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1 Hispaniola is an island that Christopher Columbus took possession of during his voyage of 1492. He was so enchanted with the lush green island that he called it “The Spanish Island”. As the island was colonized, most of its indigenous tribes died out from diseases and harsh working conditions in Spanish gold mines. By 1517, the indigenous population was down to 14,000 from an original population of 250,000. There were now 14,000 African slaves and 1,000 Spanish colonists on the island. 2 3 Spanish and French colonists grew cane sugar, indigo, cotton, and coffee, as these were the most valuable commodities for trade. Much of the original forested land was cut down and cultivated for farmland. The slave population of the island revolted in 1804, gaining independence from French rule and their own freedom. They named their new nation “Ayiti”, meaning “mother of the Earth.” 4 The farmland was divided up in 15 hectare portions to farmers. As this land was passed down and divided up within families, the average farm size shrunk to 1.5 hectares. Farmers began to overuse the land to continue supporting themselves. When the land became infertile, they moved to steep hills, overfarming them as well. 5 Today, only about 2% of the country’s original forest cover remains. This forest remains at risk, because most of the people depend on charcoal as a source of heat. The lack of forests has made the country much more susceptible to flooding, mudslides, and erosion. 6 Species - All organisms genetically similar enough to breed and produce live, fertile offspring in nature. Population - All members of a species that live in the same area at the same time. Biological Community - All populations living and interacting in an area. Ecosystem - A biological community and its physical environment. Biotic – Living or once-living factors Abiotic – Non-living factors 7 Biomes - Areas sharing similar climate, topographic and soil conditions, and roughly comparable communities. Includes all populations, communities, and abiotic factors. 8 Productivity refers to the amount of biomass produced in a given area during a given time. Food Webs are series of interconnected food chains in an ecosystem. Trophic Level refers to an individual’s feeding position in an ecosystem. 9 10 Organisms can also be identified by the kinds of food they consume: Herbivores – Primary consumers; eat plants. Carnivores – Secondary or tertiary consumers; eat other animals. Omnivores – Secondary or tertiary consumers, eat both plants and animals. Decomposers - Breakdown complex organic matter into simpler compounds. Feed on all trophic levels. 11 12 Most ecosystems have huge number of primary producers supporting a smaller number of herbivores, supporting a smaller number of secondary consumers. The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that some energy is lost every time it is transferred in the form of heat. Ecosystems not 100% efficient. The total energy transferred from one trophic level to the next can be estimated with the 10% Rule. Only about 10% of the energy present in one trophic level can be transferred successfully to the next trophic level. 13 14 The main abiotic factor in determining ecosystem type is climate. Temperature, precipitation, humidity, and wind over a long period of time. Different than weather (short-term) 15 16 Latitude is the distance away from the equator, measured in degrees. Altitude is height above sea level. 17 On the leeward side of the mountain range, air descends, warms, and releases little moisture. Prevailing winds pick up moisture from an ocean. Moist habitats Dry habitats On the windward side of a mountain range, air rises, cools, and releases moisture. •Each side of a mountain range is affected differently by weather patterns. •The windward side is exposed to the wind first and gets more moisture. The leeward side is left with very little moisture. Water gains and loses heat much more slowly than air. Biomes near a large lake or ocean generally have more stable temperatures. Often have higher levels of precipitation. 19 20 A climatograph is a combination precipitation and temperature graph for a given biome. The average montly precipitation for the area is displayed as a bar graph, while the average monthly temperature is displayed as a line graph. 21 Low moisture levels (less than 25cm of precipitation a year) Rainfall is infrequent and unpredictable Often located on the leeward side of mountains High number of succulent plants Can survive for long periods without water Animals bury themselves underground and sleep through the dry season. 