earth. Rapid warming in the Arctic is leading to drastic loss of habitat
for wildlife such as seals, polar bears, and walruses. These ecological changes may alter
the availability of wildlife for subsistence and cultural uses in Northern communities that
have relied on these resources for millennia. Ecological changes are likely to have
implications for Alaska’s economy as well.
As diminishing sea ice opens access to the offshore environment, opportunities for
energy exploration, development, and production are expanding. Sea ice loss is also
increasing the potential for trans-Arctic shipping and other transportation to take place.
These developments bring risks from oil spills, ship strikes, habitat destruction and
degradation, and noise pollution and other impacts. The intense interests in energy
development and the immediacy of climate change impacts in the region emphasize the
critical need for effective conservation planning and management to sustain marine
biodiversity and ecosystem integrity.
To meet the need for precautionary and proactive planning for the marine environment of
Alaska’s northern coast, The Nature Conservancy in Alaska has developed a
Conservation Action Plan for Alaska’s Marine Arctic system. This plan covers the
coastal, nearshore, and offshore environments of the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas.
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Developed with input from an expert advisory panel, and later reviewed at a stakeholder
meeting, this plan describes The Nature Conservancy’s key conservation targets,
stressors, and strategies in this region. A full report with complete details is available
from Laura Chartier ([email protected]) at the Alaska Field Office.
Project Scope and Overview
The Alaskan Marine Arctic Conservation Action Plan for the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas
represents an internal planning process, based on The Nature Conservancy’s
Conservation Action Planning methodology. Conservation Action Planning is an adaptive
management framework in which practitioners “capture their best understanding of the
conservation situation, build a set of actions based on that understanding, implement the
actions, measure the outcomes of their actions, learn from these outcomes and refine
actions over time” (TNC 2007). Full details and guidance about Conservation Action
Planning are available online at the ConserveOnline website:
http://conserveonline.org/workspaces/cbdgateway.
This plan includes the marine environments of the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas, including:
pelagic and benthic habitats, the continental shelf and ocean basins, lagoons and marshes,
islands, and the shoreline. The project scope is within the US Exclusive Economic Zone,
including Alaskan state waters and federal waters of the Outer Continental Shelf.
Ecosystem Dynamics
The continental shelf of the Bering and Chukchi Seas is highly productive and home to
some of the world’s most productive fisheries. Ocean currents moving northward through
the Bering Strait bring productive, nutrient-rich waters from the Bering Sea into the
Chukchi and Beaufort Seas, playing a critical role in these ecosystems by providing the
nutrients – otherwise largely absent from Arctic waters -- to support benthic life, seabird
foraging hotspots, marine mammals, and migratory species. Oceanographic dynamics in
and near the Bering Strait, the site where Pacific water enters the Arctic Ocean, are also
an important link in global thermohaline circulation.
Sea ice is a key ecological characteristic of the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas. The life
history activities of many species are closely linked to the location and extent of sea ice.
Wildlife in the region are also adapted to the extremities of weather, temperature, and
long, dark winter seasons.
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Biodiversity
The Beaufort and Chukchi Seas provide feeding and nesting grounds for a wide diversity
of migratory and resident species, including: 34 nesting bird species (Hopcroft et al.
2008); marine mammals including the bowhead whale, gray whale, Pacific walrus, ribbon
seal, ringed seal, bearded seal, spotted seal, and polar bear; anadromous and marine
fishes including Arctic cod and Dolly Varden, a high diversity of benthic life, and unique
species and communities such as Arctic kelp and ice algae.
Marine species of the Beaufort and Chukchi listed under the US Endangered Species Act
include the bowhead whale (Endangered), polar bear (Threatened), Spectacled Eider
(Threatened), and Steller’s Eider (Threatened). The International Union for the
Conservation of Nature Red List lists the polar bear as Vulnerable. Several Arctic
species, including the Pacific Walrus, are currently under review for listing under the
Endangered Species Act.
Subsistence and Cultural Uses
The Chukchi and Beaufort Seas are utilized by the Alaskan Inuit peoples to obtain much
of their subsistence and cultural needs. The Inuit of the north slope of Alaska have an
unbroken tradition of whaling for bowhead whales that has continued for at least 2,000
years. Other marine mammals, including beluga whales, ringed, spotted, bearded and
ribbon seals, walrus, and polar bears are also regularly hunted. Numerous marine birds
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are hunted during their spring or autumn migration along the coast, and the eggs of
several seabird species are collected. Fish, including freshwater and anadromous species,
are also important subsistence resources.
