Download assessing the use of reinforcement on primary school children

ASSESSING THE USE OF REINFORCEMENT ON
PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN IN A SELECTED
ORGANISATION IN IBADAN
BY
ADEGBAJU, PHEBE DAMILOLA
MATRIC NO (06/0260)
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, ABEOKUTA
OCTOBER 2010
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Title page
i
Certification
ii
Dedication
iii
Acknowledgement
iv
Table of contents
v
List of tables
vi
Abstract
vii
CHAPTER ONE
1.0
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background
1.1.1
Types of learning
1.2
Reinforcement
1.3
Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Positive and Negative Reinforcement
1.4
Objectives of the Study
1.5
Broad Objective
1.6
Specific Objectives
1.7
Significance of the Study
1.8
Research Questions
1.9
Definition of Terms
CHAPTER TWO
2.0
LITERATURE REVIEW
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2.1
Theoretical Framework
2.2
Four contexts of operant conditioning
2.2.1
Thorndike's law of effect
2.3
Teacher
2.4
Critical reception
2.5
Learning Ability
2.6
Children (Ages 7-11)
CHAPTER THREE
3.0
METHODOLOGY
3.1
Study Design
3.2
Population of Study
3.3
Selection of Sample
3.4
Study Area
3.5
Brief History Of Oyo State
3.6
History
3.6.1
Climate
3.6.2
Education
3.6.3
Transportation
3.6.4
Geography
3.6.5
Population
3.6.7
Monuments, landmarks, and other locations
3.6.8
Economy
3.6.9
Local government in Ibadan
3.7
Research Instrument
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3.8
Procedure for administering the questionnaire
3.9
Data Analysis
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1
Hypothesis one
4.2
Hypothesis Two
4.3
Hypothesis Three
4.4
Hypothesis Four
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
5.1
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
5.2
RECOMMENDATION
5.4
SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER STUDIES
REFERENCES
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1
SEX
Table 2
Type of School
Table 3
Age
Table 4
Class
Table 5
Number in Classroom
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1:
Climate Data of Ibadan
Figure 2:
Cityscape
Figure 3:
Sex
Figure 4:
Type of School
Figure 5:
Age
Figure 6:
Class
Figure 7 :
Number in classroom
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CHAPTER ONE
1.0
INTRODUCTION
1.1
BACKGROUND
Learning is acquiring new knowledge, behaviours, skills, values, preferences or
understanding, and may involve synthesizing different types of information. The ability to
learn is possessed by humans, animals and some machines. Progress over time tends to
follow learning curves. Vosniadou, Stella (n.d.). UNESCO
Human learning may occur as part of education, personal development, or training. It may be
goal-oriented and may be aided by motivation. The study of how learning occurs is part of
neuropsychology, educational psychology, learning theory, and pedagogy.
Learning may occur as a result of habituation or classical conditioning, seen in many animal
species, or as a result of more complex activities such as play, seen only in relatively
intelligent animals. Learning may occur consciously or without conscious awareness. There
is evidence for human behavioral learning prenatally, in which habituation has been observed
as early as 32 weeks into gestation, indicating that the central nervous system is sufficiently
developed and primed for learning and memory to occur very early on in development
Play has been approached by several theorists as the first form of learning. Children play,
experiment with the world, learn the rules, and learn to interact. Vygotsky agrees that play is
pivotal for children's development, since they make meaning of their environment through
play.
Process of acquiring modifications in existing knowledge, skills, habits, or tendencies
through experience, practice, or exercise. Learning includes associative processes,
discrimination of sense-data, psychomotor and perceptual learning, imitation, concept
formation, problem solving, and insight learning. Animal learning has been studied by
ethologists and comparative psychologists, the latter often drawing explicit parallels to
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human learning. The first experiments concerning associative learning were conducted by
Ivan Pavlov in Russia and Edward L. Thorndike in the U.S. Critics of the early stimulusresponse (S-R) theories, such as Edward C. Tolman, claimed they were overly reductive and
ignored a subject's inner activities. Gestalt-psychology researchers drew attention to the
importance of pattern and form in perception and learning, while structural linguists argued
that language learning was grounded in a genetically inherited "grammar." Developmental
psychologists such as Jean Piaget highlighted stages of growth in learning. More recently,
cognitive scientists have explored learning as a form of information processing, while some
brain researchers, such as Gerald Maurice Edelman, have proposed that thinking and learning
involve an ongoing process of cerebral pathway building.
1.1.1
Types of learning
Simple non-associative learning
Habituation
(1994-2010 Britannica Concise Encyclopaedia.)
In psychology, habituation is an example of non-associative learning in which there is a
progressive diminution of behavioural response probability with repetition stimulus. An
animal first responds to a stimulus, but if it is neither rewarding nor harmful the animal
reduces subsequent responses. One example of this can be seen in small song birds - if a
stuffed owl (or similar predator) is put into the cage, the birds initially react to it as though it
were a real predator. Soon the birds react less, showing habituation. If another stuffed owl is
introduced (or the same one removed and re-introduced), the birds react to it again as though
it were a predator, demonstrating that it is only a very specific stimulus that is habituated to
(namely, one particular unmoving owl in one place).
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Sensitization
Sensitization is an example of non-associative learning in which the progressive
amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus (Bell et al., 1995).
An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral
nerves that will occur if a person rubs his arm continuously. After a while, this stimulation
will create a warm sensation that will eventually turn painful. The pain is the result of the
progressively amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves warning the person that
the stimulation is harmful. Sensitization is thought to underlie both adaptive as well as
maladaptive learning processes in the organism.
Associative learning
Associative learning is the process by which an element is learned through association with a
separate, pre-occurring element. It is also referred to as classical conditioning.
Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of
behaviour. Operant conditioning is distinguished from Pavlovian conditioning in that operant
conditioning deals with the modification of voluntary behaviour. Discrimination learning is a
major form of operant conditioning. One form of it is called Errorless learning.
Classical conditioning
The typical paradigm for classical conditioning involves repeatedly pairing an unconditioned
stimulus (which unfailingly evokes a reflexive response) with another previously neutral
stimulus (which does not normally evoke the response). Following conditioning, the response
occurs both to the unconditioned stimulus and to the other, unrelated stimulus (now referred
to as the "conditioned stimulus"). The response to the conditioned stimulus is termed a
conditioned response. The classic example is Pavlov and his dogs. Meat powder naturally
will make a dog salivate when it is put into a dog's mouth; salivating is a reflexive response
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to the meat powder. Meat powder is the unconditioned stimulus (US) and the salivation is the
unconditioned response (UR). Then Pavlov rang a bell before presenting the meat powder.
The first time Pavlov rang the bell, the neutral stimulus, the dogs did not salivate, but once he
put the meat powder in their mouths they began to salivate. After numerous pairings of the
bell, and then food the dogs learned that the bell was a signal that the food was about to come
and began to salivate just when the bell was rang. Once this occurs the bell becomes the
conditioned stimulus (CS) and the salivation to the bell is the conditioned response (CR).
Imprinting
Imprinting is the term used in psychology and ethology to describe any kind of phasesensitive learning (learning occurring at a particular age or a particular life stage) that is rapid
and apparently independent of the consequences of behaviour. It was first used to describe
situations in which an animal or person learns the characteristics of some stimulus, which is
therefore said to be "imprinted" onto the subject.
Observational learning
The learning process most characteristic of humans is imitation; one's personal repetition of
an observed behaviour, such as a dance. Humans can copy three types of information
simultaneously: the demonstrator's goals, actions and environmental outcomes (results, see
Emulation (observational learning)). Through copying these types of information, (most)
infants will tune into their surrounding culture.
Play
Play generally describes behaviour which has no particular end in itself, but improves
performance in similar situations in the future. This is seen in a wide variety of vertebrates
besides humans, but is mostly limited to mammals and birds. Cats are known to play with a
ball of string when young, which gives them experience with catching prey. Besides
inanimate objects, animals may play with other members of their own species or other
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animals, such as orcas playing with seals they have caught. Play involves a significant cost to
animals, such as increased vulnerability to predators and the risk of injury and possibly
infection. It also consumes energy, so there must be significant benefits associated with play
for it to have evolved. Play is generally seen in younger animals, suggesting a link with
learning. However, it may also have other benefits not associated directly with learning, for
example improving physical fitness.
Enculturation
Enculturation is the process by which a person learns the requirements of their native culture
by which he or she is surrounded, and acquires values and behaviours that are appropriate or
necessary in that culture The influences which as part of this process limit, direct or shape
the individual, whether deliberately or not, include parents, other adults, and peers. If
successful, enculturation results in competence in the language, values and rituals of the
culture. (compare acculturation, where a person is within a culture different to their normal
culture, and learns the requirements of this different culture).
Multimedia learning
The learning where learner uses multimedia learning environments (Mayer 2001). This type
of learning relies on dual-coding theory (Paivio 1971).]
Rote learning
Rote learning is a technique which avoids understanding the inner complexities and
inferences of the subject that is being learned and instead focuses on memorizing the material
so that it can be recalled by the learner exactly the way it was read or heard. The major
practice involved in rote learning techniques is learning by repetition, based on the idea that
one will be able to quickly recall the meaning of the material the more it is repeated. Rote
learning is used in diverse areas, from mathematics to music to religion. Although it has been
criticized by some schools of thought, rote learning is a necessity in many situations.
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Formal learning
Formal learning is learning that takes place within a teacher-student relationship, such as in a
school system.
Nonformal learning
Nonformal learning is organized learning outside the formal learning system. For example:
learning by coming together with people with similar interests and exchanging viewpoints, in
clubs or in (international) youth organizations, workshops.
Non-formal learning and combined approaches
The educational system may use a combination of formal, informal, and non-formal learning
methods.
Tangential learning
Tangential learning is the process by which some portion of people will self-educate if a topic
is exposed to them in something that they already enjoy such as playing a musical instrument.
Dialogic learning
Dialogic learning is a type of learning based on dialogue.
Domains of learning
Benjamin Bloom has suggested three domains of learning:
•
Cognitive - To recall, calculate, discuss, analyze, problem solve, etc.
•
Psychomotor - To dance, swim, ski, dive, drive a car, ride a bike, etc.
•
Affective - To like something or someone, love, appreciate, fear, hate, worship, etc.
Mayer, R. E. (2001).
Types of Learning
1. Intellectual skills: Problem solving ,Higher order rules ,Defined concepts ,Concrete
concepts, Discriminations
2. Cognitive Strategies
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3. Verbal information
4. Motor skills
5. Attitudes
E. L. Thorndike (1874-1949) /Dennis McCallum 2010
Thorndike—Three Laws of Learning
Edward L. Thorndike formulated three primary laws of learning: readiness, exercise, and
effect.
1. The Law of Readiness. This law simply means that an organism will learn more quickly if
it is ready to learn. For example, if you are hungry, not having eaten all day long, and
someone invites you to go to a hamburger stand, you are going to respond immediately
because of your readiness to do so. In your classroom, if you conduct the class in such a
manner as to have the children anticipating with excitement the particular item or principle or
event about which they are going to learn, they will be much more apt to learn it.