22 Hottest and driest land biome Located near the equator Lowest amount of plant and animal life Seasonal temperature changes More moisture than tropical deserts, less than grasslands Hot during the summer, freezing during winter. Similar precipitation to temperate deserts, but more as snow and ice Large desert cities Soil destruction by offroad vehicles and urban development Soil sanitization from irrigation Depletion of underground water supplies Land disturbance and pollution from mineral extraction Storage of toxic and radioactive wastes Large arrays of solar cells and solar collectors used to produce electricity More precipitation and cooler temperatures than deserts. Temperature fluctuate depending on the time of day and time of year. Mostly grasses, wildflowers, and shrubs. Few trees due to inadequate rainfall and high frequency of fires. 27 Located near the equator, usually between desert and rainforest biomes. Precipitation is very seasonal Wet season: Most active time for animals and plants Dry Season: Grass fires occur frequently Found in the interior of continents Three types of grasslands: Temperate means seasonal; Hot summers and cold winters More consistent precipitation than tropical grasslands. Very cold most of the year, windy Dominated by grasses, lichens, and herbs. Located north of the Arctic circle Underneath the topsoil, there is permafrost Permanently frozen soil Fig. 5-14, p. 89 Natural Capital Degradation Grasslands Conversion of savanna and temperate grasslands to cropland Release of CO2 to atmosphere from burning and conversion of grassland to cropland Overgrazing of tropical and temperate grasslands by livestock Damage to fragile arctic tundra by oil production, air and water pollution, and off-road vehicles Transition areas between arid grasslands and forests Hot, dry summers and cool, moist winters. Dominated with small, leathery, waxy leaves. Evergreen shrubs Fires common component of landscape. 33 Tropical Rainforests More than 200 cm annual rainfall Hot temperatures year-round. Usually located near the equator. Rapid plant growth causes the soil to be very nutrient poor. Thin soil cannot support continued farming, and is susceptible to erosion. Higher diversity of plants and animals than any other biome. 34 Canopy Top layer of forest; Contains most of the fruits and flowers Also contains most of the animals Understory Receives only 5% of sunlight Few branches and leaves in this layer. Shrub Layer Shorter plants with wide, flat leaves to catch as much sunlight as possible. Ground Layer Very bottom Mostly occupied by decomposers 35 45 Emergent layer Harpy eagle 40 Height (meters) 35 Toco toucan Canopy 30 25 20 Understory Wooly opossum 15 10 Brazilian tapir 5 Black-crowned antpitta 0 Shrub layer Ground layer Fig. 5-17, p. Anywhere in the world where rainfall is plentiful and there are four seasons. Deciduous trees shed leaves when water is scarce or ground is frozen. High variety of trees and animals; not as diverse as the rainforest Plants grow in layers Canopy: Tall, mature trees Understory: Small trees and shrubs Forest floor: Ferns, herbs, mosses 37 Large amounts of precipitation, high humidity, and moderate temperatures. Occur farther away from the equator than tropical rain forests and are not as warm. Example: Pacific Northwest Located near the Pacific Ocean Windward side of the Olympic Mountains 39 Located just below the Arctic Circle. Long, harsh winters Short growing season Mostly coniferous trees Produce cones instead of flowers Needle-like leaves Do not shed leaves in winter Waxy coating minimizes water loss. Allow snow to fall to the ground easier 40 Fig. 5-19b, p. Natural Capital Degradation Forests Clearing and degradation of tropical forests for agriculture, livestock grazing, and timber harvesting Clearing of temperate deciduous forests in Europe, Asia, and North America for timber, agriculture, and urban development Clearing of evergreen coniferous forests in North America, Finland, Sweden, Canada, Siberia, and Russia Conversion of diverse forests to less biodiverse tree plantations Damage to soils from off-road vehicles Fig. 5-20, p. 94 Located anywhere the elevation rises 3000 feet or more above sea level. Climate changes quickly occur over very short distances Effect of elevation: Air gets colder and drier as you get higher and higher Windward vs. leeward slopes: The side facing the wind/weather patterns gets more moisture. Tops covered in ice and snow Reflects sunlight; Stay cooler and maintain snow. Natural Capital Degradation Mountains Landless poor migrating uphill to survive Timber extraction Mineral resource extraction Hydroelectric dams and reservoirs Increasing tourism (such as hiking and skiing) Air pollution from industrial and urban centers Increased ultraviolet radiation from ozone depletion Soil damage from off-road vehicles Fig. 5-22, p. 95 Ecotones - Boundaries between adjacent communities. 45 Ecological Succession Primary Succession - A community begins to develop on a site previously unoccupied by living organisms. Secondary Succession - An existing community is disrupted and a new one subsequently develops at the site. 46 47 Pioneer Community – Community that develops initially. Climax Community – Mature community that develops after many years. Animals and plants are well-established K- strategists Community becomes resistant to further change. 48