The changing climate has brought about rapid and profound changes in the Arctic marine
system, and sea ice has been reduced in both summer extent and thickness. Ice is an
important subsistence platform for the Inuit, who access whales, seals, and polar bears
from the ice in winter and spring. As sea ice is diminished, access to subsistence
resources is likely to change; some marine species may use terrestrial haulouts and
denning locations, and others may leave. Identifying and protecting habitat that may act
as refuges for marine species may allow these species to remain in the Chukchi and
Beaufort Seas, and continue to be important parts of the traditional Inuit subsistence and
cultural resource base.
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Conservation Targets
Six conservation targets were chosen to represent the biodiversity and unique habitats of
the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas.
Bowhead Whale
The bowhead whale is an ice-adapted whale endemic to the Arctic and subarctic oceans.
Bowhead whales, known as abvik in the Inupiaq language of Alaska’s northern Inuit
people, are the most important subsistence species for communities in northern and
northwest Alaska. The Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort population migrates annually between
wintering grounds in the northern Bering Sea and summer feeding grounds in the eastern
Beaufort Sea.
Stressors: Environmental disturbances, including noise disturbance from energy
development and Arctic shipping, are potential stresses to the bowhead population.
Acoustic noise from seismic exploration activities for offshore energy development can
impact bowheads in several ways, including deflecting them offshore beyond the reach of
whaling communities. Ship strikes from increased ship traffic are also a potential threat.
Status: Fair. The bowhead whale is listed as Endangered under the US Endangered
Species Act. The population is currently estimated at about 10,470 animals, with a
growth rate of about 3% per year.
Ice-Dependent Marine Mammals
This target includes the Pacific walrus, polar bear, and four species of ice seals: ringed,
spotted, bearded, and ribbon seals. Key habitat for ice-dependent marine mammals is
currently disappearing as multi-year ice melts and the summer extent and duration of
first-year ice continues to decline. Many ice-dependent and ice-associated species are
important for cultural and subsistence use, and as a result ecological changes in this
region are closely tied to social, economic, and cultural concerns.
Stressors: Climate change may have potentially catastrophic impacts on this target.
Declines in the length of the ice-covered season have been linked to a variety of
nutritional, reproductive, and other stresses for these species.
Status: Fair. Accurate population estimates do not exist for most ice-dependent species,
making it difficult to determine their current status. However, because the sea ice habitat
critical to their survival is rapidly declining, this target is estimated as fair.
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Seabirds
The lagoons, bays and wetlands along the Chukchi and Beaufort coasts provide breeding,
feeding, and other habitats for millions of seabirds.
Stressors: Primary concerns for seabirds include exposure to contaminants, such as lead
shotgun pellets which are consumed by birds in breeding grounds, and potential oil spills
from offshore energy development and shipping. Climate change may lead to increased
erosion of coastal habitat, as well as the expansion of nesting and breeding ranges by
more southern bird species.
Status: Fair. Of the 34 species that nest in the Western Arctic, population trends are
known for only a small number, including some eider species. Though the Spectacled and
Steller’s Eiders are listed in the US Endangered Species Act as Threatened species, the
King Eider population is estimated to be stable or increasing (Suydam et al. 2008).
Boulder Patch Communities
The seafloor of the Beaufort Sea holds several globally unique ecological communities:
the boulder patches. Glacial activities are believed to have deposited boulders and rocks
on the seafloor sediment, and these clusters of rocks provide a unique surface that
supports isolated kelp communities in the Arctic. A unique kelp species photosynthesizes
during the short Arctic summer and undertakes its yearly growth under ice, in the dark,
during the long Arctic winter. The boulder patches are relatively small and discrete; two
have been identified to date, but more may exist.
Stressors: Threats from development are minimal, but the potential effects of climate
change are not well understood.
Status: Very Good
Benthic Fauna
The continental shelf of the Chukchi Sea, one of the largest in the world, supports an
extremely productive benthos. Benthic fauna in the Chukchi include organisms like sea
stars, brittle stars, bivalves, barnacles, and sponges. Many marine mammals and seabirds
are directly dependent on the benthos as a food supply, and these short food chains are a
central characteristic of this ecosystem. Benthic communities are recognized as good
indicators of overall changes in the ecosystem, since they are relatively stable and reflect
processes occurring throughout the water column.
Stressors: Climate change appears to be driving large-scale shifts in community
structure, as southern species move northward and can potentially compete with or prey
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upon Arctic species. Research has shown some declines in benthic biomass in parts of the
Chukchi Sea since the early 1990s.