2. The Law of Exercise. This law, by its very title, gives itself away. Exercise strengthens the
bond between stimulus and response. To put it another way, the more one practices a certain
response, the more apt it is to be retained. In your classroom, if your students are learning the
numbers to be multiplied, such as two times two, or four times four, and then the appropriate
answer, the more times this is gone over, the more probable it is your students will retain the
results.
3. The Law of Effect. A response (behavior) is strengthened if it is followed by pleasure and
weakened if followed by displeasure. That is, of course, the forerunner of B.F. Skinner's
reinforcement theory. It is the idea of a reward's strengthening any particular behavior.
During middle childhood, with age ranging from7-11 olds (louise,2002), children
progressively move from home into wider social contexts that exert important influences on
their cognitive, behaviour and social emotional development. Children are in critical period
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of their life, which is specifically time that is probably controlled biologically, when certain
internal and external influences have a crucial controlled on an aspect of development when
an individual receives a stimulus and learns from it. The same influences will have no
noticeable effect (Akinade, 2001).
1.2 Reinforcement
The term reinforce means to strengthen, and is used in psychology to refer to anything
stimulus which strengthens or increases the probability of a specific response. For example, if
you want your dog to sit on command, you may give him a treat every time he sits for you.
The dog will eventually come to understand that sitting when told to will result in a treat.
This treat is reinforcing because he likes it and will result in him sitting when instructed to do
so. (psychology 101:Learning Theory and Behavioral Psychology).
This is a simple description of a reinforcer (Skinner, 1938), the treat, which increases the
response, sitting. We all apply reinforcers everyday, most of the time without even realizing
we are doing it. You may tell your child "good job" after he or she cleans their room; perhaps
you tell your partner how good he or she look when they dress up; or maybe you got a raise at
work after doing a great job on a project. All of these things increase the probability that the
same response will be repeated.
There are four types of reinforcement: positive, negative, punishment, and extinction. We’ll
discuss each of these and give examples There are four types of reinforcement: positive,
negative, punishment, and extinction. We’ll discuss each of these and give examples.
Positive Reinforcement: The examples above describe what is referred to as positive
reinforcement. Think of it as adding something in order to increase a response. For example,
adding a treat will increase the response of sitting; adding praise will increase the chances of
your child cleaning his or her room. The most common types of positive reinforcement or
praise and rewards, and most of us have experienced this as both the giver and receiver.
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Negative Reinforcement: Think of negative reinforcement as taking something negative
away in order to increase a response. Imagine a teenager who is nagged by his mother to take
out the garbage week after week. After complaining to his friends about the nagging, he
finally one day performs the task and to his amazement, the nagging stops. The elimination
of this negative stimulus is reinforcing and will likely increase the chances that he will take
out the garbage next week.
Punishment: Punishment refers to adding something aversive in order to decrease a
behaviour. The most common example of this is disciplining (e.g. spanking) a child for
misbehaving. The reason we do this is because the child begins to associate being punished
with the negative behaviour. The punishment is not liked and therefore to avoid it, he or she
will stop behaving in that manner.
Extinction: When you remove something in order to decrease behaviour, this is called
extinction. You are taking something away so that a response is decreased.
Research has found positive reinforcement is the most powerful of any of these. Adding a
positive to increase a response not only works better, but allows both parties to focus on the
positive aspects of the situation. Punishment, when applied immediately following the
negative behaviour can be effective, but results in extinction when it is not applied
consistently. Punishment can also invoke other negative responses such as anger and
resentment.
Reinforcement theory is the process of shaping behaviour by controlling the consequences of
the behaviour. In reinforcement theory a combination of rewards and/or punishments is used
to reinforce desired behaviour or extinguish unwanted behaviour. Any behaviour that elicits a
consequence is called operant behaviour, because the individual operates on his or her
environment. Reinforcement theory concentrates on the relationship between the operant
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behaviour and the associated consequences, and is sometimes referred to as operant
conditioning.
Behavioural theories of learning and motivation focus on the effect that the consequences of
past behaviour have on future behaviour. This is in contrast to classical conditioning, which
focuses on responses that are triggered by stimuli in an almost automatic fashion.
Reinforcement theory suggests that individuals can choose from several responses to a given
stimulus, and that individuals will generally select the response that has been associated with
positive outcomes in the past. E.L. Thorndike articulated this idea in 1911, in what has come
to be known as the law of effect. The law of effect basically states that, all other things being
equal, responses to stimuli that are followed by satisfaction will be strengthened, but
responses that are followed by discomfort will be weakened. Marcia Simmering(2010)
B.F. Skinner was a key contributor to the development of modern ideas about reinforcement
theory. Skinner argued that the internal needs and drives of individuals can be ignored
because people learn to exhibit certain behaviours based on what happens to them as a result
of their behaviour. This school of thought has been termed the behaviourist, or radical
behaviourist, school.
1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Positive and Negative Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement is effective and largely used for two separate reasons. Firstly, it is one
of the most powerful techniques available for the direction or motivation of the actions of
other people. The second reason which is more philosophical is the versatility of the concept
of reinforcement as an explanation of behaviour (Walker. S, 1975). In other words, the
question is why do people behave the way they do? The answer will be that it is because they
(people) are reinforced for it (Walker. S, 1975). Many companies employ the use of positive
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reinforcements to increase productivity, decrease absenteeism and workplace accidents. One
company tried holding lottery draws ever month and they noticed a significant consistency in
attendance. A construction company offered incentives such as a buffet end of each month if
the workers maintained an accident free record. True enough, the accident free record was
maintained for a good number of months (Mazur J.E.,1986). When positive reinforcements
are used, the desired outcome is that the behaviour is reinforced. Subjects understand that the
behaviour is desirable and will tend to repeat it for the rewards. In the negative outcome,
subjects may take the rewarding for granted. They may repeat the behaviour with the
intention of receiving more of the rewards and not understanding that that behaviour is
desirable or they may deem the rewards as part and parcel of things. That is that the education
part has failed. Some examples of these negative outcomes may be employees who get verbal
praises for everything they do, think that it is all lip service. There is no real intention to
compliment them for their good work. Another would be a young child plainly doing things
to curry praises (Strain P.S., Joseph G.E.).
In a similar fashion, a negative reinforcer is a stimulus one would desire to avoid. The act of
escaping or avoiding a negative reinforcer is termed as negative reinforcement. Disincentives
are punishers. There is a natural tendency to put punishments under the wing of negative
reinforcement. However under the definitions of operant conditioning, negative
reinforcement is the strengthening of a particular behaviour by the consequence of
experiencing a negative condition (http://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/proj/nru/opcond.html).
Punishment in the operant conditioning sense is to weaken a particular behaviour as a
consequence of experiencing a negative condition. Negative reinforcement is used commonly
for education or reform. The use of fines, imprisonment is one such example of the use of
negative reinforcement to warn of the negative consequences of associating with social ills.
Skinner (Skinner,1953) and many others prefers the use of positive reinforcement to
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encourage good behaviours and do away with the social use of punishment altogether.
Advantages of the use of negative reinforcement would be of course ideally the cultivation or
strengthening of a desired behaviour after receiving the negative reinforcer. An example
would be that an employer informs his or her employee that their work requires some
polishing up to meet the customer standards. The employer may go on further to explain that
the customer is rather demanding and any negative feedback will tarnish the credibility of the
employee. The desired response would be that the employee strives to perform better.
Disadvantages of using negative reinforcement would be when the desired behaviour is not
achieved. For instance a child was punished for strewing his toys on the floor by facing the
wall and repeatedly saying he will not throw his things on the floor. He kept repeating the act
and undergoing the punishment but he never understood why he should not leave his things
on the floor. That is a negative outcome.
1.4 Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study are divided into:
a.
Broad objective
b. specific objectives
1.5 Broad Objective
The broad objective of the study is to find out the effectiveness of reinforcement on
the learning abilities of primary school children in selected organisation in ibadan metropolis
1.6 Specific Objectives
The specific objectives of the study are to:
1. Identify positive reinforcement that could improve learning ability.
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2. Determine negative reinforcement that will improve learning ability.
3. Examine the effect of positive reinforcement on children’s learning ability.
4. Establish the effect of negative reinforcement on children’s learning ability.
5. Determine teacher’s effective use of positive and negative reinforcement in class room.
1.7
Significance of the Study
The major significant of this study is to add to already existing research on reinforcement
and how it help to improve children of age 7-11 year in relation to how it can improve their
leaning ability.
The impact of reinforcement will later be appreciated by teachers, caregivers, parents, and
school authorities. The result of this research will give a lasting solution as to best method to
use to increase children leaning ability and emotional state
1.8
Research Questions
1) What are the positive reinforcement ?
2) What are the negative reinforcement ?
3) What are the effect of positive reinforcement on children learning ability ?
4) What are the effects of negative reinforcement on children learning ability?
5) Positive reinforcement will be more effective than negative reinforcement on children
learning ability?
1.9
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Assessment: the act of assessing, or the evaluation of a student's achievement on a course.
Primary School: (from French école primaire) is an institution in which children receive the
first stage of compulsory education known as primary or elementary education.
Learning: .Behavioural modification especially through experience or conditioning.
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Learning Ability: mental ability.
Primary Education: is the first stage of compulsory education.
Reinforcement: The occurrence or experimental introduction of an unconditioned stimulus
along with a conditioned stimulus. or The strengthening of a conditioned response by such
means. Or An event, a circumstance, or a condition that increases the likelihood that a given
response will recur in a situation like that in which the reinforcing condition originally
occurred.
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CHAPTER TWO
2.0
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Reinforcement
The term reinforce means to strengthen, and is used in psychology to refer to anything
stimulus which strengthens or increases the probability of a specific response. For example, if
you want your dog to sit on command, you may give him a treat every time he sits for you.
The dog will eventually come to understand that sitting when told to will result in a treat.
This treat is reinforcing because he likes it and will result in him sitting when instructed to do
so.
This is a simple description of a reinforcer (Skinner, 1938), the treat, which increases the
response, sitting. We all apply reinforcers everyday, most of the time without even realizing
we are doing it. You may tell your child "good job" after he or she cleans their room; perhaps
you tell your partner how good he or she look when they dress up; or maybe you got a raise at
work after doing a great job on a project. All of these things increase the probability that the
same response will be repeated.
There are four types of reinforcement: positive, negative, punishment, and extinction. We’ll
discuss each of these and give examples.
Positive Reinforcement: The examples above describe what is referred to as positive
reinforcement. Think of it as adding something in order to increase a response. For example,
adding a treat will increase the response of sitting; adding praise will increase the chances of
your child cleaning his or her room. The most common types of positive reinforcement or
praise and rewards, and most of us have experienced this as both the giver and receiver.
Negative Reinforcement: Think of negative reinforcement as taking something negative
away in order to increase a response. Imagine a teenager who is nagged by his mother to take
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out the garbage week after week. After complaining to his friends about the nagging, he
finally one day performs the task and to his amazement, the nagging stops. The elimination
of this negative stimulus is reinforcing and will likely increase the chances that he will take
out the garbage next week.
Punishment: Punishment refers to adding something aversive in order to decrease a
behavior. The most common example of this is disciplining (e.g. spanking) a child for
misbehaving. The reason we do this is because the child begins to associate being punished
with the negative behavior. The punishment is not liked and therefore to avoid it, he or she
will stop behaving in that manner.
Extinction: When you remove something in order to decrease a behavior, this is called
extinction. You are taking something away so that a response is decreased.