Status: Unknown. Detailed informed on the status of benthic communities is
limited.
Arctic Fish
The Arctic fish target refers to fish species adapted to cold temperatures (less than 10oC)
whose primary distribution is in the Arctic (Reist et al. 2006). Arctic fish provide a
critical link from lower to upper tropic levels in this ecosystem. The Arctic cod, for
example, is a key prey species for the ringed seal. Unfortunately, marine fish are one of
the least-understood elements of the Arctic ecosystem.
Stressors: A primary threat to Arctic fish from climate change is the potential influx of
southern species expanding their ranges northward. These novel species may compete
with or prey upon native species, or bring a range of other stressors.
Status: Unknown. More research on size of Arctic fish populations, as well as their role
in the food web, is greatly needed.
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Key Stressors
There are several large-scale stressors that are likely to significantly impact biodiversity
and cultural values of the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas in the near future.
Climate Change
Climate change, and the rapid pace of ecological change it brings, is a primary concern
for this plan. The Beaufort and Chukchi Seas have experienced faster warming than any
other region of the Arctic (ACIA 2005), and research throughout the region suggests that
an ecosystem shift resulting from climate warming is already underway (Grebmeier et al.
2006). Loss of sea ice, both in extent and thickness, is a major concern, especially for
marine mammals and for the subsistence communities which harvest them. Sea ice loss is
an ever-increasing challenge for ice-dependent species (2007 and 2008 are the two years
with the lowest extent of summer sea ice on record).
Minimizing other (non-climate) anthropogenic stresses is recognized by scientists as a
key climate change adaptation strategy for conservation planning and management
(Heller & Zavaleta 2009). Mitigating and minimizing these other stresses can enhance a
system’s capacity to respond and adapt to climate change. We feel that marine spatial
planning, discussed in more detail later in this report, has the potential to meet the need
for enhancing coordinated management of anthropogenic activities, and contributing to
the ecosystem’s capacity for adaptation.
Energy Exploration, Development, and Production
As the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas become increasingly ice-free in the summer and early
fall, the potential for energy exploration and development in the area increases. Longer
open water periods allow for longer exploration seasons, and increase the likelihood of
offshore developments. Although recent court decisions have slowed the pace of
exploration, and no exploratory wells have recently been drilled, the potential for
offshore oil and gas related activities to affect biological and cultural resources of the
marine system remains. Potential impacts of increased energy activities include: noise
disturbance to marine mammals, bottom disturbance, or oil spills or other pollution (DOI
2009).
However, there are opportunities to minimize the impact that these structures and
activities may have on ecological and cultural resources in this region. A rational, spatial,
multi-use planning effort for conservation and development in the Arctic seas would
provide opportunities to plan for the siting of industrial activities, in ways which allow
for the maintenance of biodiversity and subsistence uses.
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Transportation and Shipping
Global climate models predict a continuing or accelerating loss of sea ice, with a possible
ice-free Arctic Ocean for a short period in summer as early as 2015 (AMSA 2009). It is
plausible, therefore, that there will be greater marine access and longer navigable periods
in the Arctic. Although year-round navigation has been possible in some parts of the
Arctic, large-scale industrial shipping would be new to the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas
region.
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea provides a framework for Arctic
shipping and allows for member nations to enforce their own regulations. However, there
are no uniform standards to regulate Arctic shipping, and no mandatory environmental
standards for vessels operating in the Arctic. The Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment
(2009) recommended a series of steps that should be taken to properly regulate
international shipping through the Arctic. Recommendations that pertain to protecting
the Arctic environment and people include: survey and document indigenous marine use,
engage with Arctic communities to plan for marine traffic, identify and protect areas of
ecological and cultural significance, designate marine protected areas, protect the
ecosystem from invasive species, prevent oil spills, reduce impacts to marine mammals,
and reduce air emissions including black carbon.
Fisheries
As a changing climate warms the North Pacific, commercially important fish stocks may
begin to move north. As this trend continues, there will be increased potential for fishing
fleets to also move north into to waters that to date, have not been commercially fished.
Because the Chukchi and Beaufort Sea ecosystems are still not well understood, there is a
great deal of uncertainty surrounding the potential effects of a fishery expansion into the
Arctic. The North Pacific Fishery Management council, recognizing this uncertainty, as
well the sensitive nature of Arctic marine systems, published an Arctic Fishery
Management Plan in 2009 that temporarily prohibits expansion of commercial fisheries
into waters north of the Bering Strait, except for a very small pre-existing crab fishery in
Kotzebue Sound. This action protects Arctic fish and habitat until more is known about
the potential impacts of fishing, though the potential for commercially important fish
stocks to move northward – and displace or compete with Arctic species – still exists.