Research has found positive reinforcement is the most powerful of any of these. Adding a
positive to increase a response not only works better, but allows both parties to focus on the
positive aspects of the situation. Punishment, when applied immediately following the
negative behavior can be effective, but results in extinction when it is not applied
consistently. Punishment can also invoke other negative responses such as anger and
resentment.
Reinforcement Schedules
Know that we understand the four types of reinforcement, we need to understand how and
when these are applied (Ferster & Skinner, 1957). For example, do we apply the positive
reinforcement every time a child does something positive? Do we punish a child every time
he does something negative? To answer these questions, you need to understand the
schedules of reinforcement.
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Applying one of the four types of reinforcement every time the behavior occurs (getting a
raise after every successful project or getting spanked after every negative behavior) is called
a Continuous Schedule. Its continuous because the application occurs after every project,
behavior, etc. This is the best approach when using punishment. Inconsistencies in the
punishment of children often results in confusion and resentment. A problem with this
schedule is that we are not always present when a behavior occurs or may not be able to
apply the punishment.
There are two types of continuous schedules:
Fixed Ratio: A fixed ratio schedule refers to applying the reinforcement after a specific
number of behaviors. Spanking a child if you have to ask him three times to clean his room is
an example. The problem is that the child (or anyone for that matter) will begin to realize that
he can get away with two requests before he has to act. Therefore, the behavior does not tend
to change until right before the preset number.
Fixed Interval: Applying the reinforcer after a specific amount of time is referred to as a
fixed interval schedule. An example might be getting a raise every year and not in between. A
major problem with this schedule is that people tend to improve their performance right
before the time period expires so as to "look good" when the review comes around.
When reinforcement is applied on an irregular basis, they are called variable schedules.
Variable Ratio: This refers to applying a reinforcer after a variable number of responses.
Variable ratio schedules have been found to work best under many circumstances and
knowing an example will explain why. Imagine walking into a casino and heading for the slot
machines. After the third coin you put in, you get two back. Two more and you get three
back. Another five coins and you receive two more back. How difficult is it to stop playing?
Variable Interval: Reinforcing someone after a variable amount of time is the final schedule.
If you have a boss who checks your work periodically, you understand the power of this
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schedule. Because you don’t know when the next ‘check-up’ might come, you have to be
working hard at all times in order to be ready.
In this sense, the variable schedules are more powerful and result in more consistent
behaviors. This may not be as true for punishment since consistency in the application is so
important, but for all other types of reinforcement they tend to result in stronger responses.
1) positive reinforcement - give an organism a pleasant stimulus when the operant response
is made. For example, a rat presses the lever (operant response) and it receives a treat
(positive reinforcement)
2) primary reinforcer - stimulus that naturally strengthens any response that precedes it
(e.g., food, water, sex) without the need for any learning on the part of the organism. These
reinforcers are naturally reinforcing.
3) negative reinforcement - take away an unpleasant stimulus when the operant response is
made. For example, stop shocking a rat when it presses the lever (yikes!)
** I can't tell you how often people use the term "negative reinforcement" incorrectly. It is
NOT a method of increasing the chances an organism will behave in a bad way. It is a
method of rewarding the behavior you want to increase. It is a good thing - not a bad thing!
4) secondary/conditioned reinforcer - a previously neutral stimulus that acquires the ability
to strengthen responses because the stimulus has been paired with a primary reinforcer. For
example, an organism may become conditioned to the sound of food dispenser, which occurs
after the operant response is made. Thus, the sound of the food dispenser becomes
reinforcing. Notice the similarity to Classical Conditioning, with the exception that the
behavior is voluntary and occurs before the presentation of a reinforcer.
3. Principles of Reinforcement
4. Schedules of Reinforcement
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a) Fixed Ratio (FR) - reinforcement given after every Nth responses, where N is the size of
the ratio (i.e., a certain number of responses have to occur before getting reinforcement).
a) Skinner identified two types of reinforcing events - those in which a reward is given; and
those in which something bad is removed. In either case, the point of reinforcement is to
increase the frequency or probability of a response occurring again.
b) Skinner also identified two types of reinforcers
b) Variable Ratio (VR) - the variable ration schedule is the same as the FR except that the
ratio varies, and is not stable like the FR schedule. Reinforcement is given after every Nth
response, but N is an average.
1. Break down the task into small steps.
c) Fixed Interval (FI) - a designated amount of time must pass, and then a certain response
must be made in order to get reinforcement. 3. Principles of Reinforcement
AlleyDog.com.1998-2010
Mitzi Brooks, 2008 Operant conditioning is the use of a behavior's antecedent and/or its
consequence to influence the occurrence and form of behavior. Operant conditioning is
distinguished from classical conditioning (also called respondent conditioning) in that operant
conditioning deals with the modification of "voluntary behavior" or operant behavior.
Operant behavior "operates" on the environment and is maintained by its consequences,
while classical conditioning deals with the conditioning of reflexive (reflex) behaviors which
are elicited by antecedent conditions. Behaviors conditioned via a classical conditioning
procedure are not maintained by consequences.
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2.2
Four contexts of operant conditioning
Here the terms positive and negative are not used in their popular sense, but rather: positive
refers to addition, and negative refers to subtraction.
What is added or subtracted may be either reinforcement or punishment. Hence positive
punishment is sometimes a confusing term, as it denotes the "addition" of a stimulus or
increase in the intensity of a stimulus that is aversive (such as spanking or an electric shock).
The four procedures are:
1. Positive reinforcement (Reinforcement): occurs when a behavior (response) is
followed by a stimulus that is rewarding, increasing the frequency of that behavior. In
the Skinner box experiment, a stimulus such as food or sugar solution can be
delivered when the rat engages in a target behavior, such as pressing a lever.
2. Negative reinforcement (Escape): occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by
the removal of an aversive stimulus, thereby increasing that behavior's frequency. In
the Skinner box experiment, negative reinforcement can be a loud noise continuously
sounding inside the rat's cage until it engages in the target behavior, such as pressing a
lever, upon which the loud noise is removed.
3. Positive punishment (Punishment) (also called "Punishment by contingent
stimulation"): occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a stimulus, such as
introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.
4. Negative
punishment
(Penalty)
(also
called
"Punishment
by
contingent
withdrawal"): occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a
stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior, resulting
in a decrease in that behaviour.
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2.2.1 Thorndike's law of effect
Operant conditioning, sometimes called instrumental conditioning or instrumental learning,
was first extensively studied by Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949), who observed the
behavior of cats trying to escape from home-made puzzle boxes.[5] When first constrained in
the boxes, the cats took a long time to escape. With experience, ineffective responses
occurred less frequently and successful responses occurred more frequently, enabling the cats
to escape in less time over successive trials. In his law of effect, Thorndike theorized that
successful responses, those producing satisfying consequences, were "stamped in" by the
experience and thus occurred more frequently. Unsuccessful responses, those producing
annoying consequences, were stamped out and subsequently occurred less frequently. In
short, some consequences strengthened behavior and some consequences weakened behavior.
Thorndike produced the first known learning curves through this procedure. B.F. Skinner
(1904–1990) formulated a more detailed analysis of operant conditioning based on
reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. Following the ideas of Ernst Mach, Skinner
rejected Thorndike's mediating structures required by "satisfaction" and constructed a new
conceptualization of behavior without any such references. So, while experimenting with
some homemade feeding mechanisms, Skinner invented the operant conditioning chamber
which allowed him to measure rate of response as a key dependent variable using a
cumulative record of lever presses or key pecks.
Biological correlates of operant conditioning
Domjan, Michael, Ed (2008).The first scientific studies identifying neurons that responded in
ways that suggested they encode for conditioned stimuli came from work by Mahlon deLong.
and by R.T. "Rusty" Richardson and deLong. They showed that nucleus basalis neurons,
which release acetylcholine broadly throughout the cerebral cortex, are activated shortly after
a conditioned stimulus, or after a primary reward if no conditioned stimulus exists. These
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neurons are equally active for positive and negative reinforcers, and have been demonstrated
to cause plasticity in many cortical regions. Evidence also exists that dopamine is activated at
similar times. There is considerable evidence that dopamine participates in both
reinforcement and aversive learning. Dopamine pathways project much more densely onto
frontal cortex regions. Cholinergic projections, in contrast, are dense even in the posterior
cortical regions like the primary visual cortex. A study of patients with Parkinson's disease, a
condition attributed to the insufficient action of dopamine, further illustrates the role of
dopamine in positive reinforcement. It showed that while off their medication, patients
learned more readily with aversive consequences than with positive reinforcement. Patients
who were on their medication showed the opposite to be the case, positive reinforcement
proving to be the more effective form of learning when the action of dopamine is high.
Prem Verma and Harbans K. Nijhawan (1976)The effects of anxiety, reinforcement, and
intelligence were studied on the learning of a difficult task (paired associates with 1%
association values) in 252 subjects studying in class IX in Chandigarh schools (mean age,
14.7 years). A 2 × 3 × 3 factorial design was used with two anxiety groups (high and low),
three reinforcement conditions (praise, reproof, and praise + reproof), and three levels of
intelligence (high, middle, and low). In general, the results were in line with the Sarasonian
theoretical framework that anxiety shows its debilitating effects under certain conditions, but
not all. At upper levels of intelligence, neither anxiety nor reinforcement was found
significant. At lower levels of intelligence, anxiety was found to interfere with learning under
all the reinforcement conditions. It was found further that the most affected group was the
middle intelligencehigh anxiety group. This group performed better under praise than under
praise + reproof and reproof alone.
Ormrod, J.E. (1999
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1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment have indirect
effects on learning. They are not the sole or main cause.
2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which an individual exhibits a
behavior that has been learned.
3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes that promote learning.
Therefore attention pays a critical role in learning. And attention is influenced by the
expectation of reinforcement. An example would be, where the teacher tells a group of
students that what they will study next is not on the test. Students will not pay attention,
because they do not expect to know the information for a test.
rom notes on Ormond's
Human Learning
LAURENCOX(2010)
"Clearly there are major differences between mice and humans in terms of motivation and
how we behave, but very simple processes still stay true," said Sheryl Smith, lead author on
the paper explaining the findings published Friday in the journal Science. "We know that we
all have the same kinds of brain chemicals."art of the brain called the hippocampus during
puberty. Before puberty, the hippocampus has very few GABA receptors, then the numbers
swell during puberty. Smith said the number of GABA receptors diminishes again in
adulthood, but never falls to pre-pubescent levels.
A GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid receptor) receptor works in complex lock and key
system within the brain. The GABA receptor sits in a brain cell called a neuron, and when it
sees a neurotransmitter called GABA, it puts a brake on brain activity.
For some reason, and Smith could only guess why, the presence of the GABA receptors in
the teenage brain blocks a specific learning ability.
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"It's special kind of learning," said Smith, who gave the example of learning how to spot
openings in a moving basketball game, or memorizing a location of a shop when driving
around town.
"But it could be something as simple as remembering where you put the keys when you set
them down," said Smith. "For a mouse, it might be something as simple-minded as your
parents teaching you how to remember to find the nest."
Smith tested the mice's learning ability by putting them on a round, movable surface which
had a specific section designed to give an uncomfortable jolt should the mouse set foot there.
She found the young mice easily learned where the jolt was coming from and how avoid it in
one or two tries, but the mice going through puberty never learned how to avoid the jolt on
the moving surface. Why Do We Lose Learning Ability?
2.3
Teacher
Patrick, B.C., Hisley, J. & Kempler, T. (2000) .In education, a teacher is a person who
provides schooling for others. A teacher who facilitates education for an individual student
may also be described as a personal tutor. The role of teacher is often formal and ongoing,
carried out by way of occupation or profession at a school or other place of formal education.
In many countries, a person who wishes to become a teacher at state-funded schools must
first obtain professional qualifications or credentials from a university or college. These
professional qualifications may include the study of pedagogy, the science of teaching.
Teachers will have to continue their education after they receive their degree from a college
or university. Teachers may use a lesson plan to facilitate student learning, providing a course
of study which covers a standardized curriculum. A teacher's role may vary between cultures.
Teachers teach literacy and numeracy, or some of the other school subjects. Other teachers
may provide instruction in craftsmanship or vocational training, the Arts, religion or
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spirituality, civics, community roles, or life skills. In some countries, formal education can
take place through home schooling.
Informal learning may be assisted by a teacher occupying a transient or ongoing role, such as
a parent or sibling or within a family, or by anyone with knowledge or skills in the wider
community setting.
Teaching may be carried out informally, within the family which is called home schooling or
the wider community. Formal teaching may be carried out by paid professionals. Such
professionals enjoy a status in some societies on a par with physicians, lawyers, engineers,
and accountants (Chartered or CPA).
A teacher's professional duties may extend beyond formal teaching. Outside of the classroom
teachers may accompany students on field trips, supervise study halls, help with the
organization of school functions, and serve as supervisors for extracurricular activities. In
some education systems, teachers may have responsibility for student discipline.
Around the world teachers are often required to obtain specialized education, knowledge,
codes of ethics and internal monitoring.
There are a variety of bodies designed to instil, preserve and update the knowledge and
professional standing of teachers. Around the world many governments operate teacher's
colleges, which are generally established to serve and protect the public interest through
certifying, governing and enforcing the standards of practice for the teaching profession.
The functions of the teacher's colleges may include setting out clear standards of practice,
providing for the ongoing education of teachers, investigating complaints involving members,
conducting hearings into allegations of professional misconduct and taking appropriate
disciplinary action and accrediting teacher education programs. In many situations teachers in
publicly funded schools must be members in good standing with the college, and private
schools may also require their teachers to be college peoples. In other areas these roles may
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belong to the State Board of Education, the Superintendent of Public Instruction, the State
Education Agency or other governmental bodies. In still other areas Teaching Unions may be
responsible for some or all of these duties.
n education, teachers facilitate student learning, often in a school or academy or perhaps in
another environment such as outdoors. A teacher who teaches on an individual basis may be
described as a tutor. GDR "village teacher" (a teacher teaching students of all age groups in
one class) in 1951.
The objective is typically accomplished through either an informal or formal approach to
learning, including a course of study and lesson plan that teaches skills, knowledge and/or
thinking skills. Different ways to teach are often referred to as pedagogy. When deciding
what teaching method to use teachers consider students' background knowledge,
environment, and their learning goals as well as standardized curricula as determined by the
relevant authority. Many times, teachers assist in learning outside of the classroom by
accompanying students on field trips. The increasing use of technology, specifically the rise
of the internet over the past decade, has begun to shape the way teachers approach their roles
in the classroom.
The objective is typically a course of study, lesson plan, or a practical skill. A teacher may
follow standardized curricula as determined by the relevant authority. The teacher may
interact with students of different ages, from infants to adults, students with different abilities
and students with learning disabilities.
Teaching using pedagogy also involve assessing the educational levels of the students on
particular skills. Understanding the pedagogy of the students in a classroom involves using
differentiated instruction as well as supervision to meet the needs of all students in the
classroom. Pedagogy can be thought of in two manners. First, teaching itself can be taught in
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many different ways, hence, using a pedagogy of teaching styles. Second, the pedagogy of
the learners comes into play when a teacher assesses the pedagogic diversity of his/her
students and differentiates for the individual students accordingly.
Perhaps the most significant difference between primary school and secondary school
teaching is the relationship between teachers and children. In primary schools each class has
a teacher who stays with them for most of the week and will teach them the whole
curriculum. In secondary schools they will be taught by different subject specialists each
session during the week and may have 10 or more different teachers. The relationship
between children and their teachers tends to be closer in the primary school where they act as
form tutor, specialist teacher and surrogate parent during the course of the day.
This is true throughout most of the United States as well. However, alternative approaches for
primary education do exist. One of these, sometimes referred to as a "platoon" system,
involves placing a group of students together in one class that moves from one specialist to
another for every subject. The advantage here is that students learn from teachers who
specialize in one subject and who tend to be more knowledgeable in that one area than a
teacher who teaches many subjects. Students still derive a strong sense of security by staying
with the same group of peers for all classes.
Co-teaching has also become a new trend amongst educational institutions. Co-teaching is
defined as two or more teachers working harmoniously to fulfill the needs of every student in
the classroom. Co-teaching focuses the student on learning by providing a social networking
support that allows them to reach their full cognitive potential. Co-teachers work in sync with
one another to create a climate of learning.
Rights to enforce school discipline
School discipline and School punishment
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Throughout the history of education the most common form of school discipline was corporal
punishment. While a child was in school, a teacher was expected to act as a substitute parent,
with all the normal forms of parental discipline open to them.Medieval schoolboy birched on
the bare buttocks.
In past times, corporal punishment (spanking or paddling or caning or strapping or birching
the student in order to cause physical pain) was one of the most common forms of school
discipline throughout much of the world. Most Western countries, and some others, have now
banned it, but it remains lawful in the United States following a US Supreme Court decision
in 1977 which held that paddling did not violate the US Constitution.
30 US states have banned corporal punishment, the others (mostly in the South) have not. It is
still used to a significant (though declining) degree in some public schools in Alabama,
Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Tennessee and Texas. Private schools
in these and most other states may also use it. Corporal punishment in American schools is
administered to the seat of the student's trousers or skirt with a specially made wooden
paddle. This often used to take place in the classroom or hallway, but nowadays the
punishment is usually given privately in the principal's office.
Official corporal punishment, often by caning, remains commonplace in schools in some
Asian, African and Caribbean countries. For details of individual countries see School
corporal punishment.
Currently detention is one of the most common punishments in schools in the United States,
the UK, Ireland, Singapore and other countries. It requires the pupil to remain in school at a
given time in the school day (such as lunch, recess or after school); or even to attend school
on a non-school day, e.g. "Saturday detention" held at some US schools. During detention,
students normally have to sit in a classroom and do work, write lines or a punishment essay,
or sit quietly.
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A modern example of school discipline in North America and Western Europe relies upon the
idea of an assertive teacher who is prepared to impose their will upon a class. Positive
reinforcement is balanced with immediate and fair punishment for misbehavior and firm,
clear boundaries define what is appropriate and inappropriate behavior. Teachers are
expected to respect their students, and sarcasm and attempts to humiliate pupils are seen as
falling outside of what constitutes reasonable discipline.
Whilst this is the consensus viewpoint amongst the majority of academics, some teachers and
parents advocate a more assertive and confrontational style of discipline.[citation
needed]
Such
individuals claim that many problems with modern schooling stem from the weakness in
school discipline and if teachers exercised firm control over the classroom they would be able
to teach more efficiently. This viewpoint is supported by the educational attainment of
countries—in East Asia for instance—that combine strict discipline with high standards of
education.
It's not clear, however that this stereotypical view reflects the reality of East Asian
classrooms or that the educational goals in these countries are commensurable with those in
Western countries. In Japan, for example, although average attainment on standardized tests
may exceed those in Western countries, classroom discipline and behavior is highly
problematic. Although, officially, schools have extremely rigid codes of behavior, in practice
many teachers find the students unmanageable and do not enforce discipline at all.
Where school class sizes are typically 40 to 50 students, maintaining order in the classroom
can divert the teacher from instruction, leaving little opportunity for concentration and focus
on what is being taught. In response, teachers may concentrate their attention on motivated
students, ignoring attention-seeking and disruptive students. The result of this is that
motivated
students,
facing
demanding
university
entrance
examinations,
receive
disproportionate resources, while the rest of the students are allowed, perhaps expected to,
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fail. Given the emphasis on attainment of university places, administrators and governors
may regard this policy as appropriate.
Teacher Enthusiasm
Since teachers can affect how students perceive the course materials, it has been found that
teachers who showed enthusiasm towards the course materials and students can affect a
positive learning experience towards the course materials. On teacher/course evaluations, it
was found that teachers who have a positive disposition towards the course content tend to
transfer their passion to receptive students. Teachers cannot teach by rote but have to find
new invigoration for the course materials on a daily basis. Teachers have to keep in mind that
they are teaching new minds every term or semester.Otherwise, teachers will fall into the trap
of having done this material again and start feeling bored with the subject which in turn bore
the students as well. Students who had enthusiastic teachers tend to rate them higher than
teachers who didn’t show much enthusiasm for the course materials.
Teachers that exhibit enthusiasm can lead to students who are more likely to be engaged,
interested, energetic, and curious about learning the subject matter. Recent research has found
a correlation between teacher enthusiasm and students’ intrinsic motivation to learn and
vitality in the classroom. Controlled, experimental studies exploring intrinsic motivation of
college students has shown that nonverbal expressions of enthusiasm, such as demonstrative
gesturing, dramatic movements which are varied, and emotional facial expressions, result in
college students reporting higher levels of intrinsic motivation to learn. Students who
experienced a very enthusiastic teacher were more likely to read lecture material outside of
the classroom.
There are various mechanisms by which teacher enthusiasm may facilitate higher levels of
intrinsic motivation. Teacher enthusiasm may contribute to a classroom atmosphere full of
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energy and enthusiasm which feed student interest and excitement in learning the subject
matter. Enthusiastic teachers may also lead to students becoming more self-determined in
their own learning process. The concept of mere exposure indicates that the teacher’s
enthusiasm may contribute to the student’s expectations about intrinsic motivation in the
context of learning. Also, enthusiasm may act as a “motivational embellishment”; increasing
a student’s interest by the variety, novelty, and surprise of the enthusiastic teacher’s
presentation of the material. Finally, the concept of emotional contagion, may also apply.
Students may become more intrinsically motivated by catching onto the enthusiasm and
energy of the teacher.
Research shows that student motivation and attitudes towards school are closely linked to
student-teacher relationships. Enthusiastic teachers are particularly good at creating beneficial
relations with their students. Their ability to create effective learning environments that foster
student achievement depends on the kind of relationship they build with their students. Useful
teacher-to-student interactions are crucial in linking academic success with personal
achievement. Here, personal success is a student's internal goal of improving himself,
whereas academic success includes the goals he receives from his superior. A teacher must
guide his student in aligning his personal goals with his academic goals. Students who
receive this positive influence show stronger self-confidence and greater personal and
academic success than those without these teacher interactions.