Cumulative Impacts
Another important concern for planning in this region is the cumulative impact of
multiple stressors. Many, and likely all, of the conservation targets in this plan will face
combined stresses. Cumulative impacts are difficult to quantify and even more difficult to
predict. As a result, improved information on topics such as marine mammal population
sizes is especially important for planning in this environment. A precautionary approach
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to management and development – in order to minimize the non-climate stressors on
ecological targets – is also important.
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Recommendations of the Alaskan Marine Arctic Conservation Action Plan
The Alaskan Marine Arctic Conservation Action Plan was conducted at a regional scale,
with the intention of identifying regional stresses to the ecosystem and appropriate
regional-level strategies. Because of this perspective, our strategies and recommendations
are targeted towards collaborative regional efforts (rather than conservation targetspecific actions).
This planning process highlighted two overarching management needs: the need for
climate change adaptation, and the need for improved, integrated ecosystem-based
management to protect a range of ocean uses, including to support subsistence uses,
provide for conservation, and to responsibly plan for energy development, transportation,
and fisheries. To meet these needs, we identify a range of regional strategies which, with
the involvement of local communities, state and federal governments, industry, and the
environmental community, will support the resilience of this unique ecosystem in the
face of great changes. The strategic recommendations identified here also align with The
Nature Conservancy’s work on a national scale to advance marine spatial planning efforts
in the U.S., which are explained in more detail at
http://www.nature.org/initiatives/marine/strategies/art30339.html.
Regional strategic needs and recommendations:

Significant investment in science and research at the ecosystem scale, over
the long term. A long-term ecosystem research program for the Arctic, such as
the North Pacific Research Board and the National Science Foundation’s joint
effort in the Bering Sea Integrated Ecosystem Research Program, would be a
critical contribution to improving understanding of this region. We recognize a
large-scale science and research effort as one of the most important next steps
towards improving knowledge, and improving ecosystem-based management, in
the marine Arctic. Improved information and data will benefit all Arctic
stakeholders, from local communities to industry. We also highlight the need for
a sound scientific baseline before planning for development.

Cooperation between local communities, nonprofits, industry, federal and
state governments, and other management entities in planning for the Beaufort
and Chukchi Seas and other US marine systems. In this plan, we identified
marine spatial planning, a planning process akin to multi-objective land use
planning, as a framework for achieving multiple objectives in ocean use (Ehler &
Douvere 2009). The marine Arctic presents a rare opportunity – perhaps the only
of its kind in the U.S. – to undertake comprehensive planning for the oceans
before major conflicts arise. Because anthropogenic activities are still limited in
the Arctic, there is a unique opportunity to spearhead a positive, proactive
approach to ocean management which would benefit stakeholders and encourage
sustainable uses. The Nature Conservancy supports marine spatial planning
initiatives which are science-based and data-driven, precautionary, regional in
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scope, multi-objective, guided by clear goals and objectives, participatory,
transparent, and adaptive.

Identification and protection of potential climate refugia. Though many
ecological changes will be unpredictable, identifying and protecting known
important habitats for Arctic species is one route to assisting these species in their
adaption to climate change. It may be possible in the near future, based on climate
change modeling and species distribution information, to model climate refugia
(areas where climate remains relatively unchanged during periods of larger-scale
climate change). In the record-low sea ice year of 2007, for example, walrus were
observed hauling out on land in large numbers. Identifying and protecting areas
such as these terrestrial haulouts could aid ice-dependent species in surviving
habitats changes such as loss of sea ice. Because climate change stresses on icedependent marine mammals have implications for subsistence and cultural
practices as well, subsistence should be a key consideration in any strategic
planning process for this region.

Creation of special subsistence use areas to specifically protect the practices of
subsistence communities, especially in the face of climate change. Marine
subsistence areas are in need of officially designated status in order to
permanently protect them. Currently, a 25-mile coastal “buffer” in the Chukchi
Sea is excluded from oil and gas lease leasing. We recommend a more permanent
withdrawal status for this area, through a federal designation that prioritizes
subsistence use, and recommend that a similar coastal buffer be implemented and
designated in the Beaufort Sea, to protect barrier islands used for whaling as well
as other important subsistence areas. Coastal villages in Alaska depend on marine
resources in the offshore to meet nutritional, cultural, social, and economic needs.