Students are likely to build stronger relations with teachers who are friendly and supportive
and will show more interest in courses taught by these teachers. Teachers that spend more
time interacting and working directly with students are perceived as supportive and effective
teachers. Effective teachers have been shown to invite student participation and decision
making, allow humor into their classroom, and demonstrate a willingness to play
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Theory of multiple intelligences
The theory of multiple intelligences was proposed by Howard Gardner in 1983 to analyse
and better describe the concept of intelligence. The theory also addresses the question
whether traditional IQ tests are truly scientific.
Gardner argues that the concept of intelligence as traditionally defined in psychometrics (IQ
tests) does not sufficiently describe the wide variety of cognitive abilities humans display.
For example, the theory states that a child who learns to multiply easily is not necessarily
more intelligent than a child who has stronger skills in another kind of intelligence. The child
who takes more time to master simple multiplication 1) may best learn to multiply through a
different approach, 2) may excel in a field outside of mathematics, or 3) may even be looking
at and understand the multiplication process at a fundamentally deeper level. Such a
fundamentally deeper understanding can result in what looks like slowness and can hide a
mathematical intelligence potentially higher than that of a child who quickly memorizes the
multiplication table despite a less detailed understanding of the process of multiplication.
The theory has met with mixed responses. Many psychologists feel that a differentiation of
the concept of intelligence is not supported by empirical evidence, but many educationalists
support the practical value of the approaches suggested by the theory.
The multiple intelligences
Gardner has articulated eight basic types of intelligence to date, without claiming that this is a
complete list. Gardner's original list included seven of these; in 1999 he added a naturalist
intelligence. He has also considered existential intelligence and moral intelligence, but does
not find sufficient evidence for these based upon his articulated criteria,which include:
•
the potential for brain isolation by brain damage,
•
its place in evolutionary history,
•
the presence of core operations,
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•
susceptibility to encoding (symbolic expression),
•
a distinct developmental progression,
•
the existence of idiot-savants, prodigies and other exceptional people,
•
support from experimental psychology and psychometric findings.
The theory's nine currently accepted intelligences are: Robert Slavin. 2009,
•
Spatial
•
Linguistic
•
Logical-mathematical
•
Bodily-kinesthetic
•
Musical
•
Interpersonal
•
Intrapersonal
•
Naturalistic
•
Existential
Spatial
This area deals with spatial judgement and the ability to visualize with the mind's eye.
Careers which suit those with this type of intelligence include artists, designers and
architects. A spatial person is also good with puzzles.
Linguistic
This area has to do with words, spoken or written. People with high verbal-linguistic
intelligence display a facility with words and languages. They are typically good at reading,
writing, telling stories and memorizing words along with dates. They tend to learn best by
reading, taking notes, listening to lectures, and discussion and debate. Those with verballinguistic intelligence learn foreign languages very easily as they have high verbal memory
and recall, and an ability to understand and manipulate syntax and structure.
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Careers that suit those with this intelligence include writers, lawyers, policemen,
philosophers, journalists, politicians, poets, and teachers.
Logical-mathematical
This area has to do with logic, abstractions, reasoning, and numbers. While it is often
assumed that those with this intelligence naturally excel in mathematics, chess, computer
programming and other logical or numerical activities, a more accurate definition places less
emphasis on traditional mathematical ability and more on reasoning capabilities, abstract
patterns of recognition, scientific thinking and investigation, and the ability to perform
complex calculations. It correlates strongly with traditional concepts of "intelligence" or IQ.
Careers which suit those with this intelligence include scientists, physicists, mathematicians,
logicians, engineers, doctors, economists and philosophers.
Bodily-kinesthetic
The core elements of the bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are control of one's bodily motions
and the capacity to handle objects skillfully (206). Gardner elaborates to say that this
intelligence also includes a sense of timing, a clear sense of the goal of a physical action,
along with the ability to train responses so they become like reflexes.
In theory, people who have bodily-kinesthetic intelligence should learn better by involving
muscular movement (e.g. getting up and moving around into the learning experience), and are
generally good at physical activities such as sports or dance. They may enjoy acting or
performing, and in general they are good at building and making things. They often learn best
by doing something physically, rather than [by] reading or hearing about it. Those with strong
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence seem to use what might be termed muscle memory - they
remember things through their body such as verbal memory.
Careers that suit those with this intelligence include: athletes, dancers, musicians, actors,
surgeons, doctors, builders, police officers, and soldiers. Although these careers can be
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duplicated through virtual simulation, they will not produce the actual physical learning that
is needed in this intelligence.
Musical
This area has to do with sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, tones, and music. People with a high
musical intelligence normally have good pitch and may even have absolute pitch, and are
able to sing, play musical instruments, and compose music. Since there is a strong auditory
component to this intelligence, those who are strongest in it may learn best via lecture.
Language skills are typically highly developed in those whose base intelligence is musical. In
addition, they will sometimes use songs or rhythms to learn. They have sensitivity to rhythm,
pitch, meter, tone, melody or timbre.
Careers that suit those with this intelligence include instrumentalists, singers, conductors,
disc-jockeys, orators, writers and composers.
Interpersonal
This area has to do with interaction with others. In theory, people who have a high
interpersonal intelligence tend to be extroverts, characterized by their sensitivity to others'
moods, feelings, temperaments and motivations, and their ability to cooperate in order to
work as part of a group. They communicate effectively and empathize easily with others, and
may be either leaders or followers. They typically learn best by working with others and often
enjoy discussion and debate.
Careers that suit those with this intelligence include sales, politicians, managers, teachers, and
social workers.
Intrapersonal
This area has to do with introspective and self-reflective capacities. People with intrapersonal
intelligence are intuitive and typically introverted. They are skillful at deciphering their own
feelings and motivations. This refers to having a deep understanding of the self; what are
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your strengths/ weaknesses, what makes you unique, you can predict your own reactions/
emotions.
Careers which suit those with this intelligence include philosophers, psychologists,
theologians, lawyers, and writers. People with intrapersonal intelligence also prefer to work
alone.
Naturalistic
This area has to do with nature, nurturing and relating information to one’s natural
surroundings. Careers which suit those with this intelligence include naturalists, farmers and
gardeners.
Existential
Ability to contemplate phenomena or questions beyond sensory data, such as the infinite and
infinitesimal. Ideal career: cosmologist, philosopher.
Use in education
Traditionally, schools have emphasized the development of logical intelligence and linguistic
intelligence (mainly reading and writing). IQ tests (given to about 1,000,000 students each
year) focus mostly on logical and linguistic intelligence as well. While many students
function well in this environment, there are those who do not. Gardner's theory argues that
students will be better served by a broader vision of education, wherein teachers use different
methodologies, exercises and activities to reach all students, not just those who excel at
linguistic and logical intelligence.
Many teachers see the theory as simple common sense. Some say that it validates what they
already know: that students learn in different ways. On the other hand, James Traub's article
in The New Republic notes that Gardner's system has not been accepted by most academics in
intelligence or teaching.
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George Miller, the esteemed psychologist credited with discovering the mechanisms by
which short term memory operates, wrote in The New York Times Book Review that Gardner's
argument boiled down to "hunch and opinion" (p. 20). Gardner's subsequent work has done
very little to shift the balance of opinion. A recent issue of Psychology, Public Policy, and
Law devoted to the study of intelligence contained virtually no reference to Gardner's work.
Most people who study intelligence view M.I. theory as rhetoric rather than science, and
they're divided on the virtues of the rhetoric.
The application of the theory of multiple intelligences varies widely. It runs the gamut from a
teacher who, when confronted with a student having difficulties, uses a different approach to
teach the material, to an entire school using MI as a framework. In general, those who
subscribe to the theory strive to provide opportunities for their students to use and develop all
the different intelligences, not just the few at which they naturally excel.
A Harvard-led study of 41 schools using the theory came to the conclusion that in these
schools there was "a culture of hard work, respect, and caring; a faculty that collaborated and
learned from each other; classrooms that engaged students through constrained but
meaningful choices, and a sharp focus on enabling students to produce high-quality work."[6]
Of the schools implementing Gardner's theory, the most well-known is New City School, in
St. Louis, Missouri, which has been using the theory since 1988. The school's teachers have
produced two books for teachers, Celebrating Multiple Intelligences and Succeeding With
Multiple Intelligences and the principal, Thomas Hoerr, has written Becoming a Multiple
Intelligences School as well as many articles on the practical applications of the theory. The
school has also hosted four conferences, each attracting over 200 educators from around the
world and remains a valuable resource for teachers interested in implementing the theory in
their own classrooms.
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Thomas Armstrong argues that Waldorf education organically engages all of Gardner's
original seven intelligence
2.4 Critical reception
The definition of intelligence
One major criticism of the theory is that it is ad hoc: that Gardner is not expanding the
definition of the word "intelligence"; rather, he denies the existence of intelligence as
traditionally understood and instead uses the word "intelligence" whenever other people have
traditionally used words like "ability". This practice has been criticized by Robert J.
Sternberg (1983, 1991), Eysenck (1994), and Scarr (1985).
Defenders of MI theory argue that the traditional definition of intelligence is too narrow, and
thus broader definition more accurately reflects the differing ways in which humans think and
learn. They would state that the traditional interpretation of intelligence collapses under the
weight of its own logic and definition, noting that intelligence is usually defined as the
cognitive or mental capacity of an individual, which by logical necessity would include all
forms of mental qualities, not simply the ones most transparent to standardized I.Q. tests.
Some of these criticisms arise from the fact that Gardner has not settled on a single definition
of intelligence. He originally defined it as the ability to solve problems that have value in at
least one culture, or as something that a student is interested in. However, he added a
disclaimer that he has no fixed definition, and his classification is more of an artistic
judgment than fact:
Ultimately, it would certainly be desirable to have an algorithm for the selection of an
intelligence, such that any trained researcher could determine whether a candidate's
intelligence met the appropriate criteria. At present, however, it must be admitted that the
selection (or rejection) of a candidate's intelligence is reminiscent more of an artistic
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judgment than of a scientific assessment. (Gardner, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple
Intelligences, 1985)
Gardner argues that by calling linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities intelligences, but
not artistic, musical, athletic, etc. abilities, the former are needlessly aggrandized. Certain
critics balk at this widening of the definition, saying that it ignores "the connotation of
intelligence...[which] has always connoted the kind of thinking skills that makes one
successful in school."[8]
Gardner writes "I balk at the unwarranted assumption that certain human abilities can be
arbitrarily singled out as intelligence while others cannot"[9] Critics hold that given this
statement, any interest or ability is now redefined as "intelligence". Thus, by adopting this
theory, studying intelligence becomes difficult, because it diffuses into the broader concept of
ability or talent. Gardner's addition of the naturalistic intelligence and conceptions of the
existential and moral intelligences are seen as fruits of this diffusion. Defenders of the MI
theory would argue that this is simply a recognition of the broad scope of inherent mental
abilities, and that such an exhaustive scope by nature defies a simple, one-dimensional
classification such as an assigned IQ value. They would claim that such one-dimensional
values are typically of limited value in predicting the real world application of unique mental
abilities.
Andreas Demetriou suggests that theories which overemphasize the autonomy of the domains
are as simplistic as the theories that overemphasize the role of general intelligence and ignore
the domains. He agrees with Gardner that there indeed are domains of intelligence that are
relevantly autonomous of each other. In fact, some of the domains, such as verbal, spatial,
mathematical, and social intelligence are identified by most lines of research in psychology.
However, in his theory, one of the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development, Gardner
is criticized for underestimating the effects exerted on the various domains of intelligences by
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processes that define general processing efficiency, such as speed of processing, executive
functions, and working memory, and hypercognitive processes underlying self-awareness and
self-regulation.
All of these processes are integral components of general intelligence that regulate the
functioning and development of different domains of intelligence. In fact, a 2006 study by
Visser and colleagues which was designed to test the autonomy of Gardner's intelligences
showed clearly that most of them are heavily dependent on the general factor of
intelligence.[10]
Thus, it is argued that the domains are to a large extent expressions of the condition of the
general processes. At the same time, the domains may vary because of their constitutional
differences but also differences in individual preferences and inclinations. Moreover, their
functioning both channels and influences the operation of the general processes. Thus, one
cannot satisfactorily specify the intelligence of an individual or design effective interventions
programs unless both the general processes and the domains of interest are evaluated
(Demetriou & Kazi, 2006; Demetriou, Mouyi, & Spanoudis, 2010).
Lack of empirical evidence
The theory has been critiqued as tautologous and thus unfalsifiable;[13] yet other critics have
sought to prove it false by showing that many of Gardner's "intelligences" actually correlate
with the g factor, supporting the idea of a single dominant type of intelligence.[14]
A critical review of MI theory argues that there is little empirical evidence to support it:
"To date there have been no published studies that offer evidence of the validity of the
multiple intelligences. In 1994 Sternberg reported finding no empirical studies. In 2000 Allix
reported finding no empirical validating studies, and at that time Gardner and Connell
conceded that there was "little hard evidence for MI theory" (2000, p. 292). In 2004
Sternberg and Grigerenko stated that there were no validating studies for multiple
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intelligences, and in 2004 Gardner asserted that he would be "delighted were such evidence
to accrue" (p. 214), and he admitted that "MI theory has few enthusiasts among
psychometricians or others of a traditional psychological background" because they require
"psychometric or experimental evidence that allows one to prove the existence of the several
intelligences" (2004, p. 214)." (Waterhouse, 2006a, p. 208).
The same review presents evidence to demonstrate that cognitive neuroscience research does
not support the theory of Multiple Intelligences:
"the human brain is unlikely to function via Gardner’s multiple intelligences. Taken together
the evidence for the intercorrelations of subskills of IQ measures, the evidence for a shared
set of genes associated with mathematics, reading, and g, and the evidence for shared and
overlapping “what is it?” and “where is it?” neural processing pathways, and shared neural
pathways for language, music, motor skills, and emotions suggest that it is unlikely that that
each of Gardner’s intelligences could operate “via a different set of neural mechanisms”
(1999, p. 99). Equally important, the evidence for the “what is it?” and “where is it?”
processing pathways, for Kahneman’s two decision-making systems, and for adapted
cognition modules suggests that these cognitive brain specializations have evolved to address
very specific problems in our environment. Because Gardner claimed that that the
intelligences are innate potentialities related to a general content area, MI theory lacks a
rationale for the phylogenetic emergence of the intelligences." (From Waterhouse, 2006a, p.
213).
A number of articles have surveyed the use of Gardner's ideas and conclude that there is little
to no academically substantiated evidence that his ideas work in practice. Steven A. Stahl
found that most of the previous studies which claimed to show positive results had major
flaws:
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Among others, Marie Carbo claims that her learning styles work is based on research. {I
discuss Carbo because she publishes extensively on her model and is very prominent in the
workshop circuit...} But given the overwhelmingly negative findings in the published
research, I wondered what she was citing, and about a decade ago, I thought it would be
interesting to take a look. Reviewing her articles, I found that out of 17 studies she had cited,
only one was published. Fifteen were doctoral dissertations and 13 of these came out of one
university—St. John’s University in New York, Carbo’s alma mater. None of these had been
in a peer-refereed journal. When I looked closely at the dissertations and other materials, I
found that 13 of the 17 studies that supposedly support her claim had to do with learning
styles based on something other than modality.
To date, the current No Child Left Behind high-stakes test legislation does not encompass the
multiple intelligences framework in the exams' design and/or implementation
2.5
Learning Ability
During age 7-11 year olds, children progressively move from home into wider social contexts
that exert important influences on their cognitive, behavioural, and socio-emotional
development. in particularly .the commencement of formal schooling initiates of series of
new life experience for children. school experiences encourage the development of
Intellectual and interpersonal competencies and introduce the child to new social roles
wherein status is conferred based on competence and performance.(Roblyer,2003).
According to Erickson (1968.),the accomplishment of the “sense of industry” in school
during these years, well as a sense of co-operation and mutually in social interactions with
peers and adults outside home, is critical to healthy development.
If children fail to develop these skills and thereby, meet the challenges of adaptation
associated with entry into formal schools, Erickson suggested that a “sense of inferiority”
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would develop, that could exert long-lasting consequences on children’s intellectual ,
emotional and interpersonal well-being. Zolten and long (1997) states unfortunately, children
are not born with the learning habits needed for them to succeed in school they must learn
them. very often children being school without skills they need to do well.
Gagne ,(2003) is known for his major contribution, in the area of behaviourism including
events of instruction, types of learning, and learning hierarchies. Gagne’s events
of
instruction consist of nine guidelines that teachers can follow in order to create an improved
learning environment. Also, gagne realised that children use different types of learning
environments. He showed how the event of instruction could be modified to accommodate or
direct different types of learning. Learning hierarchy is gagne’s theory that skills are used as
building blocks when learning the more complex skills.
Dewey(2001) can be thought of as the grandfather of constructivism. He was closely related
to progressive education movement. Dewey believed curriculum should arise from students
interests. He favoured a “pedocentric” strategy for education. Curriculum topics should be
integrated, rather than isolated from each other. To dewey education meant growth.
Education is a way of helping students understand their roles in the society. Education occurs
through its connection with life . He felt that social consciousness was the aim of all
education.. he believed that meaningful learning resulted from students working together on
tasks that were related to their interest.
Ley vygossky(2000) was a Russian philosopher who felt that cognitive development was
directed related to based on social development. He believed that children can be brought up
to a higher level of showing graphic examples and by giving them real life experiences
relevant to their individual need. Jean piaget’s theories(1999) were also based on cognitive
de4velopment and functioning. He believed that all children go through four stages and ages
that typically occur in, are sensorimotor (birth-2), preoperational (2-7),concrete operational
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(7-11) and formal operational(12-15). Brunner (2003) was interested in children’s stages of
cognitive development. He described development in three stages.
•
Enactive stage (from birth to about age 3)
•
Iconic stage (from about age 3 to about age 8)
•
Symbolic stage (from about age 8)
He was credited with the idea of discovery learning. This is an approach to instruction
through which children interact with their environment.
Behaviourist learning theory of “habit” formation. Habits are formed when learners respond
to stimuli in the environment and subsequently have their responses reinforced, so thsat they
are remembered. Consequently, children’s lkearning acquisition was viewed as the habit
formation through the process of stimulus and response
2.6
Children (Ages 7-11)
Most developmental psychologists define age 7 to 11 as middle childhood (cole and
cole,1996). Compressive theories of development have suggested that children might be
particularly well prepared to learn to regulate emotions during ages 7-11 years. Freud (1999)
characterized children ages 7- 11 as the latency stage during which children are relatively
unperturbed by sexual impulses. Also, piaget (19830 described these children as in the
cognitive developmental stages of concrete operations, as being able to solve real world
problems using logical mental procedures. Piaget (2003) theoretical framework based around
the concept of ages and stage described ages 7-11 as the period of concrete operations.
Children can now perform mental operation of reversibility and can overcome egocentritism
by attending to several aspects of a situation at once.
Erickson(1980) portrayed children ages 7-11 years as the conflict between industry and
inferiority, a time when children week to gain competence in multiple domains. In one of the
few attempts to theorize more specifically about emotion regulation in older children,
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gottman and mettetal (1986) proposed a developmental account based on careful observation
of interaction between peers. The characterization of children ages 7-11 years as using rules
to manage emotion expression fits with a large body of research demonstrating that these
children value conformity, rules and regulations. Other research and theory has suggested not
only that these children are using explicit rules in their play to manage affect but, they are
also are starting to appreciate and obey the largely rules for expressing and controlling
emotions (Lawrence and temis-le monad,1999).
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CHAPTER THREE
3.0
METHODOLOGY
3.1
Study Design
The study adopted an investigative survey design on assessment of effectiveness of
reinforcement on learning ability of primary school children in Ibadan metropolis.
3.2
Population of Study
The population for this research comprised of 120 respondents who are the Caregivers,
Teachers, and children in ibadan metropolis.
3.3
Selection of Sample
The study sample was selected using random sampling technique.
3.4
Study Area
The research work was carried out in ibadan north local government which comprises of the
following selected school..sonbeam preparatory new bodija,Methodist primary school,olabisi
nursery and primary school u.i ,st Thomas primary school and Akinyele Local
Government,which comprises of the following selected school. Akingbinle-oluana public
primary school, excel nursery and primary school, divine heritage nursery and primary
school,
The Administrative Headquarters of Ibadan North Local Government Area is situated at
Bodija. It is one of the five Local Government Area carved out of the defunct Ibadan
Municipal Government in 2991. The Local Government Area covers a landmass of 132.500
square kilometers with a population density of 2,626 persons per square kilometer. Using a
growth rate of 3.2% from 2006 census, the 2010 estimated population for the Local
Government area is put at 347,998.
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Akinyele and Lagelu Local Government Area bound it to the north, Egbeda Local
Government to the east, Ibadan North West to the west and Ibadan North East to the south.
There is little or no serious farming activities in the area being an urban centre. Most of the
Agriculture crops planted outside the area are being processed in the Local Government Area.
It is also a home for small, medium and large-scale industries. Trading and other commercial
activities are also predominant in the area. It has the highest concentration of virtually all
different tribes and ethnic groups in the country. Two notable Federal Institutions in its
domain, the University of Ibadan and the University College Hospital (UCH) are located in
the area.
3.5
Brief History Of Oyo State
Ibadan (Yoruba: Ìbàdàn or fully Ìlú Ẹ̀ bá-Ọ̀dàn, the town at the junction of the savannah and
the forest) is the capital city of Oyo State and the third largest metropolitan area in Nigeria by
population after Lagos and Kano according to the 2006 Nigerian census. Ibadan is also
largest in geographical area At independence, Ibadan was the largest and the most populous
city in Nigeria and the third in Africa after Cairo and Johannesburg. It is located in southwestern Nigeria, 128 km inland northeast of Lagos and 530 km southwest of Abuja, the
federal capital and is a prominent transit point between the coastal region and the areas to the
north. Its population is 1,338,659 according to census results for 2006. Ibadan had been the
centre of administration of the old Western Region since the days of the British colonial rule,
and parts of the city's ancient protective walls still stand to this day. The principal inhabitants
of the city are the Yoruba people.