Permanent, legally binding designations of these subsistence use areas would
provide needed support for subsistence cultures.

Siting of Energy Activities. Oil and gas leasing, exploration, and development,
as well as any onshore and offshore infrastructure related to production and
development, should be properly sited to avoid important habitats and subsistence
use areas. Oil exploration, drilling, and other activities can be potentially
hazardous to the seafloor and seafloor fauna. These activities also produce
underwater noise, which can produce effects on bowhead whales and other marine
mammals. A particular concern of subsistence communities on the North Slope is
that acoustic noise will drive bowheads further offshore during their migration,
making them harder for subsistence hunters to access. In the face of these and
other concerns, appropriate siting will be key to meeting the needs of different
ocean users and avoiding future conflicts. Other recommendations for the energy
industry include coordination of oil and gas exploration activities to minimize
cumulative impacts from the activities of multiple corporations on different but
nearby lease sale sites.
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
Careful consideration of the risk and impact of oil spills before allowing
unplanned expansions of transportation routes, energy development or other
industrial activities to proceed in little-understood Arctic ecosystems. The impact
of oil spills on subsistence cultures -- by making marine resources unusable or
inaccessible – should be a priority concern.
 Support for the precautionary approach in planning, such as in the Arctic
Fishery Management Plan.

Designation of Arctic shipping lanes away from important habitat and
subsistence use areas. As the open water season in the Arctic continues to
increase, the amount of vessel traffic in the region – both from trans-Arctic
shipping as well as other vessels, including tourism – is expected to increase as
well. Currently there are no mandatory environmental guidelines or regulation of
Arctic marine traffic. However, The Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment (AMSA
2009) calls for the development of an Arctic marine traffic system and
environmental pollution response. We support those recommendations and also
recommend the designation of lanes to minimize impacts on the ecosystem.
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Conservation Vision
The Nature Conservancy in Alaska envisions a marine ecosystem that maintains the
unique species and seascapes of the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas, provides refugia to
support the resilience of ice-dependent species to adapt to a changing climate, protects
the cultural and subsistence use of natural resources for Alaska Native communities, and
provides for responsible and sustainable uses of the ecosystem. Our long-term vision
includes the implementation of ecosystem-based marine planning and management which
involves:
o Incorporation of habitat and biodiversity data, and subsistence use data,
into planning processes
o Community involvement in planning
o Identification and protection of critical habitats, potential climate refugia,
and other biologically and ecologically important areas
o Siting of development and transportation activities away from important
habitats and subsistence use areas
We will continue to work on building regional partnerships, and support the development
of a long term, comprehensive research and monitoring effort in the Arctic.
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References
ACIA. 2005. Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. Page 1042 in C. U. Press, editor,
Cambridge, U.K.
AMSA. 2009. Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment. Arctic Council.
DOI. 2009. Survey of Available Data on OCS Resources and Identification of Data Gaps
United States Department of the Interior (DOI), Minerals Management Service (MMS),
United States Geological Survey (USGS).
Ehler, C., and F. Douvere. 2009. Visions for a Sea Change: Report of the First
International Workshop on Marine Spatial Planning in I. O. C. a. M. a. t. B.
Programme, editor. IOC Manual and Guides. UNESCO, Paris.
Grebmeier, J. M., J. E. Overland, S. E. Moore, E. V. Farley, E. C. Carmack, L. W.
Cooper, K. E. Frey, J. H. Helle, F. A. McLaughlin, and S. L. McNutt. 2006. A
major ecosystem shift in the northern Bering Sea. Science 311:1461-1464.
Heller, N. E., and E. S. Zavaleta. 2009. Biodiversity management in the face of climate
change: A review of 22 years of recommendations. Biological Conservation
142:14-32.
Hopcroft, R., B. Bluhm, and R. Gradinger. 2008. Arctic Ocean Synthesis: Analysis of
Climate Change Impacts in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas with Strategies for
Future Research. Institute of Marine Sciences, University of Alaska, Fairbanks,
Fairbanks, AK.
Suydam, R. S., L. T. Quakenbush, R. Acker, M. Knoche, and J. Citta. 2008. Migration of
King and Common Eiders Past Point Barrow, Alaska, during Summer/Fall 2002
through Spring 2004: Population Trends and Effects of Wind. Alaska Marine
Science Symposium, Anchorage.
TNC. 2007. Conservation Action Planning: Overview of Basic Practices in T. N.
Conservancy, editor.
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