3.6
History
Ibadan came into existence in 1829 when Lagelu, the Jagun (commander-in-chief) of Ife and
Yoruba's generalissimo, left Ile Ife with a handful of people from Ife, Oyo and Ijebu to found
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a new city, Eba Odan, which literally means 'between the forest and plains.' According to
HRH Sir Isaac Babalola Akinyele, the late Olubadan (king) of Ibadan (Olu Ibadan means
Lord of Ibadan), in his authoritative book on the history of Ibadan, Iwe Itan Ibadan, printed
in 1911, the first city was destroyed due to an incident at an Egungun (masquerade) festival
when an Egungun was accidentally disrobed and derisively mocked by women and children
in an open marketplace full of people. In Yorubaland, it was an abomination for women to
look an Egungun in the eye because the Egunguns were considered to be the dead forefathers
who returned to the earth each year to bless their progeny. When the news reached Sango, the
then Alaafin of Oyo, he commanded that Eba Odan be destroyed for committing such
abominable act.
Lagelu was by now an old, frail man; he could not stop the destruction of his city, but he and
some of his people survived the attack and fled to a nearby hill for sanctuary. On the hill they
survived by eating oro fruit and snails; later, they cultivated the land and made corn and
millets into pap meals known as oori or eko, which they ate with roasted snails. They
improvised a bit by using the snail shells to drink the liquefied eko. Ultimately, Lagelu and
his people came down from the hill and founded another city called Eba'dan.
The new city instantly grew prosperous and became a commercial nerve centre. Shortly
afterwards, Lagelu died, leaving behind a politically savvy people and a very stable
community. The newly enthroned Olubadan made a friendly gesture to the Olowu of Owu by
allowing Olowu to marry his only daughter, Nkan. Coming from a war campaign one day, the
raging Odo Oba (River Oba) would not allow Olowu and his army to cross until a human
sacrifice was performed to appease the angry river. The chosen sacrifice was Nkan. The
Olubadan was infuriated at hearing of Nkan's death; he sent an emissary to inform the Alafin
of Oyo. Yoruba kings and rulers such as Alake of Egba, Agura of Gbagura, Ooni of Ife,
Awujale of Ijebu and others formed a formidable coalition with Eba'dan against the powerful
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Olowu of Owu. After the defeat of Owu, many of the warriors that participated in the
coalition refused to go back to their towns and cities except the Ijebu warriors. They began
attacking the neighboring towns and hamlets, and also marauded across Eba'dan thereby
making the indigenes fearful of them. Finally, they took over the political landscape of
Eba'dan and changed its name to Ibadan, as we have come to know it.
Ibadan was historically an Egba town. The Egba occupants were forced to leave the town and
moved to present-day Abeokuta under the leadership of Sodeke when the surge of Oyo
refugees flocked into the towns as an aftermath of the fall of Oyo Kingdom. Ibadan grew into
an impressive and sprawling urban center so much that by the end of 1829, Ibadan dominated
the Yorùbá region militarily, politically and economically. The military sanctuary expanded
even further when refugees began arriving in large numbers from northern Oyo following
raids by Fulani warriors. After losing the northern portion of their region to the marauding
Fulanis, many Oyo indigenes retreated deeper into the Ibadan environs.
The Fulani Caliphate attempted to expand further into the southern region of modern-day
Nigeria, but was decisively defeated by the armies of Ibadan in 1840. The Ibadan area
became a British Protectorate in 1893 and by then the population had swelled to 120,000. The
British developed the new colony to facilitate their commercial activities in the area, and
Ibadan shortly grew into the major trading center that it is today.
3.6.1 Climate
Ibadan has a tropical wet and dry climate, with a lengthy wet season and relatively constant
temperatures throughout the course of the year. Ibadan’s, wet season runs from March
through October, though August sees somewhat of a lull in precipitation. This lull nearly
divides the wet season into two different wet seasons. The remaining months forms the city’s
dry season. Like a good portion of West Africa, Ibadan experiences the harmattan between
the months of November and February.
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Figure 1
Climate data for Ibadan
Month
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record
37
high
39
38
38
35
33
31
31
36
33
34
35
35
°C
(99) (102) (100) (100) (95) (91) (88) (88) (97) (91) (93) (95) (95)
(°F)
Average
33
high
34
34
33
32
29
28
27
29
30
32
33
31
°C
(91) (93) (93) (91) (90) (84) (82) (81) (84) (86) (90) (91) (88)
(°F)
Average
21
22
23
23
22
22
21
21
22
22
22
21
22
low °C (°F) (70) (72) (73) (73) (72) (72) (70) (70) (72) (72) (72) (70) (72)
Record low 10
18
18
18
18
16
16
17
18
14
14
16
(50) (54) (64) (64) (64) (64) (61) (61) (63) (64) (57) (57) (61)
°C (°F)
Precipitatio 8
n
12
23
76
125 145 163 132 74
170 152 43
10
1,121
mm (0.31 (0.91 (2.99 (4.92 (5.71 (6.42 (5.2 (2.91 (6.69 (5.98 (1.69 (0.39 (44.13
(inches)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
76
71
75
78
82
86
88
88
86
84
80
76
81
2
5
9
11
12
12
10
15
12
4
1
94
170 198 170 170 170 141 85
57
85
141 198 198 1,783
% Humidit
y
Avg.
precipitatio 1
n days
Sunshine
hours
Source: BBC Weather [3]
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3.6.2 Education
The first university to be set up in Nigeria was the University of Ibadan today with over
12,000 students. Established as a college of the University of London in 1948, and later
converted into an autonomous university in 1962. It has the distinction of being one of the
premier educational institutions in Africa. The Polytechnic Ibadan was the first technical
institute and is considered to be the best in Nigeria. There are also numerous public and
private primary and secondary schools located in the city.
Other noteworthy institutions in the city include the University of Ibadan Teaching Hospital
also known as University College Hospital (UCH) which is the first teaching hospital in
Nigeria; the internationally acclaimed International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA);
Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research (NISER). Also Cocoa Research Institute
of Nigeria, the National Horticultural Research Institute (NIHORT), and the Institute for
Agricultural Research & Training (IAR&T), all under the auspices of Agricultural Research
Council of Nigeria; the Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria.
Ibadan and its environs before the dissolution of the Western Region, Nigeria was the home
of the most sophisticated and liberal scientific and cultural community on the continent of
Africa; as personified by the immortalized Ibadan School.
In 1853, the first Europeans to settle in Ibadan, Reverend Hinderer and his wife, started
Ibadan's first Western schools. They built churches and schools and the first two-storey
building in Ibadan, which can still be found today at Kudeti. The first pupils to attend an
elementary school in Ibadan were Yejide (female) and Akinyele (male) -- the two children of
an Ibadan high chief.
3.6.3 Transportation
Ibadan has an airport, Ibadan Airport, and was served by the Ibadan Railway Station on the
main railway line from Lagos to Kano.(No longer operating). Poorly-maintained roads are
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particularly problematic in the rainy season. What are called interstate highways in the United
States are called carriageways in Nigeria. There are not many miles of divided highways in
Ibadan. The primary routes go from Ibadan to Lagos and to Benin City. Adding to the
weather and terrain, roads typically have few or no speed limit signs or warning signs to alert
the motorist of curves, hills, intersections or problems with the road itself such as large
potholes or eroded road beds.
In-town transportation comes in a variety of forms. Modes of transportation include, taxis,
taxi-vans commonly called danfos, private cars that are hired out by the day with a driver,
personal family cars, scooters, and walking. All fares are negotiable depending upon the
number in the party and the distance to be traveled. The average taxi is a small car, which
seats four people and the driver. A danfo is a van, meanwhile, which seats seven people and
the driver. This does not mean that more people will not be accommodated; often both taxis
and danfos carry as many passengers as can squeeze into the vehicle. Danfos have an
additional staff member. He is the "conductor," who arranges fare agreements and keeps track
of delivery points. He is often to be seen holding onto the frame of the van while hanging out
the door in order to locate potential fares. In December 2008 Governor Alao Akala
Commissioned 55 brand new buses for interstate transport service which is to be used by
Trans City Transport Company (TCTC) Eleyele, Ibadan with a promise to commence
intracity transport service very early next year.
3.6.4 Geography
Ibadan is located in southwestern Nigeria about 120 km east of the border with the Republic
of Benin in the forest zone close to the boundary between the forest and the savanna. The city
ranges in elevation from 150 m in the valley area, to 275 m above sea level on the major
north-south ridge which crosses the central part of the city
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3.6.5 Population
Until 1970, Ibadan was the largest city in sub-Saharan Africa . In 1952, it was estimated that
the total area of the city was approximately 103.8 km2 However, only 36.2 km2 was built
up. This meant that the remaining 67 km2 were devoted to non-urban uses, such as
farmlands, river floodplains, forest reserves and water bodies. These “non-urban land uses”
disappeared in the 1960s: an aerial photograph in 1973 revealed that the urban land-scape had
completely spread over about 100 km2. The land area increased from 136 km2 in 1981 to
210-240 km2 in 1988-89 (Areola, 1994: 101). By the year 2000, it is estimated that Ibadan
covered 400 km2 . The growth of the built-up area during the second half of the 20th century
(from 40 km2 in the 1950s to 250 km2 in the 1990s) shows clearly that there has been an
underestimation of the total growth of the city. In the 1980s, the Ibadan-Lagos expressway
generated the greatest urban sprawl (east and north of the city), followed by the Eleiyele
expressway (west of the city). Since then, Ibadan city has spread further into the
neighbouring local government areas of Akinyele and Egbeda in particular.
Figure 2 Cityscape
A panorama taken from Mapo Hill.
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3.6.7
Monuments, landmarks, and other locations
There is a museum in the building of the Institute of African Studies, which exhibits several
remarkable pre-historic bronze carvings and statues. The city has several well stocked
libraries, and is home to the first television station in Africa. Dugbe Market is the nerve
center of Ibadan's transport and trading network. The best method to move about the city is to
use reference points and notable landmarks. The city also has a zoological garden located
inside the University of Ibadan, and a botanical garden located at Agodi.
The Bower Memorial Tower to the east on Oke Aàre (Aare's Hill) ("Aare" in Yoruba means
commander-in-chief or generalissimo), which can be seen from practically any point in the
city; it also provides an excellent view of the whole city from the top. Another prominent
landmark, Cocoa House,was the first skyscraper in Africa. It is one of the few skyscrapers in
the city and is at the hub of Ibadan's commercial centre. Other attractions include Mapo Hall
– the colonial style city hall – perched on top of a hill, "Oke Mapo," Mapo Hill ("oke" is hill
in Yoruba), the Trans-Wonderland amusement park, the cultural centre Mokola and Liberty
Stadium, the first stadium in Africa. The first citadel of higher learning, University of Ibadan
(formerly the University College of Ibadan), and the first teaching hospital in Nigeria,
University College Hospital, UCH, were both built in this ancient but, highly important city.
Ibadan is also home to the legendary Shooting Stars FC -- a professional Football Club. There
are some good golf courses: the Ibadan Golf Club is a large 18-hole challenge and the
Barracks course has just been extended to 18 holes. The most challenging and exclusive is the
IITA Golf Club based on the 1,000 hectare premises of IITA.
3.6.8
Economy
With its strategic location on the non-operational railway line connecting Lagos to Kano, the
city is a major center for trade in cassava, cocoa, cotton, timber, rubber, and palm oil. The
main industries in the area include the processing of agricultural products; Tobacco
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processing and Cigarette (Manufacture); flour-milling, leather-working and furniture-making.
There is abundance of clay, kaolin and aquamarine in its environs, and there are several cattle
ranches, a dairy farm as well as a commercial abattoir in Ibadan.
3.6.9
Local government in Ibadan
Akinyele Local Government
Egbeda Local Government
Ibadan Central Local Government
Ibadan North-East Local Government
Ibadan South-West Local Government
Ibadan South-East Local Government
Ibarapa Local Government
Ido Local Government Ifedapo Local Government
Lagelu Local Government
Iyamapo/Olorunsogo Local Government
Oluyole Local Government
Orelope Local Government
Orire Local Government
Ona-Ara Local Government
3.7
Research Instrument
The instrument used is a well structured questionnaire designed by the researcher to elicit
responses from the respondent. The questionnaire asked questions on the effectiveness of
reinforcement on learning ability of primary school.the questionnaire conveyed series of
well-designed close – ended questions(desired answer option are provide from which the
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respondent is allowed to choose). The respondents were asked to express their views on a
“yes” or “no” response basis.
The questionnaire contain the introductory part that explained why the researcher carried out
the
survey,section
A
was
used
to
collect
demographic
characteristics
of
the
respondents,section B was used to collect data centered on teacher’s positive
reinforcement,section C centred on teacher’s negative reinforcement ,section D dealt with
questions on positive learning ability and section E dealt with questions on negative learning
ability.
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF INSTRUMENT
A pilot study was carried out by the research before the actual study was carried out. In the
pilot study, all the procedures necessary in the research study are followed and results aqually
analyzed.
Results for reliability analysis were as follows:
Coefficient alpha=alpha 0.955,
guttman split –hsalf 0.645
unequal –lengthspearman –brown 0.768.
3.8
PROCEDURE FOR ADMINISTERING THE QUESTIONNAIRE
Before administering the questionnaires, a reconnaissance survey that encompasses letter of
introduction, selection of schools and student’s survey were carried out. The survey was
carried out within a selected local government in Ibadan. On the first day, the questionnaire
was administer to the pupils in Ibadan north local government from different schools which
are Sonbeam preparatory new Bodija, Methodist primary school, Olabisi nursery and primary
school University of Ibadan, St. Thomas primary school and The pupils were instructed to
circle their choice of answer and some of the question were explained to the pupils. Two
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weeks was used to administer the questionnaires. The third week was stated for Akinyele
Local Government, which involve children from the following schools, Akingbile-oluana
public primary school, Excel nursery and primary school, Divine heritage nursery and
primary school.
3.9
Data Analysis
Descriptive statistic was employed for data collation. The primary data were further subjected
to impact statistic of t-test to determine the differences between the variables and a simple
regression analysis was adopted to find the causal effect between the variables.
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CHAPTER FOUR
4.0
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Respondents age, gender, type of school, class, number in a class room, teachers positive
reinforcement, teachers negative reinforcement, children positive learning ability and children
negative learning ability were analysed descriptively and the results are presented thus.
Frequency of the respondent
Frequency Table
Table 1
Sex
Cumulative
Valid
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent Percent
Male
56
46.7
46.7
46.7
Female
64
53.3
53.3
100.0
Total
120
100.0
100.0
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Table 2
Type of School
Cumulative
Valid
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent Percent
Private
56
46.7
46.7
46.7
Public
64
53.3
53.3
100.0
Total
120
100.0
100.0
Table 3
Age
Cumulative
Valid
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent Percent
7
4
3.3
3.3
3.3
9
28
23.3
23.3
26.7
10
40
33.3
33.3
60.0
11
16
13.3
13.3
73.3
12
16
13.3
13.3
86.7
13
12
10.0
10.0
96.7
14
4
3.3
3.3
100.0
Total
120
100.0
100.0
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Table 4
Class
Cumulative
Valid
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent Percent
3
20
16.7
16.7
16.7
4
24
20.0
20.0
36.7
5
52
43.3
43.3
80.0
6
24
20.0
20.0
100.0
Total
120
100.0
100.0
Table 5
Number in Classroom
Cumulative
Valid
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent Percent
15 - 20
36
30.0
30.0
30.0
21 - 25
60
50.0
50.0
80.0
26 - 30
24
20.0
20.0
100.0
Total
120
100.0
100.0
.
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Bar Chart
67
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Fig 3
68
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Fig 4
69
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Fig 5
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Fig 6
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4.1 Hypothesis one
Will the use of positive reinforcement in private and public primary schools in the study area
differ?
Frequency of Responses to Teacher’s Positive Reinforcement
The frequencies and the percentage are given below for each of the questions and the group
statistics was also given
t-test of Teacher’s Positive Reinforcement
The table below show that there is no significant difference in the use of teacher’s positive
reinforcement in private and public primary schools. Since the t-calculated value is lesser
than the t-tabulated value and the probability is greater than 0.05 level of significance.
Therefore the decision was to accept the null hypothesis.
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Table 6
One-Sample Test
Test Value = 0
t
My teacher always
give
me
sweet 31.246
whenever I pass well
than others.
My teacher always
62.797
encourage me to be the
best in all I do
My teacher always
praise me whenever I 39.999
answer quiz question
correctly
4.2
(2- Mean
Difference
95% Confidence Interval of
the Difference
Lower
Upper
df
Sig.
tailed)
119
.000
1.267
1.19
1.35
119
.000
1.033
1.00
1.07
119
.000
1.100
1.05
1.15
Hypothesis Two
Will the use of negative reinforcement in private and public primary schools in the study area
differ?
The Table below shows Frequency of respondents to Teacher’s Negative Reinforcement.
t-test of Teacher’s Negative Reinforcement
The table below show that there is no significant difference in the use of teacher’s negative
reinforcement in private and public primary schools. Since the t-calculated value is greater
than the t-tabulated value and there is a mean difference between the private and public
school. Therefore it was concluded that the use of teacher’s negative reinforcement differs.
The decision is to reject the null hypothesis.
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Table 7
One-Sample Test
Test Value = 0
t
My teacher always tell
my classmate to woo
32.726
me whenever I fail my
classwork and I hate it
My teacher always
draw my head and eyes 36.974
whenever I fail my
homework and I hate it
My teacher always beat
me whenever I don't 31.553
answer
question
correctly and I hate it
My teacher always
says, you can never
59.902
make it when I don't
understand
my
classwork and I hate it
My teacher always
shout at me when I 40.468
don't answer question
correctly
4.3
df
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Mean
Difference
95% Confidence Interval
of the Difference
Lower
Upper
119
.000
1.500
1.41
1.59
119
.000
1.633
1.55
1.72
119
.000
1.433
1.34
1.52
119
.000
1.867
1.80
1.93
119
.000
1.700
1.62
1.78
Hypothesis Three
Will there be any effect of the use of teacher’s reinforcement on children’s positive learning
ability in private and public schools?
Frequency of Respondent to the effect of teacher’s use of reinforcement towards children’s
positive learning ability in private and public primary schools.
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t-test of Children positive learning Ability
The table below show that there is no significant difference in the use of teacher’s positive
reinforcement towards children’s positive learning ability in private and public primary
schools. Since the t-calculated value is lesser than the t-tabulated value and there is no mean
difference between the use private and public primary schools. Therefore we accept the null
hypothesis since the p-value is greater than 0.05
Table 8
One-Sample Test
Test Value = 0
t
Since the time my
teacher has started
62.797
praising me my work
has improved
Since the time my
teacher has started
62.797
encouraging me I have
been doing well in the
class
My learning ability has
improved as a result of 62.797
my
teacher's
encouragement in class
df
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Mean
Difference
95% Confidence Interval
of the Difference
Lower
Upper
119
.000
1.033
1.00
1.07
119
.000
1.033
1.00
1.07
119
.000
1.033
1.00
1.07
4.4 Hypothesis Four
Will the children negative learning ability differs in both private and public school?
Frequency of Respondent to the effect of teacher’s use of reinforcement towards
children’s positive learning ability in private and public primary schools.
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t-test of Children Negative learning Ability
The table below show that there is significant difference in the use of teacher’s negative
reinforcement towards children’s negative learning ability in private and public primary
schools. Since the t-calculated value is greater than the t-tabulated value and there is mean
difference between the private and public primary schools. Therefore we reject the null
hypothesis since the p-value is greater than 0.05 and conclude that the children negative
learning ability differs in both private and public school.
Table 8
One-Sample Test
Test Value = 0
t
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Mean
Difference
95%
Confidence
Interval
of
the
Difference
Lower
Upper
.000
1.967
1.93
2.00
.000
1.967
1.93
2.00
119
.000
1.733
1.65
1.81
119
.000
1.933
1.89
1.98
df
I hate to go to school
because my teacher 119.516 119
will beat me
I don't do my home
work because my 119.516 119
teacher does not give
me sweet
I don't pray to be a
teacher because my 42.758
teacher always allow
the class to woo me
My learning ability has
not improve as a result
84.549
of my fear for my
teacher's
abusive
words
76
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CHAPTER FIVE
5.0
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
The variations in the use of positive reinforcement in both private and public primary schools
were due to different teaching skills of reinforcement used by the teachers. It was deduced
that children in both private and public schools cherished the bus of positive reinforcement.
This assertion was supported by the findings of cotton (2004) she showed that reinforcement
strengthens or increases a giving behaviour. it also corroborate with their finds of Genovese
(2005) who affirmed that primary school children who are praised for their present learning
ability relative to their past performance, improve academic gains result than when they are
praised relative to the performance of their classmate.
In comparison of the result of the use of teacher’s positive reinforcement in private public
primary schools, result showed there was no significant difference in the use positive
reinforcement allied in both schools. Although the mean score in private school showed the
use of more positive reinforcement than public primary school in this community. The
responses of the children revealed a high percentage declined in the use of negative
reinforcement in the classroom. However, results reveal that teacher’s in both school applied
punishment, which may reduce the children’s learning ability. This is consistent with research
findings by marten and miller (1990) who found out that the object of punishment may
overtime show a drop in positive attitudes towards schools (resulting in poor attendance and
work performance), have a more negative perception of teacher, and adopt a more punitive
manner in interacting with peers and adult. A difference was experienced in private and
public schools in the issue of kneeling down.
a larger percentage of public primary school student indicated the use of this punishment
technique when they forget their homework exercise book.
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The t-test for comparing the means of private and public primary school children indicated
that there was a significance difference in the use of negative reinforcement in the school.
5.1
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Having studied the effect of reinforcement on children of private and public primary schools
of different local government in Ibadan, it was deduced that praise is the type of
reinforcement most commonly use by teachers in both schools. On the other hand negative
reinforcement describes negative consequences imposed on the children when they
misbehave.
5.2
RECOMMENDATION
Based on the research findings the following are recommended for the use of positive and
negative reinforcement to improve children’s learning ability.
The government should ensure that before teacher are employed to take the foundation
classes (i.e. primary classes) they most have an understandings of psychology in childhood
It is therefore advised that teacher at all level should adopt the use of positive reinforcement
in classroom management so as to improve the children learning ability.
The ministry education private owners of school and educators should incorporate an
evaluations process to access teachers, caregivers on the use of reinforcement in classroom
management.
5.3
LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
Due to the short length of the study it was difficult to assess other schools and proper
procedure were jumped.
78
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5.4
SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER STUDIES
I will suggest that the research work should been given more time in other to carry the
caregivers, teachers, and parents along to know about reinforcement techniques.